Brilliant Bonaparte. One of the most important events in history What is the true glory of Napoleon
"My true glory," Napoleon said on St. Helena, "is not that I won forty battles. Waterloo will blot out the memory of these victories. But that which cannot be forgotten, that which will live forever, is mine. Civil Code". He turned 200 years old. Napoleon was right: his code is alive and well, and not only in France.
The Napoleon Code, which entered into force in 1804, was adopted as the basis for the codes of civil laws in more than 70 countries of the world, where it was partially, and where it was completely. Even in the ocean of Anglo-Saxon law, there are two islands of Napoleonic law - the state of Louisiana in the United States and the province of Quebec in Canada. The code guaranteed civil liberties, including freedom of religion, and upheld the equality of all before the law.
It was adopted in an era when the country was emerging from the "revolutionary turmoil" with great difficulty, and Bonaparte was faced with the most difficult task of stabilizing the state and providing a solid legal basis for the new order. By the beginning of the Great French Revolution of 1789-94. the north of the country mainly lived according to German customary law (from the word "custom"), the south - according to Roman. The laws varied from province to province and even from city to city: there were 366 (!) Local codes in force in the country. At the same time, the will of the king was the supreme law. Louis XIV once said: "It's legal, because I want it."
Napoleon believed that the revolution took place not because France wanted freedom as such, but because it wanted equality. By it he understood the equality of citizens before the law, and not the conditions of their life. "Freedom was only a pretext," Bonaparte said of the revolution.
And this revolution, recalls the French historian of law, former Minister of Justice and Chairman of the Constitutional Council Robert Badinter, became the largest redistribution of property in the history of France. She not only destroyed the feudal order and privileges, but also transferred the "rising classes" the right of ownership of the gigantic riches that belonged to the possessions of the crown, the church and the fleeing nobility. Napoleon needed to ensure the invincibility of the position of private property, making it invulnerable from any threat - from feudal lords who did not want to go to bed, or from proletarians who wanted to break their chains.
Historical paradox: Conservatives, not revolutionaries, took part in the development of one of the most progressive legal documents of the 19th century, notes our Parisian correspondent Mikhail Timofeev. But, of course, these were the best French lawyers of the time. They formed the Codification Commission of the Council of State - François Tronchet, Felix Bigot de Preamenu, Jean Portalis and Jacques Maval. Yes, only four people: Napoleon hated large commissions, long speeches and endless meetings.
These experienced practitioners and strong theorists have created a creative compilation of Roman law, the legal customs of the population, royal ordinances, revolutionary laws, and the jurisprudence of old parliaments. The philosophical works of Rousseau and other enlighteners were also useful. The theoretical calculations of lawyers from countries belonging to the European "enlightened monarchies" were thoroughly analyzed. All this became the key to such a long existence of the code. A fact worthy of note - of the 2281 articles of the "Napoleon's Code" 1200 have not yet been changed in any way!
And one more noteworthy fact: in those years the commission got the opportunity to hold a "professional referendum" throughout the country - the draft code was sent to all courts, and its drafters received many hundreds of detailed and valuable responses from practicing lawyers.
The scale of Napoleon's own participation in the development of the code is evidenced by the fact that in a three-year period from 1801 he presided over 36 out of 84 meetings of the Council of State devoted to discussing the new set of laws. The code, adopted with a distant social and political aim, radically changed the "legal landscape" of the country - with its publication, all previous civil legislation was canceled.
After Waterloo, Napoleon went to the island of St. Helena, but his brainchild was not sent into exile, continuing to live and prosper in France and other European countries and spread throughout the world. By the way, in Louisiana, the Napoleonic code began to operate not when it was a French colony, but in 1807, four years after the United States bought it. And with changes, but it still works. Remember in Tennessee Williams' Streetcar Named Desire, the protagonist says to his wife: “We, in Louisiana, have the Napoleonic Code, according to which all wife's property belongs to the husband and vice versa.”
Modern experts call the Napoleonic Code "a legal monument to a fine understanding of the legal structure of the state." He - and this also became the guarantee of his "vitality" - practically bypasses labor relations, regulating, first of all, property relations. As one lawyer aptly put it, "The Napoleonic Code is the code of the haves." Therefore, in the future, he easily adapted to the primary era of capitalism - and then, of course, not without changes, he was able to successfully function in a "post-industrial" society.
The code attached particular importance to the normalization of inheritance rights - for the first time in France, the right of sons to equal shares of inheritance was introduced. At the same time, the new code abolished the humane laws of the revolution, which equalized the rights of the so-called "illegal" children with "legal" ones.
Of course, in Europe over 200 years there have been gigantic changes in the economic, legal and social spheres. Four hundred laws were passed in France to adapt the code to changing society - but the number of articles in it remained almost unchanged, increasing from the original 2,281 by just two to 2,283.
The most significant changes have been those related to the status and rights of women. Although, it is worth recognizing that no one spoke about these rights in the era of Napoleon - a woman was officially recognized by the articles of the code as "incapacitated" (or, if closer to the French term, "a flawed creature"). The woman had no opportunity to go to court, sign business papers, or dispose of household property. In this respect, by the way, the code reflected the views of Bonaparte himself, who believed that "the wife is the property of the husband, just as the fruit tree is the property of the gardener."
True, the code gave women the right to divorce. And this was such a big step forward that the next regime canceled it in 1816, and seriously and for a long time - this right was restored only in 1884. However, even under Napoleon, divorce was much more difficult for a wife than for a husband. A spouse could immediately divorce if his wife was unfaithful; she could only get a divorce after the husband had been in a relationship with his mistress for two years. Napoleon himself divorced Josephine in 1809 for a completely different reason - she could not bear him an heir, although she gave birth to two children in her first marriage. The divorce was "by common agreement", which the code prudently allowed without giving any reason. And one more stroke - the code gave the husband the right to kill the unfaithful wife with impunity if he caught her with another, and in such a case she was threatened with a trial for murder.
The French women received the right to own their own salary only in 1907. The right to sign contracts - in 1938. Only in 1944 they received the right to vote, and only in 1972 were their rights with their husbands in relation to children equalized. France was tenaciously held in its "legal claws" by the Napoleonic code!
