The concept and classification of sensations. Scientific Electronic Library

4.2. Feel

The concept of sensation. Objects and phenomena of the external world have many different properties and qualities: color, taste, smell, sound, etc. In order for them to be reflected by a person, they must influence it with any of these properties and qualities. Cognition is carried out primarily by the senses - the only channels through which the outside world penetrates the human mind. The images of objects and phenomena of reality that arise in the process of sensory cognition are called sensations.

Feel - This is the simplest mental cognitive process of reflecting the individual properties of objects and phenomena of the world, as well as the internal states of the body, arising from their direct impact on the senses.

Our consciousness exists only due to the presence of sensations. If a person is deprived of the opportunity to feel and perceive the surrounding reality, he will not be able to navigate the world, he will not be able to do anything. Under the conditions of “sensory deprivation” (lack of sensations) in a person less than a day later, a sharp decrease in attention, a decrease in memory, there are serious changes in mental activity. No wonder this is one of the most difficult tests for future astronauts, polar explorers, cavers.

In ordinary life, we are tired not so much of the lack of sensations as their abundance - sensory overload. Therefore, it is so important to observe the basic rules of hygiene.

The physiological basis of sensations is activity analyzer -special nervous apparatus, which performs the function of analysis and synthesis of stimuli emanating from the external and internal environment of the body. Any analyzer consists of three parts.

1. Receptor (peripheral) department- a receptor, the main part of any sense organ, specialized for receiving the effects of certain stimuli. Here the energy of an external stimulus (heat, light, smell, taste, sound) is transformed into physiological energy - a nerve impulse.

2. Conductor department- sensitive nerves that may be afferent(centripetal) conducting the excitation to the central section of the analyzer, and efferent(centrifugal, through which the nerve impulse enters the working body (effector)).

3. Central Department -the cortical part of the analyzer, a specialized section of the cerebral cortex, where the conversion of nerve energy into a psychic phenomenon occurs - sensation.

The central part of the analyzer consists of a nucleus and scattered nerve cells, which are called peripheral elements.The bulk of the receptor cells are concentrated in the nucleus, due to which the most delicate analysis and synthesis of stimuli is carried out; Due to the peripheral elements, a rough analysis is performed, for example, light differs from darkness. The scattered elements of the cortical part of the analyzer are involved in establishing communication and interaction between various systems of analyzers. Since each analyzer has its own central department, the entire cerebral cortex is a kind of mosaic, an interconnected system of cortical ends of the analyzers. Despite the common structure of all analyzers, the detailed structure of each of them is very specific.

A sensation arises in consciousness always in the form of an image. The energy of an external stimulus turns into a fact of consciousness when a person who has an image of an object that causes irritation can designate it with a word.

The feeling is always associated with a response like a reflex ring with obligatory feedback. The sense organ is alternately either a receptor or an effector (working organ).

Types and classification of sensations.According to the well-known ancient Greeks, the five senses are distinguished by the following types of sensations: visual, auditory, taste, olfactory, tactile (tactile). In addition, there are intermediate sensations between tactile and auditory - vibrational. There are also complex sensations, consisting of several independent analyzer systems: for example, touch is tactile and muscular-articular sensations; skin sensations include tactile, temperature and pain. Organic sensations (hunger, thirst, nausea, etc.), static, sensations of balance, reflecting the position of the body in space, are distinguished.

The following criteria for the classification of sensations are distinguished.

I.At the location of the receptors– exteroceptive and interoceptive. Receptors exteroceptivesensations are located on the surface of the body and take irritation from the outside world, and receptors interoceptive(organic) sensations are located in the internal organs and signal the functioning of the latter. These sensations form the organic feeling (well-being) of a person.

II.By the presence or absence of direct contactfrom irritant sensory, exteroceptive sensations are divided into contact and distant. Contactsensations suggest a direct interaction with the stimulus. These include taste, skin, pain, temperature, etc. Distantsensations provide orientation in the immediate environment - these are visual, auditory and olfactory sensations.

A special subclass of interoceptive sensations are sensations. proprioceptivewhose receptors are located in the ligaments, muscles and tendons and receive irritation from the musculoskeletal system. These sensations also indicate the position of the body in space.

Sensations have a number of characteristics and patterns that manifest themselves in each type of sensitivity. Three groups of patterns of sensations can be distinguished.

1. Temporal relationsbetween the beginning (end) of the action of the stimulus and the occurrence (disappearance) of sensations:

The onset of the action of the stimulus and the occurrence of sensations do not coincide - the sensation arises somewhat later than the onset of the action of the stimulus, since the nerve impulse needs some time to deliver information to the cortical part of the analyzer, and after the analysis and synthesis performed in it, back to the working organ. This is the so-called latent (latent) period of the reaction;

Sensations do not disappear immediately with the end of the stimulus, as illustrated by successive images - positive and negative. The physiological mechanism of the appearance of a sequential image is associated with the effects of the aftereffect of the stimulus on the nervous system. The termination of the stimulus does not cause an instant cessation of the process of irritation in the receptor and excitation in the cortical parts of the analyzer.

2. The ratio of sensations and intensity of the stimulus.Not every force of the stimulus can cause sensation - it arises when exposed to a stimulus of known intensity. It is customary to distinguish between the threshold of absolute sensitivity and the threshold of sensitivity to discrimination.

The minimum amount of stimulus, causing a subtle sensation, is called lower absolute threshold of sensitivity.

There is an inverse relationship between sensitivity and stimulus strength: the greater the force needed to produce a sensation, the lower the sensitivity. There may be subthreshold stimuli that do not cause sensations, since signals about them are not transmitted to the brain.

The maximum value of the stimulus, which the analyzer is able to adequately perceive (in other words, at which the sensation of this species is still preserved), is called upper absolute threshold of sensitivity.

The interval between the lower and upper thresholds is called sensitivity range.It has been established that the range of color sensitivity is fluctuations of electromagnetic waves with a frequency from 390 (violet) to 780 (red) millimicrons, and sound - fluctuations of sound waves from 20 to 20,000 Hertz. Ultrahigh-intensity stimuli, instead of sensations of a certain kind, cause pain.

Distinction Sensitivity Threshold(differential) is the minimal difference between two stimuli, which causes a subtle difference in sensations. In other words, this is the smallest amount by which it is necessary to change (increase or decrease) the intensity of the stimulus so that a change in sensation occurs. German scientists - physiologist E. Weber and physicist G. Fechner - formulated a law that is valid for medium-strength stimuli: the ratio of the additional stimulus to the main one is constant. This value for each type of sensation is specific: for the visual - 1/1000 forauditory - 1/10, for tactile - 1/30 of the initial value of the stimulus.

III.Changing the sensitivity of the analyzer. This change can be illustrated by such patterns of sensations as adaptation, sensitization, and interaction.

Adaptation(from Lat. adaptare - adapt, adjust, get used) - this is a change in sensitivity under the influence of a constantly acting stimulus. Adaptation is dependent on environmental conditions. The general pattern is as follows: when moving from strong stimuli to weak, sensitivity increases, and vice versa, when moving from weak to strong stimuli, it decreases. The biological expediency of this mechanism is obvious: when stimuli are strong, fine sensitivity is not needed, when they are weak, the ability to pick them up is important.

There are two types of adaptation: positive and negative. Positive(positive, dark) adaptation is associated with increased sensitivity under the influence of a weak stimulus. So, when moving from light to darkness, the pupil area increases 17-fold, there is a transition from cone to rod vision, but mainly sensitivity increases due to conditioned-reflex activity of the central mechanisms of the analyzer. Negative(negative, light) adaptation can manifest itself as a decrease in sensitivity under the influence of a strong stimulus and as a complete disappearance of sensations during the long-term action of the stimulus.

Another pattern of sensations is analyzer interactionwhich manifests itself in a change in the sensitivity of one analyzer system under the influence of the activity of another. The general pattern of sensory interaction can be expressed in the following formulation: weak stimuli of one analyzer in intensity increase the sensitivity of another, and strong stimuli reduce.

Analyzer sensitivity increase is called sensitization.It can manifest itself in two areas: either as a result of sensory exercises, training, or as the need to compensate for sensory defects. The defect in the operation of one analyzer is usually compensated by increased work and improvement of another.

A special case of the interaction of sensations is synesthesia,in which there is a joint work of the senses; at the same time, the qualities of sensations of one kind are transferred to another type of sensations and sensations arise. In everyday life, synesthesia is used very often: “velvet voice”, “flashy color”, “sweet sounds”, “cold tone”, “pungent taste”, etc.

Any sensation is caused by one or another stimulus, which can be acting from the outside - color, sound, smell, taste; from within - hunger, thirst, nausea, suffocation; both from the outside and from the inside - pain.

By the nature of the action of the stimulus on the receptors, sensations are divided into three groups: exteroreceptive, interoreceptive, and proprioreceptive.

1 . Exteroreceptive sensations. Reflect the properties of objects and environmental phenomena. These include visual, auditory, taste, temperature and tactile sensations. Visualsensations arise as a result of the action of electromagnetic waves on the human eye. With their help, people are able to distinguish up to 180 tones of color and more than 10,000 shades between them. Auditoryfeel

represent a reflection in the human mind of the noise emitted by the objects surrounding it. With their help, he perceives the speech of other people, controls many types of work, enjoys music, etc. Olfactorysensations are a reflection of the smells that are inherent in certain objects. They help a person to distinguish between volatile substances and odors common in the air. Flavoringsensations reflect the taste properties of objects: sweet and bitter, salty and sour, etc. They determine the qualitative characteristics of food taken by a person and are highly dependent on the feeling of hunger. Temperaturesensations are sensations of heat and cold. Tactilesensations reflect the effect on the surface of the body, including the external and internal mucous membranes. They, together with the musculoskeletal ones, make up the sense of touch, with the help of which a person determines the qualitative features of objects - their smoothness, roughness, density, as well as the touch of an object to the body, the place and size of the irritated skin area.

