The relationship of organisms is studied by biochemistry. What does a biochemical blood test show and what are the norms for adults? Biochemistry, nutrition, prevention and treatment

What is biochemistry? Biological or physiological biochemistry is the science of the chemical processes that underlie the life of an organism and those that occur inside the cell. The purpose of biochemistry (the term comes from the Greek word "bios" - "life") as a science is the study of chemicals, the structure and metabolism of cells, the nature and methods of its regulation, the mechanism of energy supply for processes inside cells.

Medical biochemistry: the essence and goals of science

Medical biochemistry is a section that studies the chemical composition of the cells of the human body, the metabolism in it (including in pathological conditions). After all, any disease, even in an asymptomatic period, will inevitably leave its mark on the chemical processes in cells, the properties of molecules, which will be reflected in the results of biochemical analysis. Without knowledge of biochemistry, it is impossible to find the cause of the development of the disease and the way to effectively treat it.

Biochemical blood test

What is a blood biochemistry test? A biochemical blood test is one of the methods of laboratory diagnostics in many areas of medicine (for example, endocrinology, therapy, gynecology).

It helps to accurately diagnose the disease and examine the blood sample according to the following parameters:

Alanine aminotransferase (AlAT, ALT);

Cholesterol or cholesterol;

Bilirubin;

Urea;

diastasis;

Glucose, lipase;

Aspartate aminotransferase (AST, AST);

Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), gamma GT (glutamyl transpeptidase);

Creatinine, protein;

Antibodies to the Epstein-Barr virus.

For the health of each person, it is important to know what blood biochemistry is, and to understand that its indicators will not only provide all the data for an effective treatment regimen, but also help prevent disease. Deviations from normal indicators are the first signal that something is wrong in the body.

blood for liver examination: significance and goals

In addition, biochemical diagnostics will allow monitoring the dynamics of the disease and the results of treatment, creating a complete picture of metabolism, deficiency of microelements in the work of organs. For example, liver biochemistry will become a mandatory analysis for people with impaired liver function. What is this? That's what they call biochemical analysis blood to study the quantity and quality of liver enzymes. If their synthesis is disturbed, then this condition threatens the development of diseases, inflammatory processes.

Specificity of liver biochemistry

Biochemistry of the liver - what is it? The human liver consists of water, lipids, glycogen. Its tissues contain minerals: copper, iron, nickel, manganese, so the biochemical study of liver tissues is a very informative and quite effective analysis. The most important enzymes in the liver are glucokinase, hexokinase. The most sensitive to biochemical tests are such liver enzymes: alanine aminotransferase (ALT), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST). As a rule, the study focuses on the indicators of these substances.

For a full and successful monitoring of their health, everyone should know what “biochemistry analysis” is.

Areas of research in biochemistry and the importance of correctly interpreting the results of the analysis

What does biochemistry study? First of all, metabolic processes, the chemical composition of the cell, chemical nature and the function of enzymes, vitamins, acids. It is possible to evaluate blood parameters by these parameters only if the analysis is correctly deciphered. If all is well, then blood counts for various parameters (glucose level, protein, blood enzymes) should not deviate from the norm. Otherwise, this should be regarded as a signal of a violation of the body.

Deciphering biochemistry

How to decipher the numbers in the analysis results? Below is the main indicators.

Glucose

The level of glucose shows the quality of the process of carbohydrate metabolism. The boundary norm of the content should not exceed 5.5 mmol / l. If the level is lower, then this may indicate diabetes, endocrine diseases, liver problems. Enhanced Level glucose may be due to diabetes, exercise, hormonal medications.

Protein

Cholesterol

Urea

This is the end product of protein breakdown. In a healthy person, it should be completely excreted from the body with urine. If this does not happen, and it enters the bloodstream, then it is necessary to check the work of the kidneys.

Hemoglobin

This is a protein in red blood cells that saturates the cells of the body with oxygen. Norm: for men - 130-160 g / l, for girls - 120-150 g / l. Low level hemoglobin in the blood is considered one of the indicators of developing anemia.

Biochemical blood test for blood enzymes (AlAT, AsAT, CPK, amylase)

Enzymes are responsible for the full functioning of the liver, heart, kidneys, pancreas. Without the right amount of them, a complete exchange of amino acids is simply impossible.

The level of aspartate aminotransferase (AST, AST - a cellular enzyme of the heart, kidneys, liver) should not be higher than 41 and 31 units / l for men and women, respectively. Otherwise, this may indicate the development of hepatitis, heart disease.