During the celebration of the 200th anniversary of the civil code, French leaders say that this unique set of laws will face a major revision in the near future. It is no coincidence that at the colloquium that opened the anniversary celebrations in the old building of the Sorbonne, French President Jacques Chirac spoke not so much about the significance of the Napoleonic heritage as about the urgent need to simplify and re-codify French law. "Codification," the French president said, "is an important counterbalance to the process of" inflation "of old laws.
N 18-19 (837-838) o April 30 - May 13, 2004
One of the most important events in the history of world law was the adoption
Code of Napoleon. A special commission of four leading lawyers under
leadership of Napoleon for a short time improved and
harmonized all applicable laws, regulations and local
customs of France. In 1804, this grand code of laws, consisting of 2281
article was approved under the title of the Civil Code. The main thing in this
code that he asserted the equality of all before the law, freedom of conscience,
the implication of personality and property.
Napoleon himself was well aware of the historical significance of his
legislative activity. "My true glory," he said, "is not that
that I won forty battles. But what cannot be forgotten, what will live
forever is my Civil Code. "
Added 1 year ago
Napoleon's Code has outlived its creator. The empire fell apart, but France
and after it many other states of Europe and America continue
be guided by the legal principles set out in Napoleon's Code
One of the most important events in the history of world law was the adoption of Napoleon's code. A special commission of four leading lawyers under the leadership of Napoleon within a short time improved and brought into line all the laws, regulations and local customs of France. In 1804, this grandiose body of laws, consisting of 2,281 articles, was approved under the title of the Civil Code. The main thing in this code is that it affirmed the equality of all before the law, freedom of conscience, the inviolability of personality and property. Napoleon himself was well aware of the historical significance of his legislative activity. "My true glory," he said, "is not that I won forty battles. But that which cannot be forgotten, that which will live forever — this is my Civil Code." Updated 1 year ago Napoleon's Code outlived its creator. The empire collapsed, but France, and after it many other states of Europe and America, continue to be guided by the legal principles set forth in the Napoleon's code
0 /5000
Determine the language Klingon (pIqaD) Azerbaijani Albanian English Arabic Armenian Afrikaans Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Bosnian Welsh Hungarian Vietnamese Galician Greek Georgian Gujarati Danish Zulu Hebrew Igbo Yiddish Indonesian Irish Icelandic Spanish Kanda Yoruba Chinese Chinese Lappish Spanish Kanda Yoruba Chinese Korean Lahti Khan Korean Chinese Kanhala Chinese Latin American Latin Korean Lahti Lithuanian Macedonian Malagasy Malay Malayalam Maltese Maori Marathi Mongolian German Nepali Dutch Norwegian Estonian Punjabi Persian Polish Portuguese Romanian Russian Sebuano Serbian Sesotho Slovak Slovenian Swahili Sudanese Tagalog Thai Tamil Telugu Ukrainian Urduinian Khimono Khimon Thai Tamil Telugu Urduin Khimon Japanese ) Azeri Albanian English Arabic Armenian Afrikaans Basque Belor Us Bengali Bulgarian Bosnian Welsh Hungarian Vietnamese Galician Greek Georgian Gujarati Danish Zulu Hebrew Igbo Yiddish Indonesian Irish Icelandic Spanish Italian Yoruba Kazakh Kannada Catalan Chinese Chinese Traditional Korean Creole (Haiti) Khmer Lao Maltese Latin Latvian Liider Malagolian Malagolian Malay Latvian Punjabi Persian Polish Portuguese Romanian Russian Cebuan Serbian Sesotho Slovak Slovenian Swahili Sudanese Tagalog Thai Tamil Telugu Turkish Uzbek Ukrainian Urdu Finnish French Hausa Hindi Hmong Croatian Chewa Czech Swedish Esperanto Estonian Javanese Japanese Source: Target:
One of the most important events in the history of world law was the adoption Code Napoleon. The Special Commission of the four largest lawyers under the leadership of Napoleon for a short time and improved in compliance with all applicable laws, regulations and local Customs of France. In 1804, this grandiose laws, consisting of 2281 the article was approved under the name of the civil code. The main thing in this code that he asserted the equality of all before the law, freedom of conscience, the non- the implication of persons and property. Napoleon himself was well aware of the historical significance of its legislative activity. "My true glory, he said, is not whether I won forty battles. But what cannot be forgotten, what will live forever is my civil code". Supplemented with 1 year agoCode Napoleon survived its creator. Empire collapsed, but France, followed by many other countries in Europe and America continue to guided by the legal principles set out in the Code Napoleon
One of the most important events in the history of the right to the adoption
Code Napoleon. A special commission of the four largest lawyers under the
leadership of Napoleon for a short time has improved and
brought into compliance with all applicable laws, regulations and local
customs in France. In 1804, this grand set of laws, which consists of 2281
articles, was approved under the name of the Civil Code. The main thing in this
code that he claimed the equality of all before the law, freedom of conscience,
non-implication of person and property.
Napoleon himself was well aware of the historic significance of their
legislative activities. "My true glory, - he said - not that
I won forty battles. But what can not be forgotten, that will live
forever - this is my Civil Code ".
Supplemented 1 year ago
Code Napoleon survived his creator. Empire disintegrated, but France,
followed by the many other countries of Europe and America continue to
be guided by legal principles laid down in the Code Napoleon
is being translated, please wait ..
Lord one of the most important events in the history of the world was the adoption
code Napoleon. The Special Commission of the largest four jurists under
The Napoleon in a short period of time has improved and
has led in line all the laws, regulations and local
customs France. In 1804, this ambitious set of laws, consisting of 2281
Article, was approved by the Civil Code. The main in this
code that he claimed equality of all before the law, freedom of conscience, not-
labors person and property.
Napoleon himself is well understood the historical importance of its
legislative activity. "My true glory, - he said, - not the
that I have won forty-battles. But then, that may not be forgotten, however, that it would be to live
Forever - this is my civil code ".
supplemented by 1 year ago
Code Napoleon had survived its creator. Empire disintegrated, but France,
and followed by many other states of Europe and America continue to
Guided by the principles set forth in the code Napoleon
is being translated, please wait ..
Napoleon was well aware of his exclusivity, his special being in this world. Even as an unknown artillery lieutenant, he experienced this revelation about himself: "I am always alone among people ... People are so different from me, like the moonlight to the sun."