2 . Interoreceptive sensations. Reflect the condition of internal organs. These include a feeling of pain, balance, acceleration, etc. Painsensations signal damage and irritation of human organs, are a kind of manifestation of the protective functions of the body. The intensity of pain is different, reaching in some cases a lot of power, which can even lead to a shock condition. Feel equilibriumprovide the vertical position of the human body. They arise as a result of the functional activity of the vestibular analyzer. Feel acceleration- this is a sensation that reflects the centrifugal and centripetal forces developing during human movement.

3. Proprioreceptive (musculoskeletal) sensations . These are sensations that reflect the movement of our body. With the help of muscular-motor sensations, a person receives information: about the position of the body in space, about the relative position of all its parts, about the movement of the body and its parts, about the contraction, stretching and relaxation of the muscles, etc. Musculoskeletal sensations are complex. Simultaneous irritation of receptors of various quality gives a sensation of a peculiar quality: irritation of the receptor endings in the muscles creates a sensation of muscle tone during movement; sensations of muscle tension and effort are associated with irritation of the nerve endings of the tendons; irritation of receptors of articular surfaces gives a sense of direction, shape and speed of movement.

  (recognition).

In the Soviet-Russian psychological school, sensation and feeling are considered synonymous, but this is not always true for other psychological schools. Other equivalents to the term “sensations” are sensory processes and sensitivity.

Sensory sensations

The minimum amount of irritation that causes a barely noticeable sensation is called the absolute lower threshold of sensation. The ability to feel these weakest irritations is called absolute sensitivity. It is always expressed in absolute numbers. For example, for a sensation of pressure, exposure to 2 mg per 1 sq. Mm of the skin surface is sufficient.

The upper absolute threshold of sensation is the maximum amount of irritation, a further increase in which causes the disappearance of sensation or pain. For example, an ultra-loud sound causes pain in the ears, and an ultra-high sound (with an oscillation frequency of over 20,000 Hz) causes the sensation to disappear (an audible sound goes into ultrasound). A pressure of 300 g / mm2 causes pain.

Along with absolute sensitivity, one should distinguish between relative sensitivity - sensitivity to distinguishing the intensity of one effect from another. Relative sensitivity is characterized by a threshold of discrimination.

The threshold of discrimination, or differential threshold, is a barely perceived minimal difference in the strength of two similar stimuli.

The threshold of discrimination is a relative value (fraction), which shows how much of the initial strength of the stimulus must be added (or reduced) to get a barely noticeable sensation of a change in the strength of these stimuli.

So, if you take a load of 1 kg and then add another 10 g, then no one can feel this increase; in order to feel the increase in weight gain, it is necessary to add 1/30 of the initial weight, that is 33 g. Thus, the relative threshold for distinguishing gravity is 1/30 of the strength of the initial stimulus.

The relative threshold for distinguishing light brightness is 1/100; sound power - 1/10; taste influences - 1/5. These patterns were discovered by Bouger and Weber (Bouguer-Weber law).

The Bouguer-Weber law applies only to the middle zone of intensity of stimuli. In other words, relative thresholds lose their significance with very weak and very strong stimuli. It was established by Fechner.

Fechner also established that if the intensity of the stimulus is increased exponentially, then the sensation will increase only in arithmetic progression. (Fechner Law).

The lower and upper absolute thresholds of sensations (absolute sensitivity) characterize the limits of human sensitivity. But the sensitivity of each person varies depending on various conditions.

So, entering a poorly lit room, at first we do not distinguish between objects, but gradually, under the influence of these conditions, the sensitivity of the analyzer increases.

Being in a smoked room or in a room with any smells, after some time we stop noticing these smells (the sensitivity of the analyzer decreases).

When from a poorly lit space we find ourselves in a brightly lit one, the sensitivity of the visual analyzer decreases.

Changing the sensitivity of the analyzer as a result of its adaptation to active stimuli is called adaptation.

Different analyzers have different speeds and different adaptation ranges. Adaptation to some stimuli occurs more quickly, to others - more slowly. Olfactory and tactile analyzers adapt more quickly. Complete adaptation to the smell of iodine occurs in one minute. After three seconds, the feeling of pressure reflects only 1/5 of the strength of the stimulus (the search for glasses shifted to the forehead is one example of tactile adaptation). Auditory, gustatory and visual analyzers adapt even more slowly. It takes 45 minutes to fully adapt to the dark. After this period, visual sensitivity increases 200,000 times (the highest range of adaptation).

The phenomenon of adaptation has an appropriate biological significance. It helps to repel weak irritants and protects analyzers from excessive exposure to strong irritants.

Sensitivity depends not only on the effects of external stimuli, but also on internal conditions.

Increasing the sensitivity of analyzers under the influence of internal (mental) factors is called sensitization. For example, poor taste sensations increase visual sensitivity. This is due to the interconnection of these analyzers, their system work.

Sensitization, aggravation of sensitivity, can be caused not only by the interaction of sensations, but also by physiological factors, the introduction of certain substances into the body. For example, vitamin A is essential for increasing visual sensitivity.

Sensitivity increases if a person expects one or another weak stimulus, when a special task of distinguishing stimuli is presented to him. The sensitivity of an individual is improved as a result of exercise. So, tasters, specially practicing the taste and olfactory sensitivity, distinguish between different varieties of wines, teas and can even determine when and where the product is made.

In people deprived of any kind of sensitivity, compensation (compensation) for this deficiency is carried out by increasing the sensitivity of other organs (for example, increasing the auditory and olfactory sensitivity in the blind).

The interaction of sensations in some cases leads to sensitization, to an increase in sensitivity, and in other cases to its decrease, that is, to desensitization. Strong excitation of some analyzers always reduces the sensitivity of other analyzers. So, the increased noise level in “loud workshops” lowers visual sensitivity.

One manifestation of the interaction of sensations is the contrast of sensations.

The contrast of sensations is an increase in sensitivity to one property under the influence of other, opposite properties of reality.

For example, the same gray figure on a white background seems dark, and on black - light.

Sometimes sensations of the same kind can cause additional sensations. For example, sounds can cause color sensations, yellow - a sensation of sour. This phenomenon is called synesthesia.

Notes

see also

References

• Types of sensations 2. Smell, touch, vibrational and proprioceptive sensations

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Synonyms:

See what "Sensation" is in other dictionaries:

Reflection of the properties of objects of the objective world arising as a result of their impact on the senses and excitation of the nerve centers of the cerebral cortex. A. The starting point of knowledge, its indecomposable element. Highlighting the reflection of quality ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

sensation  - a reflection of the properties of objects of the objective world that occurs when they directly affect receptors. In the framework of the reflex concept of I.M.Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov, studies have been conducted that have shown that according to their physiological ... Big psychological encyclopedia

Sensation  - Sensation ♦ Sensation Elementary perception or element of possible perception. A sensation occurs when a physiological change, most often of an external order, excites one of our senses. For example, the impact ... ... Sponville Philosophical Dictionary

Location: the audience

Duration:  2 hours

Objectives of the lesson:

1. To acquaint with the basic concepts of the processes of sensation and perception.

2. To study the main types and properties of sensation and perception.

3. Show the differences in sensations and perceptions.

4. To analyze the clinical picture of sensations and perceptions.

The student must know:

1. Definitions of sensation and perception.
2. The origin of sensations.
3. Sensation Properties
4. Sensory impairment.

The student must be able to:

1. Investigate disturbances in the processes of sensation and perception in patients.
2. Determine the leading sensory system of a person using special techniques.

Topics of projects, abstracts:

1. The origin of sensations.
2. Types and classification of sensations.
3. Sensation Properties
4. The difference between perception and sensations.
5. Illusions of visual perception. Perception of space, time and movement.
6. The role of sensations in human life.
7. The mechanisms of perception of the shape of objects and their magnitude, the perception of time.
8. Classification of perceptual disorders (agnosia, illusions, hallucinations and pseudo-hallucinations, psychosensory disorders).

Main literature:

1. Clinical Psychology / Ed. P.I. Sidorova A.V. Parnyakova. - GEOTAR-Media, 2008.

2. Clinical Psychology / Ed. B.D. Karvasara. Peter, 2002.

3. The basics of psychology. Workshop, Stolyarenko L.D. - Rostov / on D., 2006.

4. Psychology. (Lectures for students of medical universities), N. D. Tvorogova - Moscow GOU VUNMTS RF, 2002

Additional literature:

1. Psychosomatic medicine, F. Alexander. - M., 2000.
2. Introduction to the psychology of health, Ananyev V.A. - SPb., 1998.
3. Practical Pathopsychology: A Guide for Physicians and Medical Psychologists.
4. Bleicher V.M., Kruk I.V., Bokov S.N. - Rostov / on D., 1996.
5. Psychology in medicine, Abramova G.S., Yudchits Yu.A. - M .: Department- M, 1998.
6. Introduction to medical psychology. Lebedinsky M.S., Myasischev V.N. - L., 1996.
7. Basics of clinical and advisory psychology. Todd J., Bogard A.K. - St. Petersburg: Owl; M .: Eksmo-Press, 2001.
8. Psychological testing. Anastazi A. Per. with eng. - M., 1982.
9. Workshop on General, Experimental and Applied Psychology: Textbook. allowance. Krylov A.A., Manichev S.A. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000.
10. Fundamentals of General Psychology. Rubinstein S.L. - St. Petersburg, 1998.
11. Sidorov P.I., Parnyakov A.V. Clinical Psychology: a textbook. - 3rd ed., Revised. and add. - M.: GEOTAR-Media, 2008 .-- 880 p .: ill.
12. Clinical Psychology: Textbook / Ed. B.D. Karvasara. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002.
13. Mendelevich V.D. Clinical and medical psychology. - M.: MED-press, 1998.