Lipase (an enzyme that breaks down fats) plays an important role in metabolism and should not exceed 190 U/L. Elevated levels indicate a violation of the pancreas.

It is difficult to overestimate the importance of biochemical analysis for blood enzymes. What is biochemistry and what it explores, every person who cares about his health must know.

Amylase

This enzyme is found in the pancreas and saliva. It is responsible for the breakdown of carbohydrates and their absorption. Norm - 28-100 units / l. Its high content in the blood may indicate renal failure, cholecystitis, diabetes mellitus, peritonitis.

The results of a biochemical blood test are recorded in a special form, which indicates the levels of substances. Often this analysis is prescribed as an additional one to clarify the proposed diagnosis. When deciphering the results of blood biochemistry, keep in mind that they are also affected by the patient's gender, age and lifestyle. Now you know what biochemistry studies and how to correctly interpret its results.

How to properly prepare for blood donation for biochemistry?

Acute diseases of internal organs;

intoxication;

Avitaminosis;

Inflammatory processes;

For the prevention of diseases during pregnancy;

To clarify the diagnosis.

Blood for analysis is taken early in the morning, and you can’t eat before coming to the doctor. Otherwise, the results of the analysis will be distorted. A biochemical study will show how correct your metabolism and salts in the body are. In addition, refrain from drinking sweet tea, coffee, milk at least an hour or two before blood sampling.

Be sure to answer your question about what biochemistry is before taking the test. Knowing the process and its significance will help you to correctly assess the state of health and be competent in medical matters.

How is blood taken for biochemistry?

The procedure is short and almost painless. From a person in a sitting position (sometimes they offer to lie down on a couch), the doctor takes it after applying a tourniquet. The injection site must be treated with an antiseptic. The sample taken is placed in a sterile tube and sent to the laboratory for analysis.

Quality control of a biochemical study is carried out in several stages:

Preanalytical (preparation of the patient, analysis, transportation to the laboratory);

Analytical (processing and storage of biomaterial, dosing, reaction, analysis of the result);

Post-analytical (filling in the form with the result, laboratory and clinical analysis, sending to the doctor).

The quality of the result of biochemistry depends on the feasibility of the chosen research method, the competence of laboratory assistants, the accuracy of measurements, technical equipment, the purity of reagents, and diet.

Biochemistry for hair

What is hair biochemistry? Biowave is a way of long-term curling of curls. The difference between conventional perm and biowave is fundamental. In the latter case, do not use hydrogen peroxide, ammonia, thioglycolic acid. The role of the active substance is played by an analogue of cystine (biological protein). This is where the name of the hair styling method comes from.

The undoubted advantages are:

Gentle effect on the hair structure;

The blurred line between regrown and bio-curled hair;

The procedure can be repeated without waiting for the final disappearance of its effect.

But before going to the master, the following nuances should be considered:

Biowave technology is relatively complex, and you need to be scrupulous in choosing a master;

The effect is short-term, about 1-4 months (especially on hair that has not been permed, dyed, has a dense structure);

Biowave is not cheap (on average 1500-3500 rubles).

Biochemistry methods

What is biochemistry and what methods are used for research? Their choice depends on his goal and the tasks set by the doctor. They are designed to study the biochemical structure of the cell, examine the sample for possible deviations from the norm and thus help diagnose the disease, find out the dynamics of recovery, etc.

Biochemistry is one of the most effective analyzes for clarifying, diagnosing, monitoring treatment, and determining a successful therapy regimen.

In this article we will answer the question of what is biochemistry. Here we will consider the definition of this science, its history and research methods, pay attention to some processes and define its sections.

Introduction

To answer the question of what biochemistry is, it is enough to say that it is a science devoted to the chemical composition and processes occurring inside a living cell of an organism. However, it has many components, having learned which, you can get a more specific idea of it.

In some time episodes of the 19th century, the terminological unit "biochemistry" began to be used for the first time. However, it was introduced into scientific circles only in 1903 by a chemist from Germany - Karl Neuberg. This science occupies an intermediate position between biology and chemistry.

Historical facts

To answer the question clearly, what is biochemistry, mankind could only about a hundred years ago. Despite the fact that society used biochemical processes and reactions in ancient times, it did not suspect the presence of their true essence.

Some of the most remote examples are bread-making, wine-making, cheese-making, etc. A number of questions about the medicinal properties of plants, health problems, etc. made a person delve into their basis and nature of activity.