But finally he was confirmed in this opinion on May 10, 1796. On that day, General Bonaparte attacked the Austrian positions near the town of Lodi on the banks of the Adda River. The only bridge across the river was covered by the 10-thousandth detachment of General Sebotendorf with 20 guns. The enemy defenses seemed invulnerable: Austrian artillery threatened to sweep away anyone who dared to approach the bridge.
This problem was solved by Bonaparte with lightning speed, like a chess two-move.
Bonaparte ordered General Beaumont with a detachment of cavalry to cross the river upstream; at the same time, the French artillery was ordered to concentrate all fire on the Austrian positions at Lodi. Behind the city rampart, which bordered the river, the grenadiers of Augereau were lined up in the attacking column.
The Austrian infantry, forced to hide from artillery fire, withdrew from the bridge for a considerable distance. After waiting for Beaumont to distract Sebotendorf's attention with an attack from the right, Bonaparte led his soldiers into a bayonet attack. The grenadier column swept across the bridge in a whirlwind, took possession of the cannons, then fell on the enemy infantry and put them to flight. The Austrians lost about two thousand people killed and wounded and almost all the artillery. The losses of the French were ten times less.
In the French camp everyone praised the twenty-seven-year-old commander to the skies for the ingenious simplicity of the crushing blow. And Napoleon himself, who by that time had only 13 Vandemiers behind him (on October 5, 1795, when he suppressed the armed uprising of the royalists in Paris with the help of artillery) and the battle of Montenotte (a place in Piedmont, where Bonaparte won his first decisive victory over united by the Austro-Sardinian army of Beaulieu), reacted to what happened in the most serious way: “Only on the evening of the battle at Lodi did I begin to consider myself a man of the highest order, and an ambitious idea fired up in me - to do things that until then I had thought only in minutes fantastic dreams ”.
He was lucky: the heyday of his genius came at a time when it seemed that pipe possibilities no longer existed. The revolution has cleared all barriers to the heights of a career for a wide variety of talents. But the fastest way to the top was provided by the army, which was the soul and vital nerve of the republic. In the late 1790s, it was clear to everyone that the revolution would end in a military dictatorship. There was little to do: a man had to appear who would believe in himself and in his strength enough to turn the war, republic and revolution into simple means for achieving personal success.
And such a person was born at the Battle of Lodi.
Later, an eloquent confession escaped Napoleon's lips: “What gave rise to the revolution? - Ambition. What put an end to it? - Also ambition. And what a wonderful excuse to fool the crowd freedom was for all of us! "
Several years passed, and on the day of Napoleon's proclamation as first consul, Abbot Sieyes addressed the other two heads of the Consulate: “Congratulations, now we have a master. This person knows everything, wants everything and can do everything. "
Indeed, since the time of Caesar, nature has not created a more perfect organism adapted to power over the world. Physical and mental overload for Napoleon, it seemed, did not exist. After spending half a day on his feet, he could jump into the saddle and ride several tens of miles "to rest." Those around him had no reason to question his words when he proudly said that he did not know the limits of his working capacity: “I always work: at lunch, in the theater; I wake up at night to work. Work is my element, I was born and created for work. " Placed in exceptional circumstances, Napoleon could not sleep for several nights in a row, maintaining physical vigor and clarity of thought.
He demanded the same exhausting pace of work from his employees. Therefore, he was by no means joking, saying that his minister should begin to suffer from urinary retention no later than six months after taking office, otherwise he risks establishing himself as a bum. Once, during the consulate, one state meeting dragged on long after midnight. The Minister of War fell asleep, the others nodded, barely holding on to their chairs. “Well, wake up, wake up, citizens! - exclaimed Bonaparte. - Only two in the morning. We must work off the salary that the French people pay us. "
No wonder one of his contemporaries said that in three years of the consulate, he ruled France more than kings in a hundred years.
The non-stop work of Napoleon's mind was based on an amazing memory. By his own admission, in his youth, he knew by heart the logarithms of thirty to forty numbers, as well as “not only the names of all officers in all regiments of France, but also the places where these units were recruited, and where each of them distinguished, and even the political spirit of each of them".
Subsequently, managing the multi-million dollar budgets and huge armies scattered from the Nemunas to Gibraltar, he immediately found the smallest errors in financial and military documents, dotted with columns of numbers, whether it was a matter of a few overspending centimes, two four-inch guns forgotten in Ostend, or two squadrons of 20 1st Horse Jaeger Regiment, sent three years ago to Spain and unaccounted for in the regimental register. Reading well-written military reports gave him a peculiar pleasure. “Your reports on the states read like a beautiful poem,” he once wrote to General Lacue.
In the activities of Napoleon, the combination of painstaking black work with creative power, extraordinary imagination with cold calculation is striking. “I love power, as an artist, as a violinist loves a violin,” he said. - I love power to extract sounds, consonances, harmony from it. The royalist Chateaubriand had no doubt: "He certainly would not have done what he did if it were not for the Muse."
However, all this is not enough. Napoleon knew: "The most desirable thing that immediately puts a person in the first place is the balance of mind or talent with character or courage." Only it gives a person a reliable integrity, makes him unshakable like a rock. In other words, you need to "be square in height, as at the base," where the height is the mind and the base is the will.
It was this “squareness of genius” - an unbreakable will guided by an all-encompassing mind - that conquered people in Napoleon. He could say with satisfaction: "No matter how great my material power was, my spiritual power was even greater: it reached the level of magic." There is not the slightest exaggeration in these words: the effect of his spell was indeed irresistible. Even people of an awkward ten, such as General Vandam, admitted: “This devilish man has such power over me that I myself do not understand. I'm not afraid of God, not a damn thing, and when I come up to him, I'm ready to tremble like a child: he could make me go through the eye of a needle to throw himself into the fire! " Thousands of people saw the bliss of dying in front of Napoleon - and he had the good fortune to be surrounded by friends, many of whom shielded him from bullets or died on the battlefield doing his bidding.
