The tradition of killing brothers in the Ottoman Empire. The cruel customs of the Ottoman Empire - how the brothers of the sultans lived

Ottoman Empire, officially called the Great Ottoman State, existed for 623 years.

She was a multinational state, the rulers of which observed their traditions, but did not deny others. It is for this good reason that many neighboring countries have allied with them.

In Russian-language sources, the state was called Turkish or Tours, and in Europe it was called Port.

The history of the emergence of the Ottoman Empire

The great Ottoman state arose in 1299 and lasted until 1922. The first sultan of the state was Osman, after whom the empire was named.

The Ottoman army was regularly replenished with Kurds, Arabs, Turkmens and other nations. Anyone could come and become a member of the Ottoman army, only by pronouncing the Islamic formula.

The land obtained as a result of the seizure was allocated for agriculture. Such plots contained a small house and garden. The owner of this site, which bore the name "timar", was obliged to appear to the sultan at the first call and fulfill his requirements. He had to appear to him on his own horse and fully armed.

The riders did not pay any taxes, as they paid with "their own blood."

In connection with the active expansion of borders, they needed not only a cavalry army, but also an infantry, and therefore they created one. Osman's son Orhan also continued to expand the territory. Thanks to him, the Ottomans ended up in Europe.

There they took little boys about 7 years old to study with the Christian peoples, who they taught, and they accepted Islam. Such citizens, who grew up from childhood in such conditions, were excellent warriors and their spirit was invincible.

Gradually, they formed their own fleet, which included warriors of different nationalities, they even took pirates there, who willingly converted to Islam and waged active battles.

What was the name of the capital of the Ottoman Empire?

Emperor Mehmed II, having seized Constantinople, made it his capital and named it Istanbul.

However, not all battles went smoothly. At the end of the 17th century, there was a series of failures. For example, The Russian Empire took the Crimea from the Ottomans, as well as the Black Sea coast, after which the state began to suffer more and more defeats.

In the 19th century, the country began to quickly weaken, the treasury began to empty, agriculture was poorly and inactive. When defeated during the First World War, an armistice was signed, Sultan Mehmed V was abolished and left for Malta, and subsequently for Italy, where he lived until 1926. The empire fell apart.

Empire territory and its capital

The territory expanded very actively, especially during the reign of Osman and Orhan, his son. Osman began to expand the borders after he came to Byzantium.

The territory of the Ottoman Empire (click to enlarge)

Initially, it was located on the territory of modern Turkey. Further, the Ottomans reached Europe, where they expanded their borders and seized Constantinople, which was later called Istanbul and became the capital of their state.

Serbia was also annexed to the territories, as well as many other countries. The Ottomans also joined Greece, some islands, as well as Albania and Herzegovina. This state has been one of the mighty for many years.

Rise of the Ottoman Empire

The epoch of the reign of Sultan Suleiman I is considered to be flourishing. During this period, there were many trips to Western countries, thanks to which the borders of the Empire were significantly expanded.

Due to the active positive period of his reign, the Sultan was nicknamed Suleiman the Magnificent. He actively expanded the borders not only in Muslim countries, but also annexing the countries of Europe. He had his own viziers who were obliged to inform the Sultan about what was happening.

Suleiman I ruled for a long time. His idea for all the years of his reign was the idea of \u200b\u200buniting the lands, just like his father Selim. He also planned to unite the peoples of the East and West. That is why he led his position quite straightforwardly and did not turn away from the set goal.

Although the active expansion of borders took place in the 18th century, when most of the battles were won, however, the most positive period is still considered the era of the reign of Suleiman I - 1520-1566

Rulers of the Ottoman Empire in chronological order

Rulers of the Ottoman Empire (click to enlarge)

The Ottoman dynasty ruled for a long time. Among the list of rulers, the most prominent were Osman, who formed the Empire, his son Orhan, and Suleiman the Magnificent, although each sultan left his mark on the history of the Ottoman State.

Initially, the Ottoman Turks, fleeing from the Mongols, partially migrated towards the West, where they were in the service of Jalal ud-Din.

Further, part of the remaining Turks was sent to the possession of the padishah of Sultan Kei-Kubad I. Sultan Bayazid I, during the battle of Ankara, was captured, after which he died. Timur divided the Empire into parts. After that, Murad II took over its restoration.

During the reign of Mehmed Fatih, the Fatih law was passed, which meant the killing of all those who interfere with the rule, even siblings. The law did not last too long and was not supported by everyone.