The development of a common set of directions that eventually led to the creation of biochemistry is already observed in ancient times. A scientist-physician from Persia in the tenth century wrote a book on the canons of medical science, where he was able to describe in detail the description of various medicinal substances. In the 17th century, van Helmont proposed the term "enzyme" as a unit of a chemical reagent involved in digestive processes.

In the 18th century, thanks to the work of A.L. Lavoisier and M.V. Lomonosov, the law of conservation of the mass of matter was derived. At the end of the same century, the importance of oxygen in the process of respiration was determined.

In 1827, science made it possible to create a division of biological molecules into compounds of fats, proteins and carbohydrates. These terms are still in use today. A year later, in the work of F. Wöhler, it was proved that the substances of living systems can be synthesized by artificial means. Another important event was the preparation and compilation of the theory of the structure of organic compounds.

The foundations of biochemistry were formed over many hundreds of years, but they adopted a clear definition in 1903. This science became the first discipline from the category of biological, which had its own system of mathematical analyzes.

25 years later, in 1928, F. Griffith conducted an experiment, the purpose of which was to study the mechanism of transformation. The scientist infected mice with pneumococci. He killed the bacteria of one strain and added them to the bacteria of another. The study showed that the process of refining disease-causing agents resulted in the production of nucleic acid, not protein. The list of discoveries is being replenished at the present time.

Availability of related disciplines

Biochemistry is a separate science, but its creation was preceded by an active process of development of the organic section of chemistry. The main difference lies in the objects of study. In biochemistry, only those substances or processes are considered that can occur in the conditions of living organisms, and not outside them.

Ultimately, biochemistry included the concept molecular biology. They differ among themselves mainly in the methods of action and the subjects they study. At present, the terminological units "biochemistry" and "molecular biology" have come to be used as synonyms.

Availability of sections

To date, biochemistry includes a number of research areas, including:

Branch of static biochemistry - the science of the chemical composition of living things, structures and molecular diversity, functions, etc.

There are a number of sections that study biological polymers of protein, lipid, carbohydrate, amino acid molecules, as well as nucleic acids and the nucleotide itself.

Biochemistry, which studies vitamins, their role and form of influence on the body, possible disturbances in vital processes in case of shortage or excessive quantity.

Hormonal biochemistry is a science that studies hormones, their biological effect, the causes of deficiency or excess.

The science of metabolism and its mechanisms is a dynamic section of biochemistry (includes bioenergetics).

Molecular Biology Research.

The functional component of biochemistry studies the phenomenon chemical transformations, responsible for the functionality of all components of the body, starting with tissues, and ending with the whole body.

Medical biochemistry - a section on the patterns of metabolism between body structures under the influence of diseases.

There are also branches of the biochemistry of microorganisms, humans, animals, plants, blood, tissues, etc.

Research and problem solving tools

Biochemistry methods are based on fractionation, analysis, detailed study and consideration of the structure of both a separate component and the whole organism or its substance. Most of them were formed during the 20th century, and the most widely known was chromatography - the process of centrifugation and electrophoresis.

At the end of the 20th century, biochemical methods began to increasingly find their application in the molecular and cellular sections of biology. The structure of the whole genome was determined human DNA. This discovery made it possible to learn about the existence of a huge number of substances, in particular, various proteins that were not detected during the purification of biomass, due to their extremely low content in the substance.

Genomics has called into question a huge amount of biochemical knowledge and has led to the development of changes in its methodology. The concept of computer virtual simulation appeared.

Chemical component

Physiology and biochemistry are closely related. This is explained by the dependence of the norm of the course of all physiological processes with the content of a different number of chemical elements.

In nature, you can find 90 components of the periodic table of chemical elements, but about a quarter is needed for life. Our body does not need many rare components at all.

The different position of the taxon in the hierarchical table of living beings causes a different need for the presence of certain elements.

99% of the human mass consists of six elements (C, H, N, O, F, Ca). In addition to the main amount of these types of atoms that form substances, we need another 19 elements, but in small or microscopic volumes. Among them are: Zn, Ni, Ma, K, Cl, Na and others.

Protein biomolecule

The main molecules studied by biochemistry are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and the attention of this science is focused on their hybrids.

Proteins are large compounds. They are formed by linking chains of monomers - amino acids. Most living beings obtain proteins through the synthesis of twenty types of these compounds.

These monomers differ from each other in the structure of the radical group, which plays huge role during protein folding. The purpose of this process is to form a three-dimensional structure. Amino acids are linked together by the formation of peptide bonds.