The impact of Napoleon's personality penetrated people "to their liver", it touched upon the deepest recesses of the soul, which a person opens only for meeting with the most intimate. Among the Poles, Napoleon was revered as the messiah sent by Providence to Poland to restore the independent Polish state (later these sentiments would take shape in the mystical teachings of Andrzej Tovianski, where Napoleon would appear as a messenger of God like Christ). These feelings were familiar to the French too. “I knew in my childhood old invalids who could not distinguish him (Napoleon) from the Son of God,” recalled the Catholic writer and mystic Leon Blois. At some moments, the appearance of Napoleon evoked religious delight in the crowd in the full sense of the word. Here is how an eyewitness, General Thiebaud, describes the apotheosis of his "Hundred Days" - a triumphant entry into Paris in 1815: "Those who carried him were like madmen, and thousands of others were happy when they managed to kiss his clothes or just her ... It seemed to me that I was present at the resurrection of Christ. "
The personal "magic" of Napoleon would not have been so effective if he had not been credited with truly great accomplishments. You need to know what France was like before 18 Brumaire and after, in order to understand what devastation the revolution caused in it, and, therefore, what Bonaparte did for the country. Contemporaries paint a picture of complete desolation: the treasury is empty, soldiers are not paid salaries, all roads are broken, bridges threaten to collapse, rivers and canals are no longer navigable, public buildings and monuments are dilapidated, churches are locked, bells are silent, fields are desolate, robberies, poverty and hunger are everywhere ...
Napoleon's first concern as first consul was to return France to her Christian soul, outraged by the revolution. He unmistakably determined what kind of poison the air was saturated with: "The most terrible enemy now is atheism, not fanaticism."
On July 15, 1801, the Concordat was signed, an agreement with the Holy See: the Catholic religion was declared "the religion of the overwhelming majority of the French people", public worship was guaranteed, the Gallican Church was restored in all its rights, and the Pope was again recognized as its head.
With this act, Napoleon at once refuted all the revolutionary atheism of the 18th century. "This is the most brilliant victory over the spirit of the Revolution, and all subsequent ones are only a consequence of this, the main one," Baron Pasquier (French politician (1767-1862), author of the memoirs "History of my time" ("Histoire de mon Temps") , published in Paris in 1893-1895).
On April 18, 1802, a solemn Easter service was held in Notre Dame Cathedral - the first after a nine-year hiatus. The friends of the first consul and the entire army were amazed. The Jacobin atheist generals were especially loudly indignant. “A splendid ceremony, it’s a pity that a hundred thousand killed were not present in order to prevent such ceremonies from happening,” General Pierre Augereau hissed through clenched teeth at the end of the liturgy.
“It was more difficult for me to restore religion than to win the battle,” Napoleon recalled. And yet, “the success of the Concordat showed that Bonaparte was the best in his entourage to guess what was in the depths of their hearts” (Baron Pasquier).
The Catholic Church blessed Napoleon with the lips of the Holy Father, Pius VII: "We must remember that after God, to him, Napoleon, religion is mainly indebted for its restoration ... The Concordat is a Christian and heroic work of salvation."
For the sake of completeness, it should be remembered that this Christian deed was accomplished by a man who said, "I came to the conviction that Jesus never existed." He understood immortality in the ancient sense: “For me, immortality is a trace left in the memory of mankind. It is this idea that prompts great accomplishments. Better not to live at all than not to leave traces of your stay on earth. " This does not mean, however, that Napoleon was an atheist. True, he did not believe well in the existence of any divine principle, but he never denied it - he simply believed that religion had no meaning outside of politics. The significance of the Church, especially the Roman Church, with its enormous political authority, Napoleon understood incomparably better: “Can there be a state order without religion? Society cannot exist without inequality in wealth, and inequality without religion. When one person dies of hunger next to another, fed up, it is impossible for him to agree to this, if there is no authority that tells him: “This is what God wants; it is necessary that here, on earth, there were the poor and the rich, but there, in eternity, it will be different. "
Napoleon did not fight against Christianity and did not accept it. Politically, he used his sacred organization - the Church, but in a spiritual sense - he just walked by. In the depths of his soul, he believed that it is more useful to teach a person geometry than the Law of God. However, the lack of personal faith did not compel him to encroach on the faith of others.
Following the adoption of the Concordat, he forced England to sign the Peace of Amiens (March 25, 1802), which ended the long-term war in Europe. By that time, Napoleon's campaigns had already evoked in his contemporaries the memories of the deeds of the greatest heroes of antiquity - Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar. But Napoleon himself in his declining years considered his best monument not to military victories: “My true glory is not that I won 40 battles: one Waterloo crossed them all. That which will live forever is my Civil Code ”; “My Code is the anchor of salvation for France; the offspring will bless me for him. "
At that time, complete chaos reigned in French law. “Before my Civil Code appeared,” Napoleon recalled, “there were by no means real laws in France, but there were from five to six thousand volumes of various decrees, which led to the fact that judges could hardly conscientiously examine cases and pass sentences ". And so, instead of this juridical hodgepodge, the French received a harmonious, unified code of laws - the fruit of three years of labors by the first consul and the best lawyers in France.
Napoleon's code was based on the principles of natural justice and reason, guaranteeing the equality of all Frenchmen before the law, civil liberty, the sacred character of the family, and the impartiality of the court. Therefore, he had a worldwide influence, as did the revolution. Gradually, all the countries of Europe, as well as many peoples of the world, adopted it. The provisions on private property rights, compensation for damage, and contract law proclaimed by the Code are so fundamental that many of these articles have never been amended over the next 200 years.
The impression made by the Code of Napoleon on contemporaries was enormous. Friends and enemies of the first consul agreed that this is “one of the most beautiful creations of human genius,” in the words of General Marmont. "Bonaparte's victories inspired me more fear than respect," admitted one old minister of Louis XVI. - But when I looked into the Codex, I felt awe ... And where did he get all this? .. Oh, what kind of person did you have in him! Truly, it was a miracle. "
And then, for ten years in a row, Napoleon worked miracles for which descendants are unlikely to ever find a reasonable explanation. He brought France out of revolutionary chaos and brought it back to order. He created a harmonious state, judicial chambers, schools, a powerful, efficient and intelligent system of government. He managed, with the exclusive power of his genius, to compel obedience to thirty-six million subjects in an era when the reverence that once surrounded the throne was dissipated. He made prominent people and commoners, republicans and monarchists, rich and poor, victors and vanquished to think and talk about themselves, connecting his name with the name of Destiny. But most of all he was great in that he created himself, and together with himself created millions of other people who from now on rushed after him beyond the limits of human capabilities. That is why Napoleon, already during his lifetime, acquired the immortality of legend, poetic fiction, soldier's legends and folk tales.