Sultan Abduh Habib II was overthrown in 1909, after which the Ottoman Empire ceased to be a monarchical state. When Abdullah Habib II Mehmed V began to rule, during his reign, the Empire began to actively collapse.

Mehmed VI, who ruled briefly until 1922, until the end of the Empire, left the state, which finally collapsed in the 20th century, but the preconditions for this were back in the 19th century.

Last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire

The last sultan was Mehmed VI, who was 36th in succession... Before his reign, the state was going through a significant crisis, so it was extremely difficult to restore the Empire.

Ottoman Sultan Mehmed VI Vahidaddin (1861-1926)

He became a ruler at the age of 57. After the beginning of his reign, Mehmed VI dissolved parliament, but the First World War greatly undermined the activities of the Empire and the Sultan had to leave the country.

Sultans of the Ottoman Empire - their role in government

Women in the Ottoman Empire did not have the right to rule the state. This rule existed in all Islamic states. However, there is a period in the history of the state when women actively participated in government.

It is believed that the female sultanate came about as a result of the end of the campaign period. Also, in many ways, the formation of a female sultanate is associated with the abolition of the law "On succession to the throne."

The first representative was Khyurrem Sultan. She was the wife of Suleiman I. Her title was Haseki Sultan, which means "Most beloved wife." She was very educated, knew how to conduct business negotiations and respond to various messages.

She was an advisor to her husband. And since he spent most of his time in battles, she took on the main responsibilities of government.

Fall of the Ottoman Empire

As a result of numerous failed battles during the reign of Abdullah Habib II Mehmed V, the Ottoman state began to actively collapse. Why the state collapsed is a difficult question.

But, we can say that the main moment in its collapse was precisely the First World War, which put an end to the Great Ottoman state.

Descendants of the Ottoman Empire in our time

In modern times, the state is represented only by its descendants, identified on the family tree. One of them is Ertogrul Osman, who was born in 1912. He could have become the next sultan of his empire if it hadn't disintegrated.

Ertogrul Osman became the last grandson of Abdul Hamid II. He is fluent in several languages \u200b\u200band has a good education.

His family moved to live in Vienna when he was about 12 years old. There he was educated. Ertogul is married for the second time. The first wife died without giving him children. His second wife was Zaynep Tarzi, who is the niece of Ammanullah, the former king of Afghanistan.

The Ottoman state was one of the greats. Among its rulers, several of the most outstanding can be distinguished, thanks to which its borders expanded significantly in a fairly short period of time.

However, the First World War, as well as many lost defeats, caused serious damage to this empire, as a result of which it collapsed.

Currently, the history of the state can be seen in the film "The Secret Organization of the Ottoman Empire", where in summary, but many moments from history are described in sufficient detail.

Any empire is based not only on military conquests, economic strength and powerful ideology. An empire cannot exist for a long time and develop effectively without a stable system of inheritance of supreme power. What anarchy in the empire can lead to can be traced to the example of the Roman Empire during its decline, when practically anyone who proposed more money the Praetorians, the Metropolitan Guard. In the Ottoman Empire, the question of the order of coming to power was regulated primarily by the Fatih law, cited by many as an example of cruelty and political cynicism.

Fatih's law of succession to the throne came about thanks to one of the most famous and successful sultans of the Ottoman Empire , Mehmed II (reigned 1444-1446, 1451-1481). The respectful epithet "Fatih", that is, the Conqueror, was given to him by admiring subjects and descendants as a recognition of his outstanding services in expanding the territory of the empire. Mehmed II really did his best, having conducted numerous victorious campaigns both in the East and in the West, primarily in the Balkans and Southern Europe. But his main military action is the capture of Constantinople in 1453. Byzantine empire by that time, it had actually ceased to exist, its territory was controlled by the Ottomans. But the fall of the great city, the capital of a monumental empire, was a landmark event that marked the end of one era and the beginning of the next. The era in which the Ottoman Empire appeared new capital, renamed Istanbul, and she herself became one of the leading forces in the international arena.

However, there are many conquerors in the history of mankind, much less than great conquerors. The greatness of the conqueror is measured not only by the scale of the lands he conquered or the number of enemies killed. First of all, it is a concern to preserve the conquered and turn it into a powerful and prosperous state. Mehmed II Fatih was a great conqueror - after many victories, he thought about how to ensure the empire's stability in the future. First of all, this required a simple and clear system of inheritance of power. By that time, one of the mechanisms had already been developed. It consisted in the principle on which the life of the Sultan's harem was built - "one concubine - one son." Sultans very rarely entered into an official marriage, usually concubines gave birth to children. So that one concubine does not receive too much influence and does not start intrigues against sons from other concubines, she could have only one son from the Sultan. After his birth, she was no longer allowed to have intimacy with the master. Moreover, when the son reached a more or less sane age, he was appointed governor in one of the provinces - and the mother had to accompany him.

