Vertical structure of the waters of the World Ocean. Lecture: Structure and Water Masses of the World Ocean

Spatial changes in the hydrochemical characteristics of water traced in horizontal and vertical directions are closely related to the circulation and the hydrological structure of the waters of the World Ocean. This connection finds the expression that surface, intermediate and deep water, differing hydrological characteristics, differ also (and sometimes sufficiently sharply) content of biogenic and other elements, oxygen regime, pH, alkalinity and other hydrochemical parameters. The use of hydrochemical data in the analysis of the origin and distribution of various types of water, as is known, is widely used in the practice of oceanographic studies.

Factors that determine the formation of the hydrological structure of the ocean depending on the latitudinal climatic zones, the total circulation of water and the characteristics of the vertical distribution of water, are simultaneously factors, under the action of which the hydrochemical structure of the ocean is created. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that in the formation of a hydrochemical structure, the biological processes belong great importance (for example, the development of phytoplankton). Their effects, especially in surface layers, complicates the dependence of the hydrochemical characteristics from general hydrological conditions.

In the vertical hydrochemical structure of the ocean, as well as during the hydrological unit, usually allocated three zones (or layer): Surface, intermediate and deep. The three-layer vertical hydrochemical structure is due to a significant change in all hydrochemical characteristics vertically and their unidirectional stroke in each of the zones. Generally, these three zones can be described:

1. Surface layer - within its limits there is a photosynthetic zone and the formation of organic matter and the most intensive mineralization processes occurs. It is released by reduced and variable concentrations of biogenic elements, sometimes dissolved with 2, high oxygen content, maximum pH values. The role of the surface layer in the formation of hydrochemical features of water and, therefore, the hydrochemical structure is exceptionally large. Here the basis of the hydrochemical composition is laid, which, when changing the circulation processes, stirring, lifting and lowering water, biochemical processes, causes many typical hydrochemical indicators of water of different origin.

2. Intermediate layerOn the contrary, it is characterized by an increase in the concentrations of biogenic elements and dissolved with 2, a decrease in the oxygen content to a minimum and a decrease in pH. The intermediate layer is important in that it takes place for individual types of water, which leads to the redistribution of the hydrochemical properties of the ocean water, the transfer of biogenic elements, oxygen and other components of the chemical composition. The water of the intermediate layer contributes to the exchange of substance in the ocean.

3. Deep layer - Changes in all hydrochemical characteristics are relatively small, the concentration of dissolved oxygen, the content of biogenic elements varies in different ways - nitrogen and phosphorus is slightly reduced or remains unchanged, and silicon increases, the pH increases.

Vertical hydrochemical structure, keeping its fundamental basis, manifests itself in different ways latitudinal zones each of the oceans. In all areas, changes in the quantitative content and vertical distribution of oxygen and biogenic elements are noted.

1. B. subarctic zone Hydrochemical differences in layers are most weakly pronounced, there is a very high content of dissolved oxygen and minimal biogenic elements. The water of this zone, penetrating south at depths, enrich the intermediate and deep layers of other zones with oxygen.

2. B. northern subtropical zone The distribution of hydrological indicators, including dissolved oxygen and silicon in the layers, is more pronounced.

3. In the waters tropical and Equatorial Zones Further exacerbation of the boundaries between the layers can be traced, the distribution of dissolved oxygen in the surface layer is complicated, the oxygen minimum layer is clearly released. In the intermediate layer, the silicon and phosphorus content significantly increases.

As already noted, the complication of the hydrochemical structure of water is associated with the activation of biological and biochemical processes in the surface layer and the penetration of the aqueous