But in this temptation there was also a guarantee of his death.
The misfortune of Napoleon - and of the whole world - was that the creative power of his genius and strength of character were not supported by his moral greatness. “He was as great as possible without virtue,” Tocqueville said. And according to Chateaubriand's observation, his character was spoiled by monstrous pride and incessant affectation.
Accustomed to standing apart from the crowd, to feel like a happy exception from the common human lot, Napoleon early got used to seeing people as simple instruments of his will. Probably, he was sincere when he said that he did not wish them harm, but that did not stop him from publicly declaring his contempt for the lives of millions of people and calmly sacrificing them for his interests, military and political benefits. His throne was erected on the bones of at least three million people who died in his wars, almost half of whom are French. In his justification, one can only say that the collision of two Europes - monarchical and revolutionary - was inevitable, and hardly even a man like him was able to prevent it. In any case, the French were already grateful to him for putting an end to the civil war, which took no less lives to the grave.
From the outside it might seem that Napoleon crossed the line of good and evil. This is how Madame de Stael saw him: “He was neither kind, nor evil, nor merciful, nor cruel, in the same sense as other people. Such a creature, having no such thing, could, in fact, neither inspire nor experience sympathy; it was more or less than a man: his appearance, mind, speech - everything bore the stamp of some alien nature. "
In some ways, however, Madame de Stael was mistaken: it cannot be said that this transcendental being was not familiar with ordinary human compassion. “Napoleon was not only not angry, but was naturally kind,” testifies the person who had the opportunity to observe him from day to day, the last secretary of Napoleon, Baron Fein. “After every battle, his first priority was to take care of the wounded. He walked around the field himself, ordered to select friends and foes alike; he himself watched that dressings were made to those to whom they had not yet been done, and that everything, to the last, was transferred to outpatient points or to the nearest hospitals. I entrusted some of them especially to my life-surgeon ... and then carefully asked him about the smallest details during treatment, about the properties of the wound, about the hope of recovery and about the danger - I wanted to know about everything. "
Segur recalls how, after the Battle of Borodino, Napoleon's horse, circling the field littered with dead bodies, touched the wounded man's hoof, and he groaned. The emperor burst into abuse at the staff, because they did not care about the wounded. “Someone, to calm him down, noticed that it was a Russian soldier. But the emperor vividly objected that after the victory there are no enemies, but only people! "
In the end, this trait of Napoleon's character will be confirmed by Alexander I: “They do not know him and are judged too harshly, perhaps even unfairly ... When I got to know him better, I realized that he was a kind person.”
But natural kindness and compassion did not develop in him into love for people. The demonic nature of his genius prevailed over the makings of mercy. Moreover, the colossal figure of Napoleon is set off by the personality of his main enemy - Emperor Alexander I, the last politician, who was given the opportunity to build the European world on the basis of Christian love.
Europe in 1799-1815
Option 1
Modernization is:
a) replacement of defective parts of the mechanism with serviceable ones;
b) the processes of renewal of a traditional society, embarking on the path of movement towards a modern society;
c) the use of models to rationalize the methods of constructing structures.
Indicate the name of the period from 1799 to 18 May 1804 in the history of France:
a) Directory;
b) Empire;
c) Consulate.
Indicate the name of a systematized single legislative act regulating any homogeneous area of social relations:
a) the code;
a) the opening of the Vienna Congress;
b) the overseas campaign of the Russian army;
c) Consulate in France (beginning);
d) the Battle of Waterloo;
e) the declaration of a continental blockade;
f) the entry of the allies into Paris.
Indicate the year of the conclusion of the treaties of peace and alliance between Russia of Alexander I and Napoleonic France:
"Battle of the Nations" is the name of the battle under (choose the correct answer):
a) Austerlitz;
b) Borodin;
c) Waterloo;
The main goals of the participants of the Vienna Congress of 1814-1815. consisted in:
c) legal.
Determine the sequence of events:
a) "One Hundred Days" by Napoleon Bonaparte (beginning);
b) the campaign of the "Great Army" in Russia;
c) the abdication of Emperor Napoleon I;
d) the formation of the Holy Union;
e) the coronation of Napoleon;
Indicate in what year the "Battle of the Nations" took place:
The Treaty of Peace and Alliance between Russia of Alexander I and Napoleonic France was concluded in:
a) Austerlitz;
b) Tilsite;
d) Paris;
The main goals of the participants in the Vienna Congress of 1814-1815. consisted in:
a) help peoples striving to free themselves from foreign oppression or influence;
b) to prevent the brewing of revolutions;
c) restore the order that existed before the French Revolution at the end of the 18th century.
Crossword. Political figures.
Russian emperor in 1801-1825 2. French Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1814-1815. 3. Austrian Foreign Minister in 1809-1821.
Option 1.
B C A C-d-b-e-a-d C E B 1. Napoleon. 2. Kutuzov. 3. Wellington
Option 2.
C B C E-b-e-c-a-d G B Bv 1. Alexander. 2. Talleyrand 3. Metternich.
Europe in the era of Napoleon Bonaparte
What place did the "Vendee" occupy in the history of the French Revolution of the 18th century?
What kind of religious policy did the revolutionary governments of France pursue?
Think how justified is the remark of the American historian A. Mahan: "Great Britain, rather than France, acted provocatively." Justify your position.
What are the main transformations of the period of the French Revolution in the 18th century?
Identify the characteristics of the Consulate regime.
What activities of Napoleon were aimed at securing support of various groups of the French population for the Consulate regime?
Why did Napoleon decide to declare France an empire?
What is the significance of the Napoleonic Codes?
What are the cultural achievements during the period of the First Empire?
In his declining years, Napoleon said: “My true glory is not that I won 40 battles. But what cannot be forgotten, what will live forever - this is my Civil Code. " How right was Napoleon in assessing his deeds? Justify your position.
What was enshrined in the Criminal Code of 1810? How did it regulate the relationship between entrepreneurs and employees?
Using the map, identify the changes that have occurred in the international position of European states as a result of the war of the Third Coalition.
Under what circumstances was Poland divided?