Brothers Are Most Dangerous in Politics

Nevertheless, difficulties with the succession to the throne still remained - the sultans were not limited in terms of the number of concubines, so they could have many sons. Taking into account the fact that every adult son could be considered a full-fledged heir, the struggle for future power often began even before the death of the previous sultan. In addition, even having received power, the new sultan could not be completely calm, knowing that his brothers were capable of revolting at any moment. Mehmed II himself, having finally come to power, solved this issue simply and radically - he killed his half-brother, a potential rival in the struggle for power. And then he issued a law according to which the sultan, after accession to the throne, has the right to execute his brothers in order to preserve the stability of the state and to avoid future rebellions.

Fatih Law in the Ottoman Empire formally operated for more than four centuries, until the end of the existence of the sultanate, abolished in 1922. At the same time, one should not make a fanatic out of Mehmed II, who allegedly bequeathed to his descendants to mercilessly destroy all brothers. The Fatih law did not say that each new sultan is obliged to kill his closest relatives. And many sultans did not resort to such drastic measures. However, this law gave the head of the empire the right to ensure the political stability of the entire state through such intra-family "bloodletting". By the way, this law was not a cruel whim of the maniac sultan: it was approved by the legal and religious authorities of the Ottoman Empire, who considered that such a measure was justified and expedient. Fatih law was often used by the sultans of the Ottoman Empire. So, during his accession to the throne in 1595, Sultan Mehmed III ordered to kill 19 brothers. However, the last case of the application of this extraordinary legal norm was noted long before the fall of the empire: in 1808, Murad II, who came to power, ordered the assassination of his brother, the previous Sultan Mustafa IV.

Fatih Law: Laws and Series

It is unlikely that such a large number of non-Turkish, that is, those who did not study the acts of Mehmed II in our time, would remember about the Fatih law in our time. school course history, population, if not for the notorious series "The Magnificent Century". The fact is that the writers made Fatih's law one of the main plot springs of the entire story. According to the scenario, Alexandra Anastasia Lisowska, the famous concubine and beloved wife of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, began to weave her intrigues against other concubines and the eldest son of Sultan Suleiman. At the same time, her main activity was directed just against the Fatih law of succession to the throne. The logic was as follows: Sultan Suleiman had an eldest son, born to another concubine. Consequently, it was he who had the highest chances of taking the throne of his father. In this case, the new sultan could use the law of Fatih and kill his brothers, the sons of Hurrem.

Therefore, Khyurrem Sultan allegedly sought to get Suleiman to repeal this law. When the sultan did not want to abolish the law even for the sake of his beloved wife, she redirected her activities. Unable to abolish the law as a threat to her sons, she decided to abolish the root cause - and began to intrigue against the eldest son Suleiman in order to discredit him in the eyes of his father, and, if possible, destroy him. This activity led to the strengthening of the influence of Alexandra Anastasia Lisowska, which thus became the ancestor of the tradition that is known in the history of the Ottoman Empire as the "Women's Sultanate".

The version as a whole is interesting and not devoid of logic, however, it is just an artistic version. Khyurrem Sultan is not an activist of the "Women's Sultanate", this phenomenon, characterized by the great influence of women in the harem on the political situation in the country and even on the supreme power, arose half a century after her death.

In addition, it is again worth remembering that the Fatih law did not provide for the inevitable reprisal of the Sultan over the brothers. It is characteristic that in some cases the law was circumvented: for example, in 1640, before his death, Sultan Murad IV ordered to kill his brother. However, the order was not carried out, since in the event of its implementation there were no direct heirs in the male line. True, the next sultan went down in history as Ibrahim I the Mad, so the big question is whether the order was not followed correctly - but that's another story ...

Alexander Babitsky

For almost 400 years, most of the territories of Southeast Europe, Turkey and the Middle East were under the Ottoman Empire. It was founded by brave Turkic equestrians, but the empire soon lost much of its original strength and vitality, in a state of functional dysfunction that kept many secrets.

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Fratricide

In the early periods, the Ottoman sultans did not practice the principle of primogeniture, when the eldest son is the only heir. Therefore, all existing brothers claimed the throne at once, and the losers then went over to the side of enemy states and for a long time brought many problems to the victorious sultan.