Initial knowledge level control:

1. What do you mean by the terms “sensation” and “perception”?
2. What is the difference between sensation and perception?
3. What do you think is the role of these psychological processes in human life?
4. What factors can disturb these mental processes?

Key topics:

1. Definition of sensation and perception.
2. The origin of sensations.
3. Types of sensations and classification of sensations.
4. Sensation Properties
5. Measurement and change of sensations.
6. Sensory impairment.
7. The difference between perception and sensations.
8. The main properties of the images of perception: objectivity, consistency, integrity, categoricality.
9. Illusions of visual perception. Perception of space, time and movement.
10. The mechanisms of perception of the shape of objects and their magnitude, the perception of time.
11. Disorders in the clinic.
12. Classification of perceptual disorders (agnosia, illusions, hallucinations and pseudo-hallucinations, psychosensory disorders).

Final control of the level of knowledge:

1. Define sensations and indicate which components of the nervous system are involved in the sensory information space?
2. List the main characteristics of the sensations?
3. List the main groups of sensory disturbances. What are the main mechanisms of their occurrence?
4. What are the main characteristics that distinguish perception from sensations?
5. How does the study of various illusions determine the understanding of perception mechanisms?
6. List the main groups of perceptual disorders. What are the main mechanisms of their occurrence?
7. How is the processing of visual information performed by a person and what are the mechanisms of occurrence of visual agnosia?
8. How are sound stimuli translated into sensory signals and what are the mechanisms of occurrence of auditory agnosia?
9. What is skin-kinesthetic sensitivity and what are the mechanisms of tactile agnosia?
10. How is a person’s charming, gustatory and static sensitivity examined?

Feel

Sensations and perceptions, which are sensory images, constitute the initial, initial moment in the process of a person's knowledge of the world. Sensations and perceptions arise only with the direct action of stimuli on the senses. The primary link in cognition is precisely sensation.

Sensations are of great importance in human life, since, firstly, they provide a connection with the outside world, are a constant source of knowledge about the environment.

Secondly, sensations are associated with the internal environment of the body, due to interoreception, the normal state of the body is maintained. And, finally, sensations are associated with the needs of the body and, therefore, perform a regulatory function.

Sensation- This is the simplest mental process, consisting in the reflection of individual properties, objects and phenomena of the external world, as well as the internal conditions of the body with the direct action of stimuli on the corresponding receptors. The physiological mechanism of sensations is the analyzer mechanism, and feedback is of great importance.

Sensation  - this is the mental process of reflecting the individual properties of objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the senses. Since the time of Aristotle, five types of sensations have traditionally been distinguished, informing a person about changes in the environment. This is touch, taste, smell, hearing and sight.

Different types of sensations are characterized not only by specificity, but also by properties common to all of them. These properties include quality, intensity, duration and spatial localization.

Quality - this is the main feature of this sensation, distinguishing it from other types of sensations and varying within this type of sensations (one modality). Auditory sensations, for example, differ in height, timbre, volume, and visual - in saturation, color tone.

Intensity   sensation is its quantitative characteristic and is determined both by the strength of the stimulus and the functional state of the receptor.

Sensation duration   it is also determined by the effect of the aftereffect, which consists in the fact that the sensation does not stop at the moment the stimulus ends, but continues for some time, which manifests itself in the appearance of a consistent image. The duration of inertia of sensation varies from 0.05 to 1 second.

Spatial localization   sensations gives a person information about the localization of the stimulus in space, if we are talking about distant receptors (visual, auditory, etc.), or correlates sensation with the part of the body that is affected by the stimulus in the case of contact receptors (tactile).

Studies show that these characteristics are not constant. Under the influence of a number of factors, the sensitivity changes.

Basic properties:

1.  Modality - the main feature of this type of sensation that distinguishes it from other types. In the course of evolution in humans, the main eleven types of sensations were formed that provide a holistic reflection of the world and optimal adaptation - these are visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile, temperature, motor, or kinesthetic, vestibular, or equilibria, vibrational, painful, organic, or interoceptive . In each modality, various qualities are reflected, for example, in the visual, such qualities as brightness, contrast, etc. are represented, in the auditory one, pitch, timbre, sound volume. The ratio of modality and quality of the main types of sensations is presented in table. one.

Table 1

Correlation of modality and quality of sensations (Bloom, Leiserson, Hofstedter)

Modality	Sensitive organ	Quality	Receptors
	Retina	Brightness, contrast, movement, size, color	Sticks and cones
		Pitch, Tone, Volume	Hair cells
Equilibrium	Vestibular organ	Gravity Rotation	Macular cells Vestibular cells
Touch		Pressure Vibration	Ruffini endings Merkel wheels Taurus Pacini
		Sweet and sour taste Bitter and salty taste	Taste papillae on the tip of the tongue Taste papillae at the base of the tongue
Sense of smell	Olfactory nerves	Flower smell Fruit smell Musky smell Pungent smell	Olfactory receptors

2.  Intensity   sensations depends on the strength of the acting stimulus, on the functional state of the analyzer, as well as on the individual characteristics of a person. The main characteristic of the analyzer is its sensitivity. It is determined by two quantities. The first of them is that segment of the continuum of stimuli, the impact of which causes a feeling of this modality. In order for a sensation to arise, the intensity of the stimulus must reach a certain value. In the future, with an increase in the intensity of the stimulus, there comes a time when the analyzer ceases to work adequately. Any impact that exceeds a certain limit causes pain and disrupts the activity of the analyzer. The interval from the minimum to the maximum adequately perceived value determines the sensitivity range of the analyzer.

The main characteristics of sensations

Sensitivity range. An irritant can cause sensation only when a certain amount or strength is reached.

The minimum amount of stimulus, causing a subtle sensation, called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity (i0). The lower threshold is used to judge the absolute sensitivity of the analyzer. Lower (i0), the higher the sensitivity of the analyzer to the stimulus.

The lower absolute threshold determines the resolution of the sensory organs, in humans it is relatively large. For the eye, 2-8 quanta of radiant energy are enough to cause a visual sensation, and if the auditory threshold is slightly reduced, then a person could hear the rustling made by the molecules during the Brownian motion.

Less irritating irritants are called subliminal  and signals about them are not transmitted to the cerebral cortex.

The transition from the subthreshold sensation is carried out stepwise: if the effect has almost reached the threshold value, then a barely noticeable increase in its strength is enough to immediately turn the stimulus into a sensible one. Subthreshold sensations are not indifferent to the body. This is confirmed by numerous facts, when it is weak subthreshold stimuli. coming from the external or internal environment, create a dominant focus in the cerebral cortex and contribute to the emergence of “deceptions of feelings” of hallucinations.

The upper absolute threshold of sensation (i  max) is the maximum value of the stimulus that the analyzer is able to adequately perceive. Impacts in excess (i  max) cease to be felt or cause pain (i  max) - significantly more variable in different people and at different ages. Interval between (i0) and (i  max) - carries the name - sensitivity range.

Time threshold  measured by the duration of exposure needed to create a sensation. The spatial threshold is determined by the minimum size of the position in the sensory field and the area affected by the stimulus of a barely perceptible stimulus, its distance from the receptor. The most elementary example of the spatial threshold is visual acuity. It is determined by the minimum distance between two points at which a minimal sense of their separation is possible. Usually for normal visual acuity is taken one whose threshold is equal to 1 angle. min

Sensation duration determined by the duration of the stimulus and its intensity. The sensation does not occur immediately, but after some time, after the onset of the stimulus. The period from the onset of the stimulus to the sensation is called latent period. The latent periods of a simple sensorimotor reaction upon presentation of stimuli of different modality are different and are presented in table. 2.

table 2

The latent period of a simple sensorimotor reaction (according to Lomov)

Analyzer and signal quality	Latent period (in milliseconds) *
Tactile (touch)
Auditory (sound)
Visual (light)
Olfactory (smell)
Temperature (heat and cold)
Flavoring: Salty Sweet Bitter
Vestibular apparatus (rotation of the subject)

* Note: the smallest and largest values \u200b\u200bof the average values \u200b\u200bobtained by different authors are indicated.

One of the phenomena of sensitivity change is adaptation.

Adaptation sensory organs is called a change in the sensitivity of the analyzer under the influence of an active stimulus. Adaptation may be accompanied by an increase in sensitivity or its decrease until complete disappearance. The most significant amount of adaptation is in the visual analyzer. The sensitivity of the eye can change about 2 to 10 times. The adaptation time is about 30-40 minutes, the adaptation time to light is about 10 minutes. Different analyzers have different adaptive capabilities. Adaptation most quickly occurs in tactile, olfactory analyzers. Most slowly - in the visual. There is practically no adaptation of a person to pain, which is of great biological importance, since pain is a signal of ill-being in the body.

Classification of sensations

Over the past century, attempts have repeatedly been made to classify, streamline the whole variety of sensations. The most common is currently sherrington classification   which is based on the “principle of assignment of the receptor organ to the receptor field”, that is, the location of the receptor and the location of the source of irritation are taken into account. In accordance with this, all sensations are divided into 3 groups.

Exteroreceptors - environmental receptors. The activity of these receptors is aimed at recognizing the effects of the external world, which is of paramount importance for reflecting objective reality in the human mind. This group includes vision, hearing, smell, taste, tactile, temperature, pain.

Proprioreceptors,   include sensory organs, reflecting the movement and position of the body in space, muscular-articular, or kinesthetic, vibrational, vestibular (sensations of balance and acceleration).

Interoreceptors - located in the internal organs. By the nature of stimulation, all receptors of internal organs, regardless of their location, are divided into several types: chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors, pain receptors, and mechanoreceptors, reflecting changes in pressure in the internal organs and bloodstream.

Thus, the three main types of sensations are combined depending on what they reflect: the external world, the position and movement of the body in this external world, or the activity of internal organs. Of course, this classification is relative, since many of the types of sensations are represented by receptors that are present both on the surface of the body and in the internal environment of the body, such as temperature, tactile. In addition, the nature of the sensitivity of almost all senses is significantly affected by the internal state of the body.