Answering the question of what biochemistry is, one cannot fail to mention such complex and multifunctional biological macromolecules as proteins. They have more tasks than polysaccharides or nucleic acids to perform.

Some proteins are represented by enzymes and catalyze various reactions of a biochemical nature, which is very important for metabolism. Other protein molecules can act as signaling mechanisms, form cytoskeletons, participate in immune defense, etc.

Some types of proteins are capable of forming non-protein biomolecular complexes. Substances created by the fusion of proteins with oligosaccharides allow the existence of molecules such as glycoproteins, and interaction with lipids leads to the appearance of lipoproteins.

nucleic acid molecule

Nucleic acids are represented by complexes of macromolecules consisting of a polynucleotide set of chains. Their main functional purpose is to encode hereditary information. Nucleic acid synthesis occurs due to the presence of mononucleoside triphosphate macroenergy molecules (ATP, TTP, UTP, GTP, CTP).

The most widespread representatives of such acids are DNA and RNA. These structural elements are found in every living cell, from archaea to eukaryotes, and even in viruses.

lipid molecule

Lipids are molecular substances, composed of glycerol, to which fatty acids are attached through ester bonds (from 1 to 3). Such substances are divided into groups according to the length of the hydrocarbon chain, and also pay attention to saturation. The biochemistry of water does not allow it to dissolve compounds of lipids (fats). As a rule, such substances dissolve in polar solutions.

The main task of lipids is to provide energy to the body. Some are part of hormones, can perform a signaling function or carry lipophilic molecules.

carbohydrate molecule

Carbohydrates are biopolymers formed by combining monomers, which in this case are represented by monosaccharides such as, for example, glucose or fructose. The study of plant biochemistry allowed a person to determine that the main part of carbohydrates is contained in them.

These biopolymers find their application in the structural function and the provision of energy resources to the body or cell. In plants, the main storage substance is starch, while in animals it is glycogen.

The course of the Krebs cycle

There is a Krebs cycle in biochemistry - a phenomenon during which the predominant number of eukaryotic organisms receive most of the energy spent on the processes of oxidation of ingested food.

It can be observed inside cellular mitochondria. It is formed through several reactions, during which reserves of "hidden" energy are released.

In biochemistry, the Krebs cycle is an important part of the overall respiratory process and material metabolism inside cells. The cycle was discovered and studied by H. Krebs. For this, the scientist received the Nobel Prize.

This process is also called the electron transfer system. This is due to the concomitant conversion of ATP to ADP. The first compound, in turn, is engaged in providing metabolic reactions by releasing energy.

Biochemistry and medicine

The biochemistry of medicine is presented to us as a science covering many areas of biological and chemical processes. Currently, there is a whole branch in education that trains specialists for these studies.

Here they study all living things: from bacteria or viruses to the human body. Having the specialty of a biochemist gives the subject the opportunity to follow the diagnosis and analyze the treatment applicable to the individual unit, draw conclusions, etc.

To prepare a highly qualified expert in this field, you need to train him in the natural sciences, medical fundamentals and biotechnological disciplines, conduct many tests in biochemistry. Also, the student is given the opportunity to practically apply their knowledge.

universities of biochemistry are currently gaining more and more popularity, which is due to the rapid development of this science, its importance for humans, demand, etc.

Among the most famous educational institutions where specialists in this branch of science are trained, the most popular and significant are: Moscow State University. Lomonosov, PSPU im. Belinsky, Moscow State University. Ogareva, Kazan and Krasnoyarsk State Universities and others.

The list of documents required for admission to such universities does not differ from the list for enrollment in other higher educational establishments. Biology and Chemistry are the main subjects that must be taken upon admission.

Biochemical analysis - the study of a wide range of enzymes, organic and mineral substances. This analysis of the metabolism in the human body: carbohydrate, mineral, fat and protein. Changes in metabolism show whether there is a pathology and in which particular organ.

This analysis is done if the doctor suspects a hidden disease. The result of the analysis is the pathology in the body at the very initial stage of development, and the specialist can navigate the choice of medicines.

With the help of this analysis, leukemia can be detected at an early stage, when symptoms have not yet begun to appear. In this case, you can start taking the necessary drugs and stop the pathological process of the disease.

Sampling process and analysis indicator values

For analysis, blood is taken from a vein, about five to ten milliliters. It is placed in a special test tube. The analysis is carried out on an empty stomach of the patient, for more complete veracity. If there is no health risk, it is recommended not to take pre-blood medications.