Imagine how the peace treaty and the alliance agreement were beneficial for France, and what - for Russia.
What are the reasons for Napoleon's victory over the Third and Fourth Coalitions?
What is the Continental System?
What were the consequences of the establishment of the continental system for France and England?
What changes took place in the states of Europe, captured during the Napoleonic Wars or became dependent on France?
Using the map, tell us about the course of the Napoleonic Wars in 1803-1809.
Did the wars of the First Empire differ in nature from the wars of the Directory?
Why did Napoleon start a war with Russia?
Can it be considered that Russian diplomacy in 1812 played a significant role in the collapse of Napoleon's military plans?
Do you agree with the words of the French historian that “Napoleonic Europe was primarily the Europe of military camps and battlefields. Almost all those who represented her died on the plains of Russia. " Give reasons for your position.
Why did the First Empire in France fall?
To what extent have the victorious powers been able to implement the tasks set for themselves at the Vienna Congress?
Based on the analysis of the map, indicate what contradictions and possible conflicts were laid as a result of the post-war structure of Europe.
Do you agree with the French historian's assessment of the results of Napoleon's reign: “He sacrificed to his ambition a whole generation of people, 6-7 million human lives, of which a fourth were French”? Justify your position.
The personality of Napoleon aroused great interest in. Find poems dedicated to this outstanding French military leader and statesman. What image does the Russian poet recreate?
Using the Internet resources, prepare a selection of maps "Europe in the era of the Napoleonic wars". What information can be obtained about this period based on the analysis of the maps?
Read a fragment from Napoleon Bonaparte's note: “Let them try to curtail, disgrace, distort my actions, it will still be difficult to completely destroy me. The historian of France will still tell what happened during the empire, and he will be forced to allocate some of the exploits to my lot, and this will hardly present him any difficulty: the facts speak for themselves, shine like the sun. I killed the monster, clarified the chaos. I curbed the revolution, ennobled the nation and established the strength of the supreme power. I stirred up competition, rewarded all kinds of merit, and pushed the limits of fame. All this is worth something! At what point will they attack me, which the historian could not defend? Will they scold my intentions? He will explain them. My despotism? The historian will prove that it was necessary due to the circumstances. Will they say that I have embarrassed freedom? He will prove that liberty, great riots, knocked at our door. Will I be accused of passion for war? He will prove that he has always attacked me. Or in pursuit of a worldwide monarchy? He will show that it came from a coincidence of unexpected circumstances, that my enemies themselves led me to him. Finally, will my ambition be blamed? A! The historian will find in me a lot of ambition, but the greatest, the highest! I wanted to establish the kingdom of the mind and give scope to all human abilities. And here the historian will have to regret that such ambition remained unsatisfied! .. Here, in a few words, my whole story! " Do you think the imaginary historian will defend or blame Napoleon? Argument your position.
Imagine what criticisms might appear in a journalist's article "Europe after the Congress of Vienna".
When was Napoleon proclaimed consul? Why is the period of Napoleon's consulship called a dictatorship?
What groups of the population relied on Napoleon's dictatorship? Has anything changed since the establishment of the empire?
Compare Ingres's paintings "Bonaparte, First Consul" and "Napoleon on the Imperial Throne." With what artistic means did the painter emphasize the change in the position of Napoleon?
Fill in the table "Domestic policy of Napoleon" and draw a conclusion about Napoleon - a statesman. "
Remember what an industrial revolution is. What were the difficulties of the industrial revolution in France at the beginning of the 19th century? Suggest measures that could eliminate them.
Make a description of Napoleon according to the plan: appearance; historical conditions and social environment in which views, life values were formed; upbringing and education; character traits and personality traits manifested in various circumstances; activity, its goals and means of achievement. Use additional sources of information.
What in the French Constitution of 1799 testifies to the dictatorial nature of the power of the first consul?
What can be said on the basis of the Civil Code of Napoleon about the role of property in society and the family? How is it determined?
What wars was revolutionary France waging and what were their results? In what campaigns did Napoleon's leadership talent appear?
Consider why many European sovereigns wanted to fight revolutionary and then Napoleonic France.
What were the goals of Napoleon in foreign policy and what were the nature of the wars he waged?
Make a chronological table "Napoleonic Wars". Which European countries by the beginning of 1812 were dependent on and in alliance with France?
How did the Napoleonic wars differ from the dynastic wars of the 18th century?
What is a Continental Blockade? What were its goals, methods of implementation and results?
How did the Napoleonic wars affect the internal situation of European states?
What is the significance of the Napoleonic Wars?
Find in the additional literature evaluations of his personality and activities by contemporaries and historians. What do you yourself think of this historical figure?
What were the consequences of Napoleon's domestic policy for France?
Do you think it is natural that the Napoleonic wars ended in complete defeat? What contributed to this?
What positive and negative significance did the era of the Napoleonic wars have in European history? Give examples.
What were the results of the Napoleonic wars for the European powers? What was the fate of Napoleon after the Allies entered Paris?
Do you think Napoleon had a real opportunity to restore his power?
Tell us about the work of the Vienna Congress.
Why did the winning countries allow France to participate in the negotiations practically on an equal footing?
Fill in the table "Main decisions of the Vienna Congress" according to the scheme: disputable issues, the essence of disagreements, results.
What is legitimism? How did the European monarchs understand the legitimate order?
What is a Sacred Union and for what purpose was it created?
In which countries did constitutions appear in 1815, and which ones did not? Try to explain why.
On behalf of a representative of one of the countries participating in the Vienna Congress, prepare a declaration outlining the requirements of that country.
Explain which years and why historians identify as the period of the Napoleonic Wars.
Compare the images of Napoleon Bonaparte in the paintings of A. Gros "Napoleon on the Arcole Bridge" and "The Coronation of Napoleon I and Empress Josephine." Which aspects of Napoleon's personality are shown in one picture, and which in the other?
What position did Napoleon Bonaparte take after the 18th Brumaire coup?
What do you think, what policy Napoleon Bonaparte pursued in the sphere of property relations?
Why did the French population generally support Napoleon's acceptance of the title of emperor?
Why do you think Napoleon himself highly appreciated the significance of the Civil Code he published?
What do you think was the meaning of the continental blockade?