When Mehmed the Conqueror tried to conquer Constantinople, his own uncle fought against him from the walls of the city. Mehmed solved the problem with his usual ruthlessness. After accession to the throne, he simply ordered the murder of male relatives, including not sparing his baby brother. Later he issued a law that took the lives of more than one generation: “And the one of my sons who will head the Sultanate must kill his brothers. Most ulema allow themselves to do so. So let them continue to act like this. "

From that moment on, each new sultan occupied the throne, killing all of his male relatives. Mehmed III tore out his beard out of grief when his younger brother asked not to kill him. But he “did not answer a single word,” and the boy was executed along with 18 other brothers. The sight of their 19 wrapped bodies being driven through the streets was said to have made all of Istanbul cry.

Even after the first round of murders, the rest of the Sultan's relatives were also dangerous. Suleiman the Magnificent watched silently from behind a screen as his own son was strangled with a bowstring; the boy had become too popular in the army so that the sultan could not feel safe.

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In the photo: Kafes, Kuruçeşme, İstanbul

The principle of fratricide was never popular among the people and among the clergy, so it was quietly abolished after the sudden death of Sultan Ahmed in 1617. Instead, potential heirs to the throne were kept in Istanbul's Topkapi Palace in special rooms known as "Kafes" ("cells").

One could spend one's entire life imprisoned in Kafes under the constant supervision of the guards. Imprisonment was generally luxurious in terms of conditions, but with very strict restrictions. Many princes went crazy with boredom, or went into debauchery and drunkenness. When the new sultan was brought to the Overlord's Gate so that the viziers could testify to him of their loyalty, this could be the first time he went out on the street in several decades, which did not very well affect the ability of the new ruler.

In addition, the threat of liquidation from the ruling relative was constant. In 1621, the Grand Mufti refused Osman II's request to strangle his brother. Then he turned to the chief judge, who made the opposite decision, and the prince was strangled. Osman himself was later overthrown by the military, who were supposed to get his surviving brother out of Kafes by dismantling the roof and pulling him on a rope. The poor man spent two days without food or water, and was probably too distraught to notice that he had become a sultan.

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Silent hell in the palace

Even for the sultan, life in Topkapi could be extremely boring and unbearable. Then it was considered that it was indecent for the Sultan to speak too much, so a special sign language was introduced, and the ruler spent most of the time in complete silence. Sultan Mustafa considered this completely unbearable, and tried to cancel such a ban, but his viziers refused. Mustafa soon lost his mind and threw coins from the shore to fishes to spend.

Intrigues in the palace were constantly and in large numbers, as viziers, courtiers and eunuchs fought for power. For 130 years, women from the harem had a great influence, this period became known as the "female sultanate". Dragoman (chief translator) has always been an influential person, and has always been a Greek. Eunuchs were divided along racial lines, with the black chief eunuch and the white chief eunuch often bitter rivals.

At the center of this madness, the Sultan was supervised wherever he went. Akhmet III wrote to the Grand Vizier: “If I go from one room to another, 40 people line up, when I need to put on my pants, I do not feel the slightest comfort in this environment, so the squire must fire everyone, leaving only three or four people to I could be calm. " Spending their days in complete silence under constant surveillance and in such a toxic atmosphere, several Ottoman sultans of the last period lost their minds.

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The power in the Ottoman Empire completely controlled both the life and death of its subjects. Moreover, death was quite commonplace. The first courtyard of Topkapi Palace, where petitioners and guests gathered, was a terrible place. There were two columns with severed heads and a special fountain in which only executioners could wash their hands. During periodic total "cleansing" in the palace, in this courtyard, whole mounds of cut off tongues of the guilty ones were piled, and a special cannon fired every time another body was thrown into the sea.

It is interesting that the Turks did not specially create a corps of executioners. This work was carried out by the palace gardeners, who divided their time between executions and the cultivation of delicious flowers. They decapitated most of their victims. But the shedding of blood of members of the royal family and high-ranking officials was prohibited, they were strangled. As a result, the head gardener was always a huge, muscular man who was able to strangle any vizier at any moment.

In the early periods, the viziers prided themselves on their obedience, and any decision of the Sultan was accepted without complaint. The famous vizier Kara Mustafa greeted his executioner very respectfully with the humble words “Let it be so”, kneeling with a noose around his neck.

In the following years, the attitude towards this kind of business has changed. In the 19th century, the governor Ali Pasha fought so hard with the people of the Sultan that he had to be shot through the floorboards in his house.

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There was one way for the faithful vizier to escape the sultan's wrath and stay alive. Beginning with late XVIII century, the custom arose that the condemned grand vizier could avoid execution by defeating the chief gardener in a race through the palace gardens.