To interpret the results of the analysis, the most informative indicators are used:
- the level of glucose and sugar - an increased indicator characterizes the development of diabetes mellitus in a person, its sharp decrease poses a threat to life;
- cholesterol - its increased content states the fact of the presence of atherosclerosis of the vessels and the risk of cardiovascular diseases;
- transaminases - enzymes that detect diseases such as myocardial infarction, liver damage (hepatitis), or the presence of any injury;
- bilirubin - its high levels indicate liver damage, massive destruction of red blood cells and impaired bile outflow;
- urea and creatine - their excess indicates a weakening of the excretion function of the kidneys and liver;
- total protein - its indicators change when a serious illness or any negative process occurs in the body;
- amylase - is an enzyme of the pancreas, an increase in its level in the blood indicates inflammation of the gland - pancreatitis.

In addition to the above, a biochemical blood test determines the content of potassium, iron, phosphorus and chlorine in the body. Only the attending physician can decipher the results of the analysis, who will prescribe the appropriate treatment.

BIOCHEMISTRY. Lecture No. 1. Biochemistry as a science. The structure and functions of basic substances in the body. Subject and methods of research in biochemistry. Overview of main classes organic matter and their role in homeostasis.

Biochemistry (from Greek βίος - "life" and Egyptian kēme - "Earth", also biological or physiological chemistry) is the science of the chemical composition of organisms and their constituent parts and of the chemical processes occurring in organisms. Science deals with the structure and function of substances that are components of cells and that make up the body, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and other biomolecules. Biochemistry seeks to answer biological and biochemical questions through chemical methods.

Biochemistry is a relatively young science that emerged at the intersection of biology and chemistry at the end of the 19th century. It studies the processes of development and functioning of organisms in the language of molecules, the structure and chemical processes that ensure the life of unicellular and multicellular creatures that inhabit the Earth. Outstanding discoveries in the field of enzyme science, biochemical genetics, molecular biology and bioenergetics have turned biochemistry into a fundamental discipline that allows solving many important problems in biology and medicine.

Although there is a wide range of different biomolecules, many of them are polymers, ie. complex large molecules consisting of many similar subunits, monomers. Each class of polymeric biomolecules has its own set of types of these subunits. For example, proteins are polymers made up of amino acids. Biochemistry studies Chemical properties important biological molecules such as proteins, in particular the chemistry of reactions catalyzed by enzymes.

In addition, much of the research in biochemistry deals with cell metabolism and its endocrine and paracrine regulation. Other areas of biochemistry include research genetic code DNA and RNA, protein biosynthesis, transport through biological membranes and signal transmission.

The foundations of biochemistry were laid in the middle of the 19th century, when scientists such as Friedrich Violer and Anselm Paen were able to first describe the chemical processes in living organisms and show that they are no different from ordinary chemical processes. Many works at the beginning of the 20th century led to an understanding of the structure of proteins, it became possible to carry out bio chemical reactions(alcoholic fermentation) outside the cell, etc. At the same time, the term "biochemistry" itself began to be used. The foundations of biochemistry in Ukraine were laid by Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky in the 1920s.

Story

By the early 19th century, there was a general belief that life was not subject to physical and chemical laws inherent inanimate nature. It was believed that only living organisms are capable of producing molecules characteristic of them. Only in 1828, Friedrich Wöhler published a work on the synthesis of urea, carried out in the laboratory, proving that organic compounds can be created artificially. This discovery dealt a severe blow to vitalist scientists who denied this possibility.

By that time, there was already factual material for primary biochemical generalizations, which was accumulated in connection with the practical activities of people aimed at making food and wine, obtaining yarn from plants, cleaning the skin of wool with the help of microbes, and studying the composition and properties of urine and other secretions. healthy and sick person. After Wöhler's work, such scientific concepts like respiration, fermentation, fermentation, photosynthesis. Studying chemical composition and properties of compounds isolated from animals and plants becomes the subject organic chemistry(chemistry of organic compounds).

The birth of biochemistry was also marked by the discovery of the first enzyme, diastase (now known as amylase) in 1833 by Anselm Paen. The difficulties associated with obtaining enzymes from tissues and cells were used by supporters of vitalism to assert the impossibility of studying cellular enzymes outside living beings. This statement was refuted by the Russian physician M. Manasseina (1871 - 1872), who proposed the possibility of observing alcoholic fermentation in extracts of mashed (i.e., lacking structural integrity) yeast. In 1896, this possibility was confirmed by the German scientist Eduard Buchner, who was able to experimentally recreate this process.