What are the reasons for the crisis of the Napoleonic empire?
Why was England perceived as the main enemy of the empire?
What is the novelty of Napoleon's Civil Code? What is the effect of his traditionalism? Why did Napoleon consider the Civil Code to be his main achievement?
What problems do you think France faced during the reign of Napoleon Bonaparte?
What were the reasons for the war with Russia?
What problems did France face in the conquered territories?
Who was at the head of the anti-French coalition troops?
Whose dynasty reigned in France?
What do you think is the reason for such a triumphant return of Napoleon?
Which countries have benefited the most from the victory over France?
What is the reason for Napoleon's triumphant return to power in 1815?
Why do you think the Bourbons were not popular in France?
State the name of this person:
Until now, historians often remember him as "the little corporal";
He came to power on 18 Brumaire and lost it;
It was he who was the first person of France during the First Empire;
During the coronation, he snatched the crown from Pope Pius VII and placed it on his head;
The favorite horse of this emperor was called Marengo;
It was to him that Beethoven dedicated the Heroic Symphony, but, disappointed, destroyed his dedication;
By his order, roads, hospitals, schools were built on the Elbe;
The Minister of Police Pi Napoleone, Fouche, is credited with the following words: "This is more than a crime, it is ...". What did Fouche consider more than a crime?
Reflecting at the end of his life about what really is his glory, Napoleon Bonaparte came to the conclusion that these were not 40 battles he won. He brought real glory to Napoleon ...
Talleyrand called it "a more terrible weapon than slander."
Back in the 18th century. this dress was an officer's uniform.
Its Prussian military theorist Karl von Clausewitz called the continuation of politics by other means.
It was in this country that Napoleon first encountered partisan methods of warfare.
Capture of Toulon 1793 Suppression of the royalist uprising in Paris in October 1795 Egyptian expedition in 1799 Defeat of the Great Army in 1812 Phrase "From the great to the ridiculous - one step." Name the author of the theory behind these events.
This Marshal of Napoleon founded the dynasty of Swedish kings.
What, according to Napoleon, follows after the order and counter-order?
This "battle of the three emperors" Napoleon considered the most remarkable victory.
The Greater Eagle badge was the highest of the five degrees of this Napoleonic order.
The symbols of the victories of the English fleet are Aboukir, Cap Finisterre and this.
For this invention, indispensable to the military, François Apper was awarded the title "Benefactor of Humanity" by Napoleon.
The biggest battle of the seventh coalition war took place near this Belgian village.
This bridge reminds Londoners of the victory over Napoleon.
That is how many days Napoleon had a chance to reign after returning from Elba.
This quartermaster of Napoleon, after the overthrow of the emperor, took up literary activity, but wrote under a pseudonym.
It is known that YU. Gagarin from a senior lieutenant in the Air Force immediately became a major. History also knows a sharper leap when the captain immediately became a general. Who is this captain and what kind of troops did he belong to?
80. Napoleon Bonaparte.
81. Joseph Fouche is credited with the words: "This is more than a crime, it is a mistake."
82. Civil Code. Napoleon was very proud to be the author of this document, which remains relevant today.
83. In his life Talleyrand survived 5 governments, prospered with everyone, betrayed everyone. He already knew that the language was given to the diplomat in order to hide his thoughts. And he firmly believed that there is a weapon of terrible slander. It is truth.
84. Indeed, the tailcoat, which we are used to seeing on musicians, conductors, diplomats, in the 18th century was an officer's uniform: its floors were comfortable for riding and hiking.
85. War. Major General of the Prussian army von Clausewitz knew firsthand about it. Twice he fought with the troops of Napoleon himself. How can you not pass on invaluable experience to descendants? Barely won back, he began to work on the fundamental work "On War". The book is still up to date.
86. In Spain. Benefactor Napoleon wanted only good for the peoples of Europe. In Spain, he was going to abolish the Inquisition, in Russia - serfdom. So what then? Instead of bread and salt, his valiant troops faced partisans.
87. The author of this theory is the hero of the novel, Rodion Raskolnikov. This is, of course, about Napoleon. "The real one, who is allowed to do everything, smashes Toulon, makes a massacre in Paris, forgets the army in Egypt, spends half a million people in the Moscow campaign and gets off with a pun in Vilna."
88. The Bernadotte dynasty is one of the youngest in Europe. Its founder, Marshal Bernadotte, went from a simple soldier of the Great French Revolution to the “son” and heir of the childless Swedish king. In memory of his youth, he wore a tattoo on his chest all his life: "Death to kings!"
89. Disorder.
90. "The radiant sun of Austerlitz has risen!" - read the military bulletin. Two emperors in the "Battle of the Three Emperors" in 1805 were utterly defeated. The Austrian and Russian troops did exactly what Napoleon envisioned.
91. It was assumed that the heroes of honor worthy of wearing the image of "Bonaparte - the first consul" on their chests would be a little more than 8 thousand. But the ranks of heroes grew and grew. The Order of the Legion of Honor with the profile of the founder and the corrected inscription on the badge "Napoleon, Emperor of the French" received about 50 thousand distinguished ones.
92. On the mountain to the French was born in England Horatio Nelson, on the mountain they were 12 years old came to the fleet. In early August 1798. he defeated the French at Aboukir, in 1799. kicked them out The last blow struck in 1805 at Cape Trafalgar.
93. François Apper invented canned food to supply the army. However, Napoleon was right, thanks to the inventor on behalf of all mankind. Summer residents, tourists, travelers, just gourmets liked canned food no less.
94. Great powers sort things out. And from the innocent Belgian village of Waterloo, no stone remained on a stone. Well, Alexander I did not forget about her: he ordered to issue 2,000 rubles from the treasury for restoration. The Russian villages devastated by Napoleon were rebuilt on their own.
95. The unremarkable bridge bears a glorious name in honor of Wellington's greatest victory over Napoleon I. It is called Waterloo Bridge.
96. 1815 "Corsican monster" landed in the Bay of Juan; emperor in triumph Paris. Nobody but the French liked his return. The allies again took up arms against the enemy of the human race, and he ruled for only 100 days.
97. Napoleon's quartermaster Henri Marie Bayle reached Moscow with the Great Army and, fortunately for future readers, returned alive to France. Becoming a writer Stendhal, he will create both the "Parma Cloister" and "Red and Black" ... And he will write about Moscow: "The beauty of the palaces surpasses everything that Paris knows."