An example of analyzer interaction is coesthesia, synesthesia.

Sommestesia   - a comprehensive education that combines all types of skin receptions, kinesthesia, interoreception and visual sensations and forms body outline. The mechanisms of the formation of the body scheme have not been studied enough yet, but it is the body scheme that is the “sensory source of personality” as Sechenov put it. In the study of such a psychological phenomenon as the I-person and in determining its structure, the primary level — the core of the “I” - refers to the feeling of the existence of the body, including a complex of sensations and emotions. Thus, the connection between the sensory sphere and the subjective side of a person’s life, with the formation and development of his self-consciousness, is obvious.

The most important factor affecting the level of sensitivity is the interaction of the analyzers. All analyzers do not function in isolation, they represent a single complex system, all parts of which are closely interconnected. The effect of the stimulus on any analyzer not only causes its reaction, but also leads to one or another change in all other analyzers.

It is known, for example, that color sensitivity increases with the simultaneous impact of sound on a person: sensitivity to red-orange colors decreases, to green-blue colors increases (data by Kravkov). The weak effect of side irritants (for example, rubbing cold on the face, hands, neck or slowly chewing a sweet and sour tablet) increases the sensitivity of night vision (Kekcheev). Weak pain increases the sensitivity of almost all analyzers. Thus, acting on some analyzers, you can purposefully change the sensitivity level of others. In this case, the general rule may be the following: strong impacts on any analyzer lower the level of sensitivity of others, weak ones - even subthreshold stimuli - increase.

Synesthesia - this is the occurrence under the influence of irritation of one analyzer of sensations characteristic of another analyzer. This phenomenon is especially pronounced and is used in the effect of color music. Such "famous" artists as Skriabin and Čiurlionis possessed a "color" rumor. In modern studies, this effect is studied as cross-modal interaction and its variant - cross-modal transfer.

A huge influence on the change in sensitivity has a practical and cognitive activity of a person. In particular, in the process of professional activity sensitization , that is, an increase in the sensitivity of the senses under the influence of exercise. It is known that sharpeners sharply increase visual acuity and they see gaps up to 0.0005 mm, while untrained only up to 0.1 mm. Professional dyers distinguish up to 40 shades of black, and steelmakers can determine the melting temperature by shades of the color of hot metal. In the process and under the influence of activity, first of all, the difference, differential sensitivity changes. Absolute sensitivity is less amenable to training.

Human sensory organization - This term was first proposed by Ananyev in 1960. According to the scientist, sensory organization refers to the most important manifestations of the historical nature of man and to the fundamental phenomena of life associated with the deep layers of the structure of human development and personality. In this light, the widespread and currently notion that sensory-perceptual processes belong to the lower mental functions and, constituting the periphery of the subject, are not included in its basic structure and are indifferent to the personality, is obsolete.

The structure of sensory organization includes a system of constant inter-analyzer connections, the general composition of sensory reflection. The determining factors for the formation of sensory organization are the habitat, lifestyle and way of life. These factors determine the ratio of types of reception in a given sensory organization, determine its core, that is, groups of analyzers specific to a given environment. In fish, for example, a sideline organ and chemoreception make up such a core. In monkeys, kinesthesia, the rudiments of active touch and vision form the sensory axis. The selection of the leading sensory organs that make up the sensory axis in animals is determined by species. In humans - by individual characteristics, primarily characteristics of sensitivity, as well as features of activity. In this regard, it is necessary to highlight such a property of sensory organization as sensitivity - sensitivity level of analyzers.

The level of sensitivity and leading analytic systems determine the individual characteristics of a person. The structure of the sensory organization of a person is a condition for successful socialization. The formation of such qualities as sensitivity, empathy, observation is significantly associated with sensory organization. In addition, sensory organization underlies the formation of human abilities for various activities. Knowledge and accounting of the leading analyzer system are very important when communicating with people, organizing training, as the mismatch of the methods of presenting information and its reception significantly complicates the interaction of people and understanding. It is known that most teachers, for example, prefer visual presentation of information. At the same time, children whose auditory or kinesthetic system is the leading sensory system may experience significant difficulties.

In this sense, the tactile analyzer is universal. In numerous experiments, it was shown that touching, a short and light touch of the hand powerfully reduces discomfort, reduces or even removes the barrier between the therapist and the client, increases the activity and self-disclosure of the latter. Currently, this effect is actively used in psychotherapeutic practice, for example, in the framework of the so-called body-oriented psychotherapy.

Sensory Disorders

Disturbances of sensations are very numerous. However, in most cases, all observed mental disorders of sensation can be attributed to one of three main groups: hyperesthesia, hypesthesia, and paresthesia.

Hyperesthesia   - Hypersensitivity to real ordinary or even weak influences. In these cases, both external and inter- and proprioceptive stimuli cause an extremely intense reaction due to a sharp decrease in the lower absolute thresholds of sensations. For example, the clatter of a typewriter stuns the patient, the burning candle dazzles, and the shirt adjacent to the body irritates so much that it seems to be made of “barbed wire”, etc. Such mental hyperesthesia is observed with neurosis, intoxication with certain substances (opiates, hash, cyclodol, etc.), the initial stages of stupefaction, acute psychoses.

Hypesthesia - reduced sensitivity to real stimuli, increased lower absolute thresholds of sensations. In this case, the patient almost does not respond to an injection, to a fly crawling across his face, etc. Reduced sensitivity to temperature irritants can lead to accidents - burns and frostbite. In extreme cases of hypesthesia, the analyzer is completely unable to respond to irritation, and this phenomenon is called anesthesia. Anesthesia usually occurs with a complete anatomical break of one of the peripheral nerve trunks or the destruction of the central part of the analyzer. Loss of sensitivity usually extends to tactile, pain and temperature sensitivity (total anesthesia) or only to its individual types (partial anesthesia). Neurologists distinguish between radicular anesthesia, in which the sensitivity in the innervation zone of a certain posterior spine of the brain is totally impaired, and segmental, in which disturbances occur in the innervation zone of a certain segment of the spinal cord. In the latter case, anesthesia can be either total or dissociated, in which the absence of pain and temperature sensitivity is combined with the preservation of proprioceptive sensitivity or vice versa. In some diseases, for example, leprosy (leprosy), a specific lesion of the skin receptors occurs with a consequent weakening and loss of temperature, then pain, and then tactile sensitivity (proprioceptive sensitivity is preserved for the longest time with leprosy anesthesia).

In case of mental hypesthesia and anesthesia, the corresponding analyzer is formally anatomically physiologically preserved. In particular, hypesthesia and anesthesia can be instilled into a person in a hypnotic sleep. Mental amblyopia (blindness), mental anosmia (insensitivity to smells), mental agesia (loss of taste), mental deafness, mental tactile and pain anesthesia are often found in hysterical neurotic disorders. Within the framework of hysterical anesthesia, pain sensitivity disorders of the type “stockings and gloves” are described, i.e. from the point of view of neurologists, patients experience areas of insensitivity to pain with clear boundaries that do not correspond to the zones of innervation of certain roots or nerves.

Paresthesia   If hypesthesia and hyperesthesia can be qualified as quantitative disorders of sensitivity, then paresthesias are associated with qualitative changes (perversion) of information coming from the receptor to the cortical part of the analyzer. Probably, everyone knows about the sensations arising from prolonged squeezing of a nerve with an uncomfortable position - “lay out a hand”, “served a leg”. In case of nerve conduction disturbances, there are sensations of “crawling creeps”, tightening of the skin, tingling, burning sensation (these are peculiar fluctuations in the modality of sensation). Paresthesias are more often a sign of a neurological or vascular lesion.

They are close to paresthesias and senestopathies, but they occupy an intermediate position with visceral hallucinations, as even less associated with any real irritation of the peripheral part of the analyzer. Senestopathies - vague, often migrating, very unpleasant and painful sensations that are projected into the body (into the bodily “I”): squeezing and stretching, rolling and trembling, “suction”, “sticking”, etc. They never have a clear localization, and patients are not even able to describe them correctly. Senestopathies are found in many mental illnesses.

Perception

Perception - the mental process of reflection of an object or phenomenon as a whole, in the totality of its properties and parts, based on the sensations arising from them, but at the same time possessing certain characteristics that cannot be reduced to individual sensations.

If the sensation is monomodal, then the perception is multimodal. It is formed on the basis of the joint activities of a number of analyzers integrated into a functional system. At the same time, one of the analyzers plays a leading role in image formation.

Perceptual properties

1. Objectivity and integrity   - the ability to perceive a holistic image of the subject. The perception of an object is possible only if the object is distinguished from the environment (the background on which it is located). In this case, the subject and background are dynamic, this is especially clearly seen in dual images, the content of the image in which varies depending on what is taken as the background (Fig. 1).

Fig. one.  Perception of the subject depending on the background

The background is usually unlimited and uncertain. The figure is limited, embossed, it has objectivity. Contribute to the contrast of the subject and background, the unusualness of the subject. For example, in an X-ray of the lungs, a round shadow stands out much better against a normal pulmonary pattern than against a disseminated process. As the studies of Zinchenko, Yarbus, etc. showed, in the process of isolating an object from the background, micromotion of the eyes occurs, as if “circling” it along the contour, which also contributes to the selection of the object from the background.

2. Constancy  - ensuring constancy in the form, color, size and other parameters of the objects we perceive. Perception preserves their sizes for certain objects, regardless of how far and at what angle we look at them.

3. Selectivity  - clearly stands out in the phenomenon of highlighting a figure from the background. That which is in the foreground and perceived as concrete is a figure, that everything else is a background. Perceived reality is always divided into two layers: the figure - a holistic image of the object and the background - the image of the space surrounding the object. What was a figure can merge with the background, something from the background can become a figure of perception.