The term "biochemistry" itself was first proposed in 1882, however, it is believed that it gained wide use after the work of the German chemist Carl Neuberg in 1903. By that time, this area of research was known as physiological chemistry. After this time, biochemistry developed rapidly, especially from the middle of the 20th century, primarily due to the development of new methods such as chromatography, x-ray diffraction analysis, NMR spectroscopy, the use of radioisotope labeling, electron and optical microscopy and, finally, molecular dynamics and other methods of computational biology. These methods have allowed the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and metabolic pathways of the cell, such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.

Other important historical event in the development of biochemistry was the discovery of genes and their role in the transmission of information in the cell. This discovery laid the foundation for the emergence of not only genetics, but also its interdisciplinary branch at the junction with biochemistry - molecular biology. In the 1950s, James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins were able to decipher the structure of DNA and suggested its connection with the genetic transmission of information in the cell. Also in the 1950s, George Otley and Edward Tatum proved that one gene is responsible for the synthesis of one protein. With the development of DNA analysis techniques such as genetic fingerprinting, in 1988 Colin Pitchfork became the first person to be charged with murder with DNA-based evidence, the first major success for biochemical forensics. In the 200s, Andrew Fire and Craig Mello showed the role of RNA interference (RNAi) in the suppression of gene expression.

Now biochemical research proceeds in three directions, formulated by Michael Sugar. Plant biochemistry studies the biochemistry of predominantly autotrophic organisms and studies processes such as photosynthesis and others. General biochemistry includes the study of both plants, animals and humans, while medical biochemistry focuses primarily on human biochemistry and abnormal biochemical processes, in particular as a result of disease.

Biological chemistry Lelevich Vladimir Valeryanovich

Chapter 1. Introduction to Biochemistry

biological chemistry- a science that studies the chemical nature of the substances that make up living organisms, the transformation of these substances (metabolism), as well as the relationship of these transformations with the activity of individual tissues and the whole organism.

Biochemistry - it is the science of the molecular basis of life. There are several reasons why biochemistry is gaining a lot of attention and rapidly developing these days.

1. First, biochemists managed to find out the chemical foundations of a number of important biochemical processes.

2. Second, discovered common paths transformations of molecules and the general principles underlying the various manifestations of life.

3. Third, biochemistry is having an ever deeper impact on medicine.

4. Fourth, the rapid development of biochemistry in last years allowed researchers to begin studying the most acute, fundamental problems of biology and medicine.

History of the development of biochemistry

In the history of the development of biochemical knowledge and biochemistry as a science, 4 periods can be distinguished.

I period - from ancient times to the Renaissance (XV century). This is the period practical use biochemical processes without knowing them theoretical foundations and the first, sometimes very primitive, biochemical studies. In the most distant times, people already knew the technology of such industries based on biochemical processes as bread-baking, cheese-making, wine-making, and leather tanning. The use of plants for food purposes, for the preparation of paints, fabrics prompted attempts to understand the properties of individual substances of plant origin.

II period - from the beginning of the Renaissance to the second half of the 19th century, when biochemistry becomes independent science. The great explorer of that time, author of many masterpieces of art, architect, engineer, anatomist Leonardo da Vinci conducted experiments and, based on their results, made an important conclusion for those years that a living organism can exist only in an atmosphere in which a flame can burn.

During this period, the works of such scientists as Paracelsus, M. V. Lomonosov, Yu. Liebig, A. M. Butlerov, Lavoisier should be singled out.

III period - from the second half of the 19th century to the 50s of the 20th century. It was marked by a sharp increase in the intensity and depth of biochemical research, the volume of information received, increased applied value- using the achievements of biochemistry in industry, medicine, agriculture. The works of one of the founders of Russian biochemistry A. Ya. Danilevsky (1838–1923), M. V. Nentsky (1847–1901) belong to this time. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the largest German organic chemist and biochemist E. Fischer (1862–1919) worked. He formulated the main provisions of the polypeptide theory of proteins, the beginning of which was given by the studies of A. Ya. Danilevsky. The works of the great Russian scientist K. A. Timiryazev (1843–1920), the founder of the Soviet biochemical school A. N. Bach, and the German biochemist O. Warburg belong to this time. In 1933, G. Krebs studied in detail the ornithine cycle of urea formation, and 1937 dates back to the discovery of the cycle of tricarboxylic acids by him. In 1933, D. Keilin (England) isolated cytochrome C and reproduced the process of electron transfer along the respiratory chain in preparations from the heart muscle. In 1938, A. E. Braunshtein and M. G. Kritzman first described transamination reactions, which are key in nitrogen metabolism.