The convict was brought to a meeting with the head gardener, and after an exchange of greetings, the vizier was handed a cup of frozen sorbet. If the sherbet was white, it meant that the sultan had granted respite. If it is red, then the execution should take place. As soon as the vizier saw the red sorbet, he had to immediately run away.

Viziers ran through the palace gardens between shady cypresses and rows of tulips, while hundreds of eyes watched them from the windows of the harem. The convict's goal was to get to the fish market gate on the other side of the palace. If the vizier reached the gate earlier than the head gardener, he was simply exiled. But the gardener was always younger and stronger, and, as a rule, was already waiting for his victim at the gate with a silk cord.

However, several viziers managed to escape execution in this way, including Hachi Salih Pasha, the last one to participate in this deadly race. After running away with a gardener, he became governor of one of the provinces.

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Torn apart by the viziers

In theory, the grand vizier was the second person after the sultan, but it was he who was executed or thrown to be torn apart by the crowd whenever things went wrong. Under Sultan Selim the Terrible, there were so many great viziers that they always began to carry their wills with them. Once one of them asked Selim to let him know in advance if he was going to be executed, to which the Sultan cheerfully replied that there was already a queue to replace him.

The viziers also had to reassure the people of Istanbul, who had a habit of coming to the palace and demanding execution in case of any setbacks. I must say that people were not afraid to storm the palace if their demands were not met. In 1730, a ragged soldier named Patrona Ali led a crowd into the palace, and they managed to take control of the empire for several months. He was stabbed to death after trying to get the butcher to lend him money for the ruler of Wallachia.

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Perhaps the most gruesome part of Topkapi Palace was the imperial harem. It numbered up to 2,000 women - wives and concubines of the Sultan, most of them were bought or kidnapped as slaves. They were kept locked up in a harem, and for a stranger, one glance at them meant immediate death. The harem itself was guarded and ruled by the chief Black Eunuch, whose seat was one of the most powerful in the empire.

Very little information has come down to us about the conditions of life in the harem and about the events taking place within its walls. It was believed that there were so many concubines that the sultan never even saw some of them. Others were so influential that they took part in running the empire. Suleiman the Magnificent fell madly in love with a concubine from Ukraine, whose name was Roksolana, married her, and made her his chief adviser.

Roxolana's influence was so great that the grand vizier ordered the kidnapping of the Italian beauty Giulia Gonzaga in the hope that she could capture the sultan's attention. The plan was thwarted by a brave Italian who burst into Julia's bedroom and took her away on horseback just before the kidnappers arrived.

Kesem Sultan had even greater influence than Roksolana, she effectively ruled the empire as regent of her son and grandson. But Turhan's daughter-in-law did not give up her positions without a fight, and Kyosem Sultan was strangled by a curtain by Turhan's supporters.

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Blood tax

In the early Ottoman period, there was devshirme ("blood tax") - a type of tax in which boys from Christian subjects of the empire were taken into the service of the empire. Most of the boys became janissaries and slave soldiers who were always at the forefront of all Ottoman conquests. The tax was collected irregularly only when the available number of soldiers was not enough in the empire. As a rule, boys aged 12-14 were taken from Greece and the Balkans.

Ottoman officials gathered all the boys in the village and checked their names against baptismal records from the local church. Then the strongest were selected, at the rate of one boy for every 40 households. The selected children were sent on foot to Istanbul, the weakest were left to die on the side of the road. Was preparing detailed description each child so that it can be tracked when escaping.

In Istanbul, they were circumcised and forcibly converted to Islam. The most beautiful or the smartest went to the palace, where they were trained so that they could join the elite part of the Sultan's subjects. These guys could eventually reach very high ranks, and many of them became pashas or viziers, like the famous Grand Vizier from Croatia Sokollu Mehmed.

The rest of the boys joined the Janissaries. They were first sent to work on farms for eight years, where they learned Turkish and grew up. At the age of 20, they officially became janissaries - the elite soldiers of the empire and iron discipline and ideology.

There were exceptions to this tax. It was forbidden to take from the family an only child or children from men who served in the army. For some reason, orphans and Hungarians were not taken. Residents of Istanbul have also been excluded on the grounds that they "have no sense of shame." The system of such tribute ceased to exist at the beginning of the 18th century, when the children of the Janissaries were allowed to become Janissaries.

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Slavery remained the main feature of the Ottoman Empire until the late 19th century. Most of the slaves were from Africa or the Caucasus (the Adygs were especially appreciated), and the Crimean Tatars provided a constant flow of Russians, Ukrainians and even Poles. It was believed that Muslims legally could not be enslaved, but this rule was quietly forgotten when the recruitment of non-Muslims stopped.