4. Meaningfulness  - indicates the connection of perception with thinking, with an understanding of the essence of objects. The images of perceived objects always have certain, semantic meanings, and this shows not only a close connection with thinking, but also the activity of perception.

5. Apperception of perception  - indicates the connection of perception with the person, all past experiences of a person with his "I".

The influence of the attitude on human perception is also manifested in the phenomenon demonstrated in a huge number of experiments, when the same person is perceived as evil and cruel, if the subjects are told in advance that the person depicted in the photograph is a criminal; as good and courageous, if it is known in advance that this is a person of a humane profession who has committed a courageous act to save people's lives.

A great influence on the perception of the emotional state of a person. It is known, for example, that in a state of excitement, time accelerates its run, as it were, in a state of longing and depression — it slows down. Patients in a state of depression are always pessimistic and foresee a catastrophe, they are inclined even to perceive joyful events in black tones.

Thus, perception is an active process, the course of which is affected not only by the activity of the perceptual system, but also by the internal characteristics of the subject.

Complex forms of perception include perception of space, perception of time, perception of movement.

The perception of time distinguishes between the perception of time duration and the perception of time sequence. The direct experience of time is due to organic sensations and is associated with rhythmic processes in the body: pulse rate, respiration, etc. Evaluation of the duration of time periods depends on the content of the activity: a time period filled with interesting, meaningful activity is subjectively evaluated as short, that is, underestimated; empty, not filled with interesting activities are evaluated as longer, that is, reevaluated. (Everyone knows how boring lessons at school last forever). The perception of time also depends on the setting: when waiting for unpleasant events, time flies quickly; but how painfully long the time creeps if we are waiting for some pleasant event (meeting with a loved one, for example). In recollection, on the contrary: the longer the time span is, the longer it appears in recollection.

The most important characteristic of time is its irreversibility. The perception of an irreversible sequence of events over time involves the establishment of relationships between different segments and events of life

Based on sensation and perception, a more complex form of sensory reflection arises - performance.

Performance  - a secondary sensory image of an object that does not currently affect the senses, but has acted in the past (Lomov). Representations acquire a special role with the development of remote control systems, when the operator must with a high degree of accuracy imagine the processes occurring in a controlled system.

Representations can be considered as a transitional link between the sensory image (sensation, perception) and abstract thinking. Depending on the level of wakefulness and the characteristics of the activity, representations, on the one hand, are included in memory, imagination, thinking (its figurative forms), on the other hand, create dream images. Representations accompany a person throughout his life: the image of a familiar person arises in our consciousness even when that person is no longer there; the image of our native places vividly arises before our mental gaze. Common to all representations is that the subject or phenomenon is no longer there, and their reflection continues to develop. The flow of ideas unfolds in the "inner space, never carried out. This distinguishes the view from hallucinations, "when the internal image is" brought out. "

Perceptual disorders

In some pathological conditions, especially in mental and nervous diseases, perceptual processes may be impaired. However, there are deviations of perception that can be observed in quite healthy people (for example, illusions). Perceptual disorders can be divided into three main groups: illusions, hallucinations, and sensory synthesis disorders (psychosensory disorders).

Illusions.  Illusion is the distorted perception of a really existing object or phenomenon. Illusions are classified according to their sense organs - visual, auditory, tactile and others. Depending on the main reasons underlying the distortion of perception, all illusions can also be divided into physical, physiological and mental.

Physical illusions are explained by objective physical laws and are not dependent on the person himself. An example of a physical illusion, which is captured by the camera, is the perception of a spoon in a glass of water. The spoon seems broken due to the different light-refracting properties of water and air.

Physiological illusions find their explanation in the features of the structure and activity of our senses. For example, try pushing the side of the eyeball from the side, and immediately the object we are looking at will fork. Bifurcation of an object occurs due to an increase in the disparity of its image on the retinas. We find another example of this type of illusion at Aristotle: cross two fingers and start rolling a small ball between them, and it will seem double. When an object first contacts the index finger, and then with the middle finger, both contacts occur at different points of space that are familiar to us. Touching the index finger seems higher, although the finger is actually lower; touching the middle is lower, although the finger is actually higher. There are many such illusions on the part of the vestibular apparatus — illusions of banks, counter-rotation and others.

Mental illusions are associated both with various mental states of a person, and with some psychological features of our perception.

In diseases, mental illusions are most often observed in conditions of upset consciousness, with excitement (exaltation, ecstasy) in manic patients or in states of fear and anxiety in depression. Their illusions are hardly corrected, and the patient is inclined to consider these perceptual errors a reality. Verbal illusions, when a patient instead of neutral speech hears abuse, threats and insults, are often found in the early stages of the development of auditory verbal (speech) hallucinations in some psychoses. They differ from the so-called functional auditory hallucinations in that, under illusions, the pathologically arisen image absorbs the image of the real object (the patient “hears instead ...”), with hallucinations the pathological image does not merge with the real (“hears along with ...”) .

Healthy people against the background of various mental states (expectation, anxiety or fear) also often have psychic illusions. For example, at the entrance to the room the child will be frightened by the figure by the window, but after that he will laugh, because he will see that he was frightened by the coat and hat hanging on the hanger. And if in every tree standing by the road we see the person whom we are waiting for, then we are also talking about psychic illusions.

In order for the process of interpreting sensory information to reach a level of consciousness, special techniques are needed, and some of them have already been mentioned (simplification of the image, principles of grouping, contrasts, and others). Ambiguity of perception often results in illusions, arising due to a lack of essential information or an excess of non-essential information in the image. Ambiguity of perception also arises in cases where several significant images can be extracted from the same image. For example, in the famous painting by the artist Salvador Dali “Slave market with a vanishing bust of Voltaire” there are alternative ways of interpreting the depicted scene. In the center of the picture are two small nuns standing next to each other. But with another perceptual organization, the pictures of the nuns' faces turn into Voltaire's eyes, and their contacting figures - into the nose and chin. To some extent, these two ways of organizing visual information are incompatible: it is difficult to perceive both images at the same time.

In the experiment, illusions are used to study various aspects of the organization of the properties of the analyzer system. Visual illusions were often used to supply ambiguous sensory information to the input of the visual system to identify those errors that the system makes and thereby reveal some of its hidden properties. Numerous facts and conditions of errors in perception are described - the illusions of an “arrow”, railroad tracks, revaluation of vertical lines, intersections, concentric circles, “impossible figures” and others.

Visual illusions are also found in animals. In particular, it is on their basis that various methods of disguise and mimicry are formed. All these phenomena convince that there are some common factors that cause the appearance of illusions, and for many of them there is still no convincing interpretation.

Hallucinations.  Hallucinations are disorders of perception when a person, as a result of mental disorders, sees, hears, feels that which in reality does not exist. This is a perception that, as they say, is not based on an external object, otherwise it is an “imaginary, false perception”.

We can observe hallucinations in mental illness, as well as in healthy people, in experiments with sensory isolation or with the use of certain drugs (hallucinogens); hallucinations can also be instilled into a person in a deep hypnotic sleep.

Hallucinations are usually classified according to the sensory organs: visual, auditory, olfactory, and others. Of great importance in psychiatric diagnosis is the division of hallucinations into true and false (pseudo-hallucinations).

True hallucinations are characterized by sensual clarity, they unfold in the real space of one analyzer or another and “patients not only think what they see and hear, but actually see and hear” (E. Kraepelin, 1909). The behavior of patients usually corresponds to the content of hallucinatory experiences, and they are convinced that the people around them see and hear the same thing as them.

Pseudo-hallucinations differ from true hallucinations in that they do not have complete sensual-bodily clarity of images, and this brings them closer to ideas. Patients speak of visible and audible, adding “as if”, although they insist on the reality of their hallucinations. A pseudo-hallucinatory image unfolds in the imagined, or rather, the intrapsychic (subjective) space of a particular analyzer, so patients can report the possibility of "seeing" beyond the horizon or through opaque obstacles, and also report sounds and human voices that occur "inside the head". Since false hallucinations are recognized as something subjective and very different from real images, the behavior of patients is almost always dissociated with the content of hallucinations. Pseudo-hallucinations indicate a more unfavorable course of mental illness, often acquire a protracted and chronic nature, accompanied by impaired thinking.

Sometimes extracampine hallucinations that are projected out of the reach of the corresponding analyzer are separately distinguished from the group of pseudo-hallucinations. At the same time, patients “see” behind themselves, behind the wall, “hear” for many hundreds of kilometers.

In healthy people, against the background of fatigue or exhaustion, sometimes when falling asleep, visual or auditory hallucinations, similar to pseudo-hallucinations, which are called hypnagogic because of their proximity to dreams, briefly occur for a short time (hypnomopomic - the same thing, but noted at the time of awakening).

Visual and auditory hallucinations are often divided into simple (photopsies - the perception of flashes of light, stars, sparks; azoasms - the perception of sounds, noise, cod, whistle, crying) and complex (verbal - the perception of articulate speech).

In reflex hallucinations, the perceived real image is immediately accompanied by the appearance of a hallucinatory similar to it (the patient hears a phrase - and a phrase similar to it begins to sound in his head).

Apperceptive hallucinations (auditory or visual) appear after the corresponding volitional effort of the patient who wants to experience them.

Charles Bonnet hallucinations (visual, less often auditory) are observed when the peripheral part of the analyzer is damaged (in the blind, deaf), as well as in sensory deprivation or isolation (in prison, in a foreign language environment) in the field of the affected or information-restricted analyzer. They should be distinguished from hemianaptic hallucinations in the field of hemianopsia in case of damage to the cortical end of the analyzer (tumor, trauma, vascular lesion).