IV period - from the beginning of the 50s of the 20th century to the present. It is widely used in biochemical research physical, physico-chemical, mathematical methods, active and successful study of the main biological processes (biosynthesis of proteins and nucleic acids) at the molecular and supramolecular levels.

Here is a brief chronology of major discoveries in biochemistry from this period:

1953 - J. Watson and F. Crick proposed a double helix model of the DNA structure.

1953 - F. Sanger first deciphered the amino acid sequence of the insulin protein.

1961 - M. Nirenberg deciphered the first "letter" of the protein synthesis code - the DNA triplet corresponding to phenylalanine.

1966 - P. Mitchell formulated the chemiosmotic theory of conjugation of respiration and oxidative phosphorylation.

1969 - R. Merifield chemically synthesized the enzyme ribonuclease.

1971 - in the joint work of two laboratories led by Yu. A. Ovchinnikov and A. E. Braunshtein, the primary structure of aspartate aminotransferase, a protein of 412 amino acids, was established.

1977 - F. Sanger for the first time fully deciphered the primary structure of the DNA molecule (phage? X 174).

Development of medical biochemistry in Belarus

Since its inception in 1923 in the Belarusian state university Department of Biochemistry began professional training national biochemical staff. In 1934, the Department of Biochemistry was organized in Vitebsk medical institute, in 1959 - at the Grodno Medical Institute, in 1992 - at the Gomel Medical Institute. Well-known scientists, prominent specialists in the field of biochemistry were invited and elected to head the departments: A. P. Bestuzhev, G. V. Derviz, L. E. Taranovich, N. E. Glushakova, V. K. Kukhta, V. S. Shapot , L. G. Orlova, A. A. Chirkin, Yu. M. Ostrovsky, N. K. Lukashik. On formation scientific schools in the field of medical biochemistry, the activities of such outstanding scientists as M. F. Merezhinskiy (1906–1970), V. A. Bondarin (1909–1985), L. S. Cherkasova (1909–1998), V. S. Shapot (1909–1989), Yu. M. Ostrovsky (1925–1991), A. T. Pikulev (1931–1993).

In 1970, the Department of Metabolism Regulation of the Academy of Sciences of the BSSR was established in Grodno, which was reorganized in 1985 into the Institute of Biochemistry National Academy Sciences of Belarus. Yu. M. Ostrovsky, academician of the Academy of Sciences of the BSSR, was the first head of the department and director of the institute. Under his leadership, a comprehensive study of vitamins, in particular, thiamine, was begun. Works

Yu. M. Ostrovsky were supplemented and continued in the studies of his students: N. K. Lukashik, A. I. Balakleevsky, A. N. Razumovich, R. V. Trebukhina, F. S. Larin, A. G. Moiseenka.

The most important practical results of the activities of scientific biochemical schools were the organization of the state laboratory service of the republic (Professor V. G. Kolb), the opening of the Republican Lipid Treatment and Diagnostic Center for Metabolic Therapy at the Vitebsk Medical Institute (Professor A. A. Chirkin), the creation of the Grodno Medical Institute laboratory of medical and biological problems of narcology (Professor VV Lelevich).

1. The composition and structure of the chemicals of a living organism - static biochemistry.

2. The totality of the transformation of substances in the body (metabolism) - dynamic biochemistry.

3. Biochemical processes underlying various manifestations of vital activity - functional biochemistry.

4. Structure and mechanism of action of enzymes - enzymology.

5. Bioenergetics.

6. Molecular bases heredity is the transmission of genetic information.

7. Regulatory mechanisms of metabolism.

8. Molecular mechanisms of specific functional processes.

9. Features of metabolism in organs and tissues.

Sections and directions of biochemistry

1. Biochemistry of man and animals.

2. Biochemistry of plants.

3. Biochemistry of microorganisms.

4. Medical biochemistry.

5. Technical biochemistry.

6. Evolutionary biochemistry.

7. Quantum biochemistry.

Objects of biochemical research

1. Organisms.

2. Individual organs and tissues.

3. Sections of organs and tissues.

4. Homogenates of organs and tissues.

5. Biological fluids.

6. Cells.

7. Yeast, bacteria.

8. Subcellular components and organelles.

9. Enzymes.

10. Chemical substances(metabolites).

Biochemistry methods

1. Tissue homogenization.

2. Centrifugation:

Simple

Ultracentrifugation

Density gradient centrifugation.