The famous scholar Bernard Lewis argued that Islamic slavery appeared independently of Western slavery, and, therefore, had a number of significant differences. For example, it was easier for Ottoman slaves to gain freedom or take high positions. But there is no doubt that Ottoman slavery was incredibly brutal. Millions of people died from raids or from

exhausting work in the fields. This is not even mentioning the castration process used to obtain eunuchs. As Lewis pointed out, the Ottomans brought millions of slaves from Africa, but there are now very few people of African descent in modern Turkey. This speaks for itself.

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In general, the Ottoman Empire was quite tolerant. Apart from devshirme, they made no real attempt to convert their non-Muslim subjects to Islam, and they made Jews feel welcome when they were expelled from Spain. The subjects were never discriminated against, and the empire was practically in control of the Albanians and Greeks. But when the Turks themselves felt threatened, they could act very cruelly.

Selim the Terrible, for example, was deeply concerned that the Shiites, who denied his authority as a protector of Islam, could be Persia's double agents. As a result, he marched through the east of his empire, slaughtering livestock and killing at least 40,000 Shiites.

As the empire weakened, it lost its former tolerance, and minorities had a hard time. TO XIX century massacres have become more and more common. In the terrible year of 1915, just two years before the collapse of the empire, 75 percent of the Armenian population was massacred. Then about 1.5 million people died, but Turkey still refuses to fully recognize these atrocities as the Armenian genocide.

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Conclusion

This was the article Secrets of the Ottoman Empire. TOP 10 interesting facts ... Thanks for attention!

Executions played an important role in the administration of justice in the Ottoman Empire. Many statesmen paid with their lives for their mistakes. However, the activity of those deserves special attention.

Executioner vacancy requirements

One of the main requirements for the executioners was dumbness and deafness... This explains their legendary ruthlessness. They simply did not hear the cries of their victims and remained, literally deaf, to their suffering.

The rulers of the Ottoman state began to resort to the services of executioners from the 15th century. Usually they were chosen from among the Croats or Greeks. In addition, from the janissary detachment of bostanji, five people were allocated to carry out executions during military campaigns. The executioners had their own boss who was responsible for their activities. The chief of the "civilian" executioners, in turn, was subordinate to the commander of the bostanji. Among other things, his duties included the execution of statesmen.

Potential executioner candidate, began his practice of "backing master" as an assistant from one of his more experienced colleagues, until he comprehended all the intricacies of his craft. Executioners knew the anatomy of the human body no worse than doctors and could deliver their victim as maximum suffering, and quickly send to the next world without any torment.

It is also interesting that the executioners never married and, after death, seemed to completely disappear from society, which would experience a certain moral discomfort if descendants of people of this profession were present in their ranks.

The ways in which the executioners were executed

The order to kill this or that guilty representative of the nobility came from the head of the bostanji, who for this summoned the chief executioner. The Ottoman state paid great attention to the position in society occupied by a person sentenced to death. For example, if the grand vizier was executed, then he was usually strangled, and simple janissaries chopped off the head with an ax... One of the examples of such an ax, by the way, is on display in the Topkapi Museum.

If a member of the ruling dynasty was sentenced to death, then a bowstring was used to kill him, with which he was strangled. It was a very “pure” death without the slightest trace of blood, which was due to members of the “chosen caste”.

Civil servants were usually beheaded with a sword. However, not all those condemned to death could get off so easily: those convicted of theft, murder, piracy and robbery were subjected to painful execution by hanging on a hook by the rib, impaling or even crucifying.

Where were the executions carried out?

The main prisons during the Ottoman Empire were Edikul, Tersane and Rumeli Hisar. In Tersan, convicted to galleys, prisoners of war and sentenced to hard labor were kept. Those who were sentenced to relatively short terms were placed Edikul or Rumeli Hissar. The ambassadors of those states with which the Ottomans were at war were imprisoned here.

In the Topkapi Palace, between the Babus-Salam towers, there was a secret passage to the premises where the executioners were located and where the condemned Ottoman nobles were taken. The last thing they saw in their life was the courtyard of the Sultan's palace.

It was here that the famous Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha was strangled. In front of Babus-Salam, the executioners put the heads of the people they had executed on the columns for the edification of the public. Another place of execution was the area near the fountain in front of the palace. It was in it that the executioners washed their bloody swords and axes.