Hallucinations that occur as a result of mental trauma are called psychogenic. They are divided into the following varieties:

Dominant (auditory and visual) with psychologically clear content, reflecting mental trauma, and emotionally saturated;

Eidetic (usually auditory), which tend to be repeated as clichés (for example, the constant hallucinatory reproduction of funeral music and sobbing at a funeral);

Hallucinations of Dupree's imagination, where the plot follows from hysterical dreams and fantasies;

Induced hallucinations occur as mutual suggestion and self-hypnosis against the background of emotional stress;

Inducted hallucinations are often found in alcoholic delirium during the “lucid window” (daytime clarification of consciousness): Reichardt symptom (suggested reading on a blank sheet of paper), Aschaffenburg symptom (suggested imaginary conversation on the disconnected telephone), Lipman symptom (inspired visual hallucinations after ten seconds on eyeballs), etc.

Sensory synthesis disorders. Perception is a complex process of integration, the synthesis of the image of a perceived object from sensory signals coming through the senses from the external environment and own body. In some conditions and diseases, we encounter various violations of the synthesis process, the integration of sensory information during perception. Typically, psychosensory disorders include two groups of disorders: derealization and disorders of the “body scheme”.

Derealization - violation of the sensory synthesis of information that comes from the outside world. Something can “fall out”, change, and ultimately the world around us loses its sensory reality from the association of sensory signals participating in the formation of the image of external reality — it is distorted.

A person can lose the perception of the depth of space, and then everything around him is seen in a planar, two-dimensional image. Distortions of perception can relate to certain characteristics of the subject - form (metamorphopsia), magnitude (increase - macropsy, decrease - micropsy), or others. With porropsia, the distance estimate is violated - it seems to the person that the objects are farther than they are actually located; with dysmegalopsia, a perceptual disorder concerns elongation, expansion, oblique or kinked around the axis of surrounding objects.

Disorders are close to derealization when the usual, familiar environment is perceived as completely new (the phenomenon of “never seen” - jamais vu), or, conversely, the new situation (locality, street, house) is perceived as well-known and known (the “already seen” phenomenon - deja vu). Patients are especially worried about the distortions of time - its slowdown (bradychrony) or acceleration (tachychrony), as well as the loss of the emotional components of the perception of the environment - “everything is frozen, glazed”, and “the world has become like a scenery”. Patients almost always remain critical of these disorders, they are alien to the individual and subjectively extremely unpleasant.

Disorders of the “body scheme” are characterized by various symptoms of impaired perception of one’s own body, peculiar sensations of increasing or decreasing weight, size of the whole body or its parts (arms, legs, head). Disorders of the perception of the relationship between parts of the body also belong to disorders of the body pattern: patients talk about the incorrect position of the ears, the “twisting” of the body. The patient feels these changes only with his eyes closed, since under the control of vision all the misconceptions about his body disappear.

Practical part

Methodology:Definition of the leading sensory system of a person.

For practical work with people, it is very important to determine the leading sensory system of a person, since this indicates the preferred channel for perceiving information (visual, auditory, kinesthetic), which is of great importance in determining individual methods and means of supplying information in the process of communication (including therapeutic ), training, joint activities, in family interaction, etc.

To determine the leading sensory system, the “Leading sensory organ” (VOCH) technique proposed by Polish psychologists, translated by Efremtseva, is proposed. The technique is given according to the book: Kuleshova L.N. The psychology of ancient sensations. - SPb., 1999.

Equipment.  Subjects are offered a standard form with questions.

Instruction to subjects. Read the questions carefully and circle the numbers of those with which you agree in the questionnaire.

1. I like to watch clouds and stars	13. When I hear the old tune, the past returns to me	25. After a long drive by car I come to my senses for a long time	37. I have good stereo equipment
2. Often I hum to myself slowly			38. When I listen to music, I beat the beat with my foot
3. I do not recognize fashion that is uncomfortable	15. I like to talk on the phone	27. I attach importance to the manner of dressing in others	39. On vacation I like to inspect monuments of architecture
4. I like to go to the sauna	16. I have a tendency to be overweight	28. I like to stretch, spread my limbs, warm up	40. Can't stand the mess
5. In a car, color matters to me	17. I prefer to listen to a story that someone is reading than to read it myself	29. Too hard or too soft bed for me flour	41. I do not like synthetic fabrics
6. I know by steps who entered the room	18. After a bad day, my body is in tension	30. It’s not easy for me to find comfortable shoes	42. I think that the atmosphere in the room depends on the lighting
7. I'm imitated by imitation of dialects	19. Willingly and a lot of pictures	31. I like to watch television and video films	43. Often I go to concerts
8. I attach great importance to appearance	20. I remember for a long time what my friends or acquaintances told me	32. I find out ever seen faces, even after years	44. Shaking hands tells me a lot about this person.
9. I like to take massage	21. It’s easy to give money for flowers because they adorn life	33. I like to walk in the rain when drops are tapping on an umbrella	45. Willingly visiting galleries and exhibitions
10. When I have free time, I like to watch people	22. In the evening I like to take a hot bath	34. I like to listen when they say	46. \u200b\u200bSerious discussion is interesting
11. I feel bad when I do not enjoy the movement	23. I try to record my personal files	35. I like to engage in outdoor sports or perform any physical exercises, sometimes dancing	47. Through touch, much more can be said than with words
12. Seeing clothes in a showcase, I know that I will be fine in it	24. I often talk to myself	36. When the alarm clock is ticking close, I can’t sleep	48. I can’t concentrate in the noise

Data Processing and Interpretation. Count the results, accruing 1 point for a match with the key in each of the sections.

The key is to process the results.

The section in which the subject scored the most points determines the leading sensory system.

Test

1. The direct impact of an object or phenomenon on receptors is a mandatory feature of cognitive processes such as:

1. sensation
2. perception
3. thinking
4. imagination
5. attention

2. The integral result of the direct impact on a person of any stimuli (color, sound, chemical, etc.) is called:

1. perception;
2. perception;
3. sensation

3. The reflection of the individual properties of objects and phenomena of the world, this:

1. perception;
2. emotion;
3. sensation;
4. attention.

4. The main properties of sensations are indicated, except:

1. modalities;
2. constancy;
3. intensity
4. duration.

5. The minimum difference between stimuli, causing a difference in sensations, is:

1. absolute lower threshold of sensations;
2. differential threshold;
3. absolute upper threshold;
4. spatial threshold.

6. The change in the sensitivity of the senses under the influence of an active stimulus is:

1. sensitization;
2. adaptation;
3. synesthesia;
4. apperception.

7. The properties of perception include those specified, except:

1. integrity;
2. structuralness;
3. reminiscences;
4. apperception.

8. The incorrect distorted perception of an object or phenomenon that is currently acting on the sense organs, is:

1. hallucination;
2. illusion;
3. reminiscence;
4. adaptation

9. When a person wears hard contact lenses, they interfere with him, but over time, he ceases to notice them. What is the reason for this?

1. adaptation;
2. sensitization;
3. reminiscence;
4. illusion.

10. The minimum amount of stimulus that causes a subtle sensation is called:

1. absolute upper threshold of sensations
2. absolutely lower threshold of sensations (threshold of sensitivity)
3. pain threshold
4. differential threshold of sensations
5. operational threshold of sensations

11. Sensations associated with signals arising from irritation of receptors located in the muscles, tendons, joints, are called:

1. exteroreceptive
2. interoreceptive
3. proprioreceptive
4. endoceptive

12. Disorders of various types of sensations are called:

1. agnosia
2. hallucinations
3. sensory disorders
4. illusions

13. Sensations having receptors located in the internal organs and reflecting the state of the internal environment of the body are called:

1. interoreceptive
2. proprioreceptive
3. contact
4. distant

14. Sensations that reflect the properties of objects and environmental phenomena and have receptors on the surface of the body are called:

1. interoreceptive
2. contact
3. distant
4. proprioreceptive

15. Restore the sequence. The formation of sensations:

1. stimulus
2. sensory organs
3. nerve pathways
4. the corresponding center of the brain
5. sensation

16. The sensations, the receptors of which are in the ligaments, joints, and give information about the movement and position of the body in space, are called:

1. exteroreceptive
2. interoreceptive
3. proprioreceptive
4. contact

17. The reduced sensitivity to real stimuli and the increased lower absolute threshold are:

1. hyperesthesia
2. hypesthesia
3. anesthesia
4. paresthesia

18. The increased lower absolute threshold of sensations leads to:

1. sensitization
2. complete loss of sensitivity
3. decrease in sensitivity
4. qualitative changes in sensitivity

19. A phenomenon in which the analyzer is completely unable to respond to irritation is called:

1. hyperesthesia
2. hypesthesia
3. anesthesia
4. paresthesia

20. Qualitative changes (distortions) of information coming from the receptor to the cerebral cortex are:

1. hyperesthesia
2. hypesthesia
3. hallucinations
4. paresthesia

21. The mental process of reflection of an object or phenomenon as a whole, in the totality of its properties and parts, is called:

1. emotions
2. sensation
3. perception
4. thinking

22. The mental process of reflection of the individual properties of objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the senses, is:

1. sensation
2. perception
3. thinking
4. setting

23. The phenomenon of highlighting a “figure from the background” characterizes what property of attention?

1. integrity
2. selectivity
3. constancy
4. meaningfulness

24. The situation: the patient examines the picture with the image of glasses and argues: “What is this? ... a circle and another circle ... and the crossbar, probably this is a bicycle. " What is disturbed in the perception of this patient?