3. Dialysis.

4. Electrophoresis.

5. Chromatography.

6. Isotopic method.

7. Colorimetry.

8. Spectrophotometry.

9. Determination of enzymatic activity.

Relationship of biochemistry with other disciplines

1. Bioorganic chemistry

2. Physical colloid chemistry

3. Biophysical chemistry

4. Molecular biology

5. Genetics

6. Normal physiology

7. Pathological physiology

8. Clinical disciplines

9. Pharmacology

10. Clinical biochemistry

This text is an introductory piece. From the author's book

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Read the entire book on Litres
Energy metabolism disorders
CTD regulation.
Chapter 11. Types of oxidation. Antioxidant systems
Reactive oxygen species (free radicals)
Lipid peroxidation (LPO)
Antioxidant systems of the body
Chapter 12
Biorol hormones.
Classification of hormones
Hormone receptors
The mechanism of transmission of hormonal signals through membrane receptors
The mechanism of hormonal signal transmission through intracellular receptors
Signaling through receptors coupled to ion channels
Chapter 13
Hormones of the hypothalamus
pituitary hormones
Thyroid hormones
Pancreatic hormones
Insulin
Glucagon
Regulation of the exchange of calcium and phosphate ions
Adrenal hormones
Adrenal medulla hormones
Adrenal hormones (corticosteroids)
Glucocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids
sex gland hormones
male sex hormones
Anabolic steroid
Androgenic dysfunction
female sex hormones
Eicosanoids
The use of hormones in medicine
Chapter 14
Squirrels
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Chapter 15
Vitamin exchange
Providing the body with vitamins
The use of vitamins in clinical practice
Multivitamin preparations
Antivitamins
Chapter 16
Digestion of carbohydrates
Absorption of monosaccharides in the intestine
Transport of glucose from blood to cells
Disorders of digestion and absorption of carbohydrates
Fructose metabolism
Metabolism of galactose
Metabolism of lactose
Chapter 17
glycolysis
Pentose phosphate pathway (PPP)
Gluconeogenesis (GNG)
Glucuronic acid pathway
Chapter 18
Synthesis of glycogen (glycogenogenesis)
Disorders of glycogen metabolism
Chapter 19
human tissue lipids.
Food lipids, their digestion and absorption.
Chapter 20 fatty acids
Regulation of triacylglycerol synthesis
Regulation of triacylglycerol mobilization
Obesity
Fatty acid metabolism
Exchange of ketone bodies
Synthesis of fatty acids
regulation of fatty acid synthesis.
Chapter 21
Chapter 22 Biochemistry of atherosclerosis
Biochemistry of atherosclerosis
Biochemical basis for the treatment of atherosclerosis.
Chapter 23 The dynamic state of body proteins
Protein digestion in the gastrointestinal tract
absorption of amino acids.
Inherited disorders of amino acid transport
Breakdown of proteins in tissues
Transformation of amino acids by intestinal microflora
Pathways of amino acid metabolism in tissues
Amino acid transamination
Deamination of amino acids
Oxidative deamination of glutamate
Indirect deamination of amino acids
Decarboxylation of amino acids
Biogenic amines
Pathways of catabolism of the carbon skeleton of amino acids
Chapter 24
Tissue detoxification of ammonia
General (final) neutralization of ammonia
Secondary (acquired) hyperammonemia.
Chapter 25
Methionine metabolism
Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine
Violation of the metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine
Chapter 26
Biosynthesis purine nucleotides
Biosynthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides
Decay of nucleic acids in the gastrointestinal tract and tissues
Nucleotide Metabolism Disorders
Chapter 27
The relationship of metabolism
Chapter 28
The role of the liver in carbohydrate metabolism
The role of the liver in lipid metabolism
The role of the liver in the metabolism of amino acids and proteins
The neutralizing function of the liver
Neutralization of xenobiotics
Chapter 29
Chapter 30
general characteristics
Features of metabolism in blood cells
Human hemoglobin
iron exchange
Characterization of serum proteins
Pathology of the blood coagulation system.
Chapter 31
Chapter 32
Blood-brain barrier (BBB)
Metabolism of free amino acids in the brain
Neuropeptides
Energy metabolism in nervous tissue
Lipid metabolism in nervous tissue
The role of mediators in the transmission of nerve impulses
Neurochemical foundations of memory
cerebrospinal fluid
Chapter 33
Muscle proteins
The role of calcium ions in the regulation of muscle contraction
Biochemistry of muscle fatigue
Chapter 34
Collagen.
Elastin
Proteoglycans and glycoproteins