98. Artillery branch. The captain's name is Napoleon Bonaparte.
Great French Revolution of the 18th century
One of the leaders of the Jacobins. Publisher of the newspaper "Friend of the People". 2 (horizontal). Marquis. Political figure. He commanded the National Guard. Member of the Revolutionary War in North America. 2 (vertical). The name of the king of France, executed in January 1793 3. Philosopher, educator and economist. As controller general (1774-1776), he carried out a series of progressive reforms, which were later canceled. 4. Minister of Finance in 1777-1781. and in 1789-1790. He tried to save the state from financial collapse with partial reforms.
Marat. (horizontal) Lafayette. (vertical) Louis. Turgot. Necker.
195 years ago, on May 5, 1821, an event took place, about which one of the leading writers of that time, François Chateaubriand, said: "The most powerful breath of life that ever revived human flesh went to God."
In the novel "Crime and Punishment" by Fyodor Dostoevsky, the main character Rodion Raskolnikov tries to unravel the secret of Napoleon: "... makes a massacre in Paris, forgets the army in Egypt, spends half a million people in the Moscow campaign ... and he, after death, is given idols ... "Indeed, how and why can this happen? Why is a man who hated the French still so honored in France?
Hatred of subjects
But he really hated his future compatriots: "The French flooded my homeland, my Corsica, and drowned it in blood ... My cradle resounded with the screams of the dying ... Suppressed by the oppression of a French boot, my fellow citizens suffer." So he spoke at the very beginning of his career, in 1789, when nothing yet foreshadowed his takeoff. But what he said about the French already in captivity, on the island of St. Helena, when life was almost over: "In essence, they are nothing more than serviceable suppliers of rope dancers, pastry chefs and fashion to the whole of Europe."
At the same time, there is not the slightest doubt that the "dancers and pastry chefs" should be grateful to him through the grave: "The day will come when history will tell what France was when I ascended the throne, and what it became when I prescribed my laws Europe. My true glory is not that I won 40 battles. What will remain for centuries is my Civil Code. "
This day has come, and it turned out that there is, in general, nothing to boast about. On the one hand, military humiliation and mountains of corpses. On the other hand, the vaunted code is "fair and exemplary." He thinned out the population of France no less effectively than the Napoleonic Wars. The trick is that the new law required an equal share for all heirs. The peasants, who made up 85% of the country's population, did not want to split up their already small plots. And they responded to the law in a peculiar way - the number of children in their families fell by exactly half.
Mistakes, miscalculations, disasters and obvious crimes against one's own people - this is how, if you wish, you can depict the biography of Napoleon. All of this will be true. But few will convince. Because the only thing he really succeeded in was creating a myth about himself, great, beloved and almost infallible. "Napoleon is one of the greatest people on Earth of all times and peoples" - hardly anyone dares to dispute this statement. But how was it created and introduced into consciousness?
Sometimes outright erasures. So, Napoleon preferred to forget his first manuscript, "On Corsica". Especially this: "Every people has the right to rebel against their monarchs and organize revolutions." But his work "Discourse on Happiness" was often quoted, which spoke about the benefits of labor and the dangers of luxury: "Why does a slacker have everything, and a worker - nothing?" It worked for ordinary people.
Sometimes ancient history was used. For example, being in Egypt, Napoleon expressed a desire to spend the night in the pyramid of Cheops - according to rumors, Alexander the Great himself once did this. This made an impression on the educated already.
Even the little things were not overlooked. So, when Napoleon realized that he was beginning to go bald, he deliberately began to cut his hair short, for which he received the nickname Skinhead in the army. He turned this weakness into strength, constantly reminding him that Caesar, for example, was bald. And he achieved success: "The French love greatness in everything, including in appearance." Indeed, very soon they began to compare him with Caesar.
Finding flatterers
But most often they used a mechanism that many years later would be called PR. Then few people understood what the real power of public opinion was. Napoleon was probably one of the first. In 1797 he founded The Courier of the Italian Army, a newspaper for soldiers, the main theme of which was: "Our commander's organizational skills allow him to see farther than anyone else!" For civilians, he published another, with a characteristic title: "The newspaper of Bonaparte and respectable people."
This was not enough. Napoleon often lamented: “There are no numbers of flatterers around me. But among them there are few of those who would be able to praise with dignity and decent. " The search for those who know how has turned almost into a mania. The emperor's breakfasts resembled a branch of the Academy of Fine Arts - they were constantly attended by the artists François Gerard and Jacques-Louis David, the general director of the museums Vivant Denon and the writer, “Grand Master” of the University Louis de Fontan. Each time Napoleon asked the latter: "Well, sire, do you have a poet for me?" When such was found, the emperor was taken carefully and skillfully to court him. So, meeting with Goethe, Napoleon said: "Here is a great man!" And he awarded the poet the Order of the Legion of Honor. Of course, he became one of his most ardent supporters and defenders.
The same thing happened with the composer Joseph Haydn. Napoleon told everyone that he was a great admirer of the “Viennese genius”. During the storming of Vienna in 1809, the emperor informed Haydn in advance that not a single bomb would fall into his house. This fact, as well as the composer's tears of gratitude, instantly became the property of the press. The fact that Haydn died of nervous stress after 2 weeks did not bother anyone - enlightened Europe was conquered.
For those who are simpler, they have invented, no longer honoring, a real religious cult. On behalf of the emperor, Cardinal Giovanni Caprara "finds" a new saint, whose name - suddenly - Napoleon. And, what a coincidence, the day of his memory falls on August 15 - Bonaparte's birthday. It is clear that without intervention from above, this simply could not happen. And therefore, an article is immediately introduced into the Imperial Catechism, which teaches children: "The Emperor must obey, since God himself made him the minister of his power on Earth."
It is sometimes said that at the end of his life Napoleon was cunning. As an example, they cite his statement: "The more I live, the more I become convinced of the impossibility of creating something lasting with the help of brute force." Say, this is how the one who created his empire with bayonets and cannons sings. But the empire fell.
And the image of the "greatest man" remained. Precisely for the reason that there was no place for "brute force" during its creation. Napoleon was right here too. It seems like forever.