1. perception integrity
2. selectivity of perception
3. constancy of perception
4. apperception

25. The property of perception, which provides relative constancy in form, color, size and other parameters of the objects we perceive, is:

1. apperception
2. constancy
3. objectivity
4. meaningfulness

26. The connection of perception with the person, his past experience, is called

1. constancy
2. sensitivity
3. apperception
4. meaningfulness

27. The distorted perception of a really existing object or phenomenon is called

1. hallucinations
2. derealization
3. illusions

28. Disorders of perception, when a person sees, hears, feels something that in reality does not exist:

1. hallucinations
2. derealization
3. illusions

29. A violation of the sensory synthesis of information that comes from the outside world and leads to a distortion of perception is called:

1. hallucinations
2. derealization
3. illusions

30. The preferred channel for perceiving information (visual, auditory, kinesthetic), which is of great importance in determining individual methods and means of supplying information in the process of communication, training, joint activities, etc., is called:

1. apperception of perception
2. sensitivity range
3. rational form of knowledge
4. lead sensor system

Question Number		Question Number		Question Number		Question Number

Feel - the simplest mental process, consisting in the reflection of the individual properties of objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the corresponding receptors

Receptors   - These are sensitive nerve formations that perceive the impact of the external or internal environment and encode it in the form of a set of electrical signals. These signals then enter the brain, which decrypts them. This process accompanies the emergence of the simplest mental phenomena - sensations.

Some of the human receptors are combined into more complex formations - sensory organs.  A person has an organ of vision - an eye, an organ of hearing - an ear, an organ of balance - a vestibular apparatus, an organ of smell - a nose, an organ of taste - a tongue. At the same time, some receptors do not combine into one organ, but are scattered across the surface of the whole body. These are receptors for temperature, pain and tactile sensitivity. A large number of receptors are located inside the body: pressure receptors, chemical senses, etc. For example, receptors that are sensitive to blood glucose provide a feeling of hunger. Receptors and sensory organs are the only channels through which the brain can receive information for further processing.

All receptors can be divided into distant that can perceive irritation at a distance (visual, auditory, olfactory) and contact (taste, tactile, pain).

Analyzer - the material basis of sensations

Sensations are the product of activity analyzers  person. An analyzer is an interconnected complex of nerve formations that receives signals, transforms them, sets up the receptor apparatus, transfers information to nerve centers, processes it and decrypts it. I.P. Pavlov believed that the analyzer consists of three elements: sensory organ ,pathway   and cortical department . According to modern concepts, the analyzer includes at least five departments: receptor, conductor, tuner, filtering unit, and analysis unit. Since the conductor section is essentially just an electric cable that conducts electrical impulses, the four departments of the analyzer play the most important role. The feedback system allows you to make adjustments to the work of the receptor department when changing external conditions (for example, fine-tuning the analyzer with different strengths).

Thresholds of sensations

In psychology, there are several concepts of the threshold of sensitivity.

Lower absolute sensitivity threshold   defined as the smallest stimulus that can cause sensation.

Human receptors are very sensitive to an adequate stimulus. So, for example, the lower visual threshold is only 2-4 quanta of light, and the olfactory is 6 molecules of odorous substance.

Irritants with a power less than threshold do not cause sensations. They're called subliminal  and are not realized, however, they can penetrate the subconscious, determining the behavior of a person, as well as forming the basis of his   dreams, intuition, unconscious drives.A study of psychologists shows that a person’s subconscious mind can respond to very weak or very short stimuli that are not perceived by the consciousness.

Upper Absolute Sensitivity Threshold   changes the very nature of the sensations (most often - to pain). For example, with a gradual increase in water temperature, a person begins to perceive not heat, but already pain. The same thing happens with a strong sound and or pressure on the skin.

Relative threshold   (threshold of discrimination) is called the minimum change in the intensity of the stimulus, causing changes in sensations. According to the Bouguer-Weber law, the relative threshold of sensations is constant when measured as a percentage of the initial value of irritation.

Bouguer-Weber Law:   “The threshold of discrimination for each analyzer has

constant relative value ":

DI / I \u003d const,where I is the strength of the stimulus

Classification of sensations

1. Exteroreceptive sensations   reflect the properties of objects and phenomena of the external environment ("five senses"). These include visual, auditory, taste, temperature and tactile sensations. In fact, there are more than five receptors that provide these sensations, and the so-called “sixth sense” has nothing to do with it. For example, visual sensations occur when excited wand (“Twilight, black and white vision”) and cones  ("Daytime, color vision"). Thermal sensations in a person arise with separate excitation cold and heat receptors. Tactile sensations reflect the effect on the surface of the body, and they occur when excited or sensitive receptor touch  in the upper layer of the skin, or with a stronger effect on pressure receptors  in the deeper layers of the skin.

2. Interoreceptive sensations   reflect the condition of internal organs. These include a sensation of pain, hunger, thirst, nausea, suffocation, etc. Pain sensations signal damage and irritation to human organs, are a kind of manifestation of the protective functions of the body. The intensity of pain is different, reaching in some cases a lot of power, which can even lead to a shock condition.

3. Proprioceptive sensations (musculoskeletal). These are sensations that reflect the position and movements of our body. With the help of musculoskeletal sensations, a person receives information about the position of the body in space, about the relative position of all its parts, about the movement of the body and its parts, about the contraction, stretching and relaxation of muscles, the condition of joints and ligaments, etc. Muscular-motor sensations are complex. Simultaneous irritation of receptors of various quality gives a sensation of a peculiar quality: irritation of the receptor endings in the muscles creates a sensation of muscle tone during movement; sensations of muscle tension and effort are associated with irritation of the nerve endings of the tendons; irritation of receptors of articular surfaces gives a sense of direction, shape and speed of movement. To the same group of sensations, many authors include sensations of equilibrium and acceleration that arise as a result of excitation of the receptors of the vestibular analyzer.

Sensation Properties

Sensations have certain properties:

Adaptation

Contrast

Thresholds of sensations

Sensitization

· Sequential images.

Imagination- this is a process of creative transformation of representations that reflect reality, and the creation on this basis of new representations that were previously absent. In addition to this, there are other definitions of imagination. For example, it can be designated as the ability to represent an absent (at the moment or in general in reality) object, hold it in consciousness and mentally manipulate it. Sometimes the term “fantasy” is used as a synonym, which means both the process of creating something new and the end product of this process. Therefore, in psychology, the term "imagination" is adopted, which denotes only the procedural side of this phenomenon. Imagination differs from perception in two ways: - the source of emerging images is not the external world, but memory; - it is less consistent with reality, as it always contains an element of fantasy.   Functions of the imagination:  1 Representation of reality in images, which makes it possible to use them, performing operations with imaginary objects. 2 Formation of an internal action plan (creating an image of the goal and finding ways to achieve it) in the face of uncertainty. 3 Participation in the arbitrary regulation of cognitive processes (memory management). 4 Regulation of emotional states (in auto-training, visualization, neuro-linguistic programming, etc.). 5 The basis for creativity - both fiction (literature, painting, sculpture), and technical (invention) 6 Creating images that correspond to the description of the object (when a person tries to imagine something that he heard or read about). 7 The production of images that do not program, but replace activities (pleasant dreams, replacing boring reality).   Types of imagination:  Depending on the principle underlying the classification, different types of imagination can be distinguished (Fig. 10.1):
Classification of imagination Characterization of certain types of imagination Active imagination (intentional) is the creation by a person of his own will of new images or representations, accompanied by certain efforts (the poet is looking for a new artistic image to describe nature, the inventor sets the goal to create a new technical device, etc.). Passive imagination (unintentional) - at the same time, a person does not set himself the goal of transforming reality, and images spontaneously arise themselves (this type of psychic phenomena includes a wide range of phenomena, from dreams to ideas that suddenly and unplanned arise in the minds of the inventor). Productive (creative) imagination - the creation of fundamentally new ideas that do not have a direct sample, when reality is creatively transformed in a new way, and not just mechanically copied or recreated. Reproductive (recreating) imagination - creating an image of objects or phenomena according to their description, when reality is reproduced from memory in the form in which it is.   The characteristic of certain types of imagination: Dreams  can be classified as passive and involuntary forms of imagination. According to the degree of transformation of reality, they can be either reproductive or productive. Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov called dreams “an unprecedented combination of experienced impressions,” and modern science believes that they reflect the process of translating information from operational into long-term memory. Another point of view is that many vital needs find expression and satisfaction in a person’s dreams, which, for a number of reasons, cannot be realized in real life.

Hallucination  - passive and involuntary forms of imagination. By the degree of transformation of reality, they are most often productive. Hallucinations are called fantastic visions that do not have an explicit connection with the reality surrounding a person. Typically, hallucinations are the result of some kind of mental disorder or exposure to the brain of drugs or drugs.

Daydreams  unlike hallucinations, they are a completely normal mental state, which is a fantasy associated with a desire, most often a somewhat idealized future. This is a passive and productive type of imagination.

Dream differs from dreams in that it is more realistic and more feasible. Dreams are a type of active form of imagination. By the degree of transformation of reality, dreams are most often productive. Features of a dream: - When dreaming, a person always creates the image of what he wants. - It is not directly involved in human activities and does not immediately give practical results. - The dream is directed to the future, while some other forms of imagination work with the past. - The images that a person creates in his dreams are distinguished by their emotional richness, vivid character, and at the same time, their lack of understanding of concrete ways to fulfill their dreams. Dreams and dreams in a person take up a fairly large part of the time, especially in youth. For most people, dreams are pleasant thoughts about the future. Some also have disturbing visions that generate feelings of anxiety, guilt, and aggressiveness.   Mechanisms for processing representations into imaginary images. Creating images of imagination is carried out using several methods: Agglutination  - “folding”, “gluing” of various parts that are not connected in everyday life. An example is the classic character of fairy tales - the centaur, the Serpent-Gorynych, etc.

Hyperbolization- a significant increase or decrease in the subject or its individual parts, which leads to qualitatively new properties. The following fairy-tale and literary characters can serve as an example: the giant Homeric cyclops, Gulliver, Boy-s-Finger. Emphasis  - selection of a characteristic detail in the created image (friendly cartoon, caricature).

2.Perception   - a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena in the aggregate of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses.

Perception is always a combination of sensations, and sensation is an integral part of perception. However, perception is not a simple sum of sensations received from one or another object, but a qualitatively and quantitatively new level of sensory cognition.