The accused, whose cases were pending, were kept either in the Balykhane castle or in Edikule. They recognized their fate by the color of the sorbet that the guards brought them. If the color was white, then this meant justification, and if red, then a conviction and the death penalty. The execution took place after the condemned to death drank his sherbet. The body of the executed was thrown into the Sea of \u200b\u200bMarmara, the heads were sent to confirm the fact of the execution to the Grand Vizier.

It is known from history that the suspects and the accused in medieval Europe were subjected to various kinds of cruel torture; there is even a torture museum in Amsterdam.

There was no such practice in the Ottoman state, since Islam forbids torture. But, in some cases, for political reasons or in order to demonstrate a certain lesson to society, those who committed serious crimes were tortured. One of the most common forms of torture was blows with sticks on the heels - "falaka".

Those who extorted money and property from people, committed robberies, killed government officials, undermined the foundations of state power, and were also subjected to torture before being executed.

The strength of the Ottoman sultans lay in the fact that when they issued their decrees - "firmans", all without exception, had to obey them and no one dared to disobey, since everyone knew that the disobedient would face serious punishment.

Ildar Mukhamedzhanov

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1. How did the shehzade ascend the throne?

The documented history of the Turkish state begins with Mete Kagan (Oguz Khan. 234-174 BC), who ruled the great Empire of the Huns. Therefore, many traditions of the later period were called “Oguz custom”. According to this legal custom, everything in the state belongs to the Dynasty, and the government according to the Turkish tradition takes place through the joint participation of the members of the Dynasty.
There was no formal system for selecting the Ruler written out by law. Each of the heirs had the right to ascend the throne. Therefore, the next ruler was usually the most ambitious and most capable. Despite the fact that this method of inheritance ensured the transfer of power to the most worthy heir, it also caused a lot of troubles.

Western engraving depicting Valide Sultan and Shehzade

2. How were the shehzade raised?

They began to study theoretical knowledge in the palace. Famous scholars were invited as mentors to the shehzadeh. As a foreign language, they certainly studied Arabic and Persian.

In the third courtyard of Topkapi, under the supervision of ich oglans shehzadeh, they learned to ride a horse and use weapons. For practical application of the studied theory, shehzade was sent to the sanjaki.

Scene from the shehzade's daily life in the third courtyard of Topkapi, miniature from Surname-i Vehbi

3. When did the shezhade cease to be sent to the sanjaki?

After the uprising of Shehzade Baezid during the time of Qanuni Sultan Suleiman, they began to send only the heir to the throne shehzade. The son of Selim II Murad III and the son of Murad III Mehmed III were sent as governors to Manisa.

While the heirs to the throne were in the sanjaks as governors, the rest of the shehzade were under control in the palace. For stability in the state, as soon as the heir to the throne, who ascended the throne, had offspring, the rest of the shehzade were executed.

Since the time of Sultan Mehmed III, who ascended the Ottoman throne in 1595, the heirs to the throne did not go to Sanjaki, they also remained to live in Topkapi.

Sultan Ahmed I did not execute his younger brother Mustafa when he became Sultan in 1603 because he had no heirs of his own. When they appeared with him, government officials did not allow Mustafa to be executed. Thus, the fratricide, which had lasted for more than two centuries, for the benefit of the state, was put to an end, and all the heirs lived under the supervision of Topkapi.

Manisa miniature

4. “Viceroyalty on paper” - how is it?

During the reign of Mehmed III, the tradition of sending all shehzade governors to the sanjaki was interrupted, but the heirs to the throne - Veliakht Shehzade - continued to go to the sanjaki.
In the subsequent period, the most senior heir to the throne, although bi even on paper, was certainly appointed governor. Only instead of them the so-called mutesselim (representatives) left as governors. The son of Sultan Ibrahim Shehzadeh Mehmed was appointed governor of Manisa when he was 4 years old. Since Sultan Mehmed IV, the tradition of appointing shehzade governors has stopped even on paper.

Qanuni Sultan Suleiman checks the things of Shehzade Baezid (drawing by Munif Fehmi)

5. What sanjaks were allocated for the shehzade?

In the Ottoman Empire, shehzadeh, during the reign of their father, were sent by governors to the regions, next to them was an experienced statesman - lala.
Thanks to the governorship, the shehzadeh learned the art of government. The main sanjaks for the shehzade are Amasya, Kutahya and Manisa. Shehzadeh usually went to these three regions, but, of course, the possible sanjaks were not limited to them. According to a study by Khaldun Eroglu, throughout Ottoman history, the shehzade were governors in the following sandjaks:
Bursa, Inonu, Sultanhisar, Kutahya, Amasya, Manisa, Trabzon, Shebinkarahisar, Bolu, Kefe (modern Feodosia, Crimea), Konya, Akshehir, Izmit, Balıkesir, Akyazy, Mudurnu, Tekidili, Kastamonu (Mudurnu), Antalya ), Chorum, Nowhere, Osmanjik, Sinop and Chankyry.