The scheme of formation of mental images in perception:

Physiological basis of perception  is the coordinated activity of several analyzers, proceeding with the participation of associative departments of the cerebral cortex and speech centers.

In the process of perception are formed perceptual images ,   with which subsequently operate attention, memory and thinking. An image is a subjective form of an object; he is a product of the inner world of a given person.

For example, the perception of an apple consists of the visual sensation of a green circle, the tactile sensation of a smooth, hard and cool surface and the olfactory sensation of a characteristic apple smell. Adding together, these three sensations will give us the opportunity to perceive the whole object - an apple.

Perception should be distinguished from submissions, that is, the mental creation of images of objects and phenomena that once influenced the body, but are absent at the moment.

In the process of image formation they are affected   attitudes, interests, needs,and   motives  personality. So the image that appears when the same dog is seen will be different for a casual passerby, an amateur dog breeder and a person who has recently been bitten by a dog. Their perceptions will be characterized by completeness and emotionality. A huge role in perception is played by a person’s desire to perceive a particular object, the activity of his perception.

Perceptual properties

Human perceptions differ from sensations in a number of specific properties. The main properties of perception are:

· Constancy,

· Integrity.

· Selectivity

· Objectivity,

Apperception

Meaningfulness

Types of perception

There are three main classifications of processes of perception - in the form of the existence of matter, in the leading modality, and in the degree of volitional control.

According to the first classification there are three types of perception

Space perception- this is the perception of the distance to or between objects, their relative position, their volume, remoteness and the direction in which they are located.

Motion perception  - this is a reflection in time of changes in the position of objects or the observer in space.

Perception of time  - The least studied area of \u200b\u200bpsychology. So far, it is only known that the estimation of the duration of a time period depends on what events (from the point of view of a particular person) it was filled with. If time was filled with many interesting events, then time passes quickly, and if significant events were few, then time drags on slowly. When remembering, the opposite phenomenon takes place - a period of time filled with interesting things seems to us longer than an “empty” one. The material basis for the perception of time by a person is the so-called "cellular clock" - a fixed duration of some biological processes at the levels of individual cells, according to which the body checks the duration of large periods of time.

Second classification of perception (by leading modality) includes visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile perception, as well as perception of one’s body in space.

In accordance with this classification in neuro-linguistic programming (one of the areas of modern psychology), it is customary to divide all people into visuals, audials and kinesthetics. In visuals, the visual type of perception prevails, in audiences - auditory, and in kinesthetics - tactile, taste and temperature.

3. Memory - the ability (of a living system to record the fact of interaction with the environment, to save the result of this interaction in the form of experience and use it in behavior.

memory is a complex mental process consisting of several private processes connected with each other. Man needs memory. It allows him to accumulate, save and subsequently use his personal life experience. Human memory is not just some single function. It involves many different processes. There are three completely different types of memory: 1) as a “direct imprint” of sensory information; 2) short-term memory; 3) long-term memory.

Imprint of sensory information . This system holds pretty accurate about the full picture of the world, perceived by the senses. The duration of preservation of the picture is very short - 0.1-0.5 s. Close your eyes, then open them for a moment and close again. Watch how the sharp, clear picture you see remains for a while, and then slowly disappears.

Short-term memory holds a different type of material. In this case, the information held is not a complete display of events that occurred at the sensory level, but a direct interpretation of these events. For example, if you uttered a phrase, you will remember not so much the sounds that make it up as the words. Usually only 5-6 words are remembered. Having made a conscious effort, repeating the material again and again, you can keep it in short-term memory for an indefinitely long time. Immediate fingerprints of sensory memory cannot be repeated, they are saved only a few tenths of a second and there is no way to extend them.

Long-term memory . There is a clear and convincing difference between the memory of an event that just happened and the events of the distant past. Long-term memory is the most important and most complex of memory systems. The capacity of the first named memory systems is very limited: the first consists of several tenths of a second, the second consists of several storage units. The capacity of long-term memory is almost unlimited. Everything that is held for more than a few minutes should be in the long-term memory system. The main source of difficulties associated with long-term memory is the problem of finding information.

AT of memorythere are three processes: memorization(entering information into memory), preservation(retention) and reproduction.These processes are interconnected. The organization of memorization affects conservation. The quality of the save determines the playback.

The process of memorization can proceed as an instant capture - imprinting. The state of imprinting in a person occurs at the time of high emotional stress. It is likely to be associated with periods of sensitive development of mental functions. With repeated repetition of the same stimulus, it is captured without conscious installation on it. The intention to preserve material in memory characterizes arbitrary memorization.

An organized repetition of material for the purpose of memorizing it is called memorization. A significant increase in the ability to memorize falls by the age of 8 to 10 years and especially increases from 11 to 13 years. From the age of 13, there has been a relative decrease in the rate of development of memory. A new growth begins at the age of 16. At the age of 20-25, the memory of a person engaged in mental work reaches the highest level.

The mechanism is distinguished logicaland mechanicalmemorization. By the result - literaland semantic.

By itself, the focus on memorization does not give the desired effect. Its absence can be compensated by high forms of intellectual activity, even if in itself this activity was not aimed at memorization. And only a combination of these two components creates a solid foundation for the most successful memorization, makes memorization productive.

What is best remembered is what arises as an obstacle, difficulty in activity. The memorization of material given in finished form is less successful than the memorization of material found independently in the course of active work. That which is remembered, even if involuntarily, but in the process of active intellectual activity, is retained in memory more strongly than that which was remembered arbitrarily.

The result of memorization is higher when relying on visual, figurative material. However, the productivity of memorization when relying on words increases with age than when relying on pictures. Therefore, the difference in the use of those and other supports decreases with age. With independent inventing, verbal supports become a more effective means of memorization than ready-made pictures.

In a broad sense, the support of memorization can be everything with which we associate what we remember or what itself “emerges” in us as being connected with it. The semantic support is a certain point, i.e. something short, concise, serving as a support for some broader content, replacing it with itself. The most developed form of semantic support points are theses, as a brief expression of the main idea of \u200b\u200beach section. Most often, the headings of the sections act as a strong point.

The material is remembered better and less forgotten in those cases when the strong points were highlighted in the process of memorization. The strength of a strong point depends on how deeply and thoroughly we comprehend the content of the section thanks to it. The semantic reference point is the reference point of understanding. For us, it is not the strong points that are most important, but the semantic activity that is necessary for highlighting.

4. Thinking - this is the highest form of cognitive activity of a person, the socially determined mental process of mediated and generalized reflection of reality, the process of searching and discovering essentially new.

The main features of the process of thinking are:

A generalized and indirect reflection of reality.

Relationship with practice.

Inextricable communication with speech.

The presence of a problem situation and the lack of a ready answer.

Generalized reflection  reality means that in the process of thinking we turn to the general that unites a similar series of objects and phenomena. For example, when we talk about furniture, we mean tables, chairs, sofas, armchairs, wardrobes, etc.

Indirect reflection reality can be seen in the arithmetic problem of adding up several apples or in determining the speed of two trains moving towards each other. “Apples”, “trains” - these are just symbols, conditional images, which should not be at all specific fruits or compositions.

Thinking comes from practice, from sensory knowledge, but goes far beyond it. In turn, the correctness of thinking is checked in the course of practice.

Thinking is inextricably linked to a speech. Thinking operates with concepts that are words in their form, and, in essence, are the result of mental operations. In turn, as a result of thinking, refinement of verbal concepts can occur.

Thinking takes place only when there is problem situation. If you can get by with the old methods of action, then thinking is not required.

1.2 Qualitative characteristics of thinking

Thinking, like other cognitive processes of a person, has a number of specific qualities. These qualities are present to varying degrees in different people, and to varying degrees are important in solving various problem situations. Some of these qualities are more significant in solving theoretical problems, some in solving practical issues.

Examples of qualities (properties) of thinking:

Speed \u200b\u200bof thinking - the ability to find the right solutions in the face of time pressure

Flexibility of thinking - the ability to change the intended plan of action when changing the situation or changing the criteria for the right decision

Depth of thinking - the degree of penetration into the essence of the phenomenon being studied, the ability to identify significant logical connections between the components of the problem

1.3 Thinking and Intelligence

Intelligence  - a set of mental abilities of a person, ensuring the success of his cognitive activity.

In a broad sense, this term refers to the totality of all cognitive functions of an individual (perception, memory, imagination, thinking), and in the narrow - his mental abilities.

In psychology, there is a concept intelligence structureshowever, the understanding of this structure varies widely depending on the views of a psychologist. For example, the famous scientist R. Kettel distinguished two aspects in the structure of intelligence: dynamic, or fluid ( Fluid), and static or crystallized ( “Crystallized”) According to his concept, fluid intelligence manifests itself in tasks whose solution requires quick and flexible adaptation to a new situation. It is more dependent on the human genotype. Crystallized intelligence is more dependent on the social environment, and manifests itself in solving problems requiring appropriate skills and experience.

You can use other models of the structure of intelligence, for example, highlighting the following components in it:

· Ability to learn (quick development of new knowledge. Skills);

· Ability to successfully operate with abstract symbols and concepts;

· Ability to solve practical problems and problem situations.

· The amount of available long-term and random access memory.

Accordingly, intelligence tests include several groups of tasks. These are tests that reveal the amount of knowledge in a certain field, tests that evaluate the intellectual development of a person in connection with his biological age, tests that determine a person’s ability to solve problem situations and intellectual tasks. In addition, there are special tests for intelligence, for example, for abstract-logical or spatial thinking, for verbal intelligence, etc. The most famous intellectual tests include:

Stanford Binet Test: assesses the intellectual development of the child.

Wexler Test:  evaluates the verbal and non-verbal component of intelligence.

Raven test:  nonverbal intelligence.

Eysenck Test (IQ)  –Determines the general level of development of intelligence

In the study of intelligence in psychology, two approaches are encountered: intellectual abilities are innate or intellectual abilities develop in the process of individual development, as well as their intermediate version.