Sultan Mustafa III and his shehzade

6. What were the duties of the lala under the shehzade?

Before the period of the Empire, a mentor was assigned to the shehzade, who was called "atabey". During the time of the Empire, the same tradition continued, but the mentor was called lala.
When the shehzade went to sanjak, a mentor was assigned to him, lala was responsible for managing the sanjak and teaching the shehzade. The letters sent from the palace to the sanjak were addressed to the lala and not to the shehzade. Lala was also responsible for the upbringing of the shehzadeh and it was he who was obliged to stop any attempts of the heir to oppose his father.
The position of the lala was preserved even when the shehzade was no longer sent to the sadjaks. During that period, lala was selected from the palace staff.

7. Where did the shehzade live in the palace?

During the reign of Mehmed IV in 1653, male members of the Dynasty, in addition to Padishah, lived in a 12-room building called "Shimshirlik", its other name is. The building had everything for the comfort of the shehzade, but it was surrounded by high walls and boxwood (shimshir in Turkish). The doors in Shimshirlik were closed with a chain on both sides, black harem agas were on duty around the clock, both in front of and behind the door. In 1756, French merchant Jean-Claude Flash compared the building to a secure cage.
Shehzade, who were kept in Shimshirlik, had no right to go outside and communicate with anyone. In case of illness, doctors were called to Shimshirilik, and they carried out treatment there.
In the 18th century, the life of the Shehzade in Shimshirlik became easier. During the reign of Osman III from 1753 to 1757, Shimshirlik was slightly rebuilt, the height of the outer wall was reduced, and more windows were made in the building. When Padishah went to the palace in Besiktash or some other palace, he began to take the shehzade with him.

Sultan Ahmed III and his shehzade

8. What has the forced life of Shehzadeh locked up in the palace led to?

Shimshirlik is the result of the Padishahs no longer wanting to kill their brothers and nephews. But sometimes these shehzade were used by the Sultan's malicious enemies for blackmail.
In addition to official ceremonies, the padishahs usually did not see the shehzadeh, who lived in the Cage. The heirs were not particularly educated. As a result, the inconspicuous Padishahs are in power. Especially in the second half of the 17th century, some shehzdade ascended the throne straight from Shimshirlik, due to the lack of any education and minimal knowledge of the world, they experienced great difficulties, gaining power, their actions were completely directed by statesmen.
From the point of view of today, the fratricide that lasted for 2 centuries (especially for the very young shehzade) plunges us into horror. But all events should be assessed in their historical outline. In order to avoid fratricide, there had to be a clear system of succession to the throne. It appeared only in the 17th century, when the elder shehzade was the direct heir. By legalizing fratricide in early period History The Ottoman Empire occupies a special place in Turkish history. It was thanks to this law that the Empire managed to withstand 6 centuries.

Sultan Ahmed III with his heirs in the palace in Ayvalik (detail from Levny's miniature)

9. When did the last execution of the shehzade take place?

For the first time in the history of the Ottoman Dynasty, Ahmed I did not execute his brother Mustafa, but fratricide was not immediately abolished. After this incident, there were a few more exceptions.
During his reign, the son of Ahmed I, Osman II, ordered the execution of his younger brother Shehzade Mehmed, who was only a couple of months younger than him. Further, Murad IV, who ascended the throne, was also forced to go the same way, because he could no longer cope with harem conspiracies. Although Mehmed IV tried to execute his brothers, Valide Sultan and other government officials prevented this. After the failed attempt at fratricide by Mehmed IV, with one exception, the era of the "Law of Fatih" came to an end.

10. What happened to the shehzade children?

Shehzadeh, who lived in Shimshirlik, were served by concubines and harem ages. It was impossible for the Agam to see each other in the Shehzade alone. They lived in the Shimshirlick building on the first floor. The heirs met all their needs within the walls of the Cage. They could enter into an intimate relationship with any concubine they liked, but they could not have children. If a concubine accidentally became pregnant, she had an abortion. Some still managed to keep the child and raise him outside the palace.
Shehzade was also prohibited from growing a beard. The beard was a symbol of power, therefore, Shehzade, who ascended the throne, began to grow a beard at a special ceremony called "irsal-i dashing" (literally: letting go of the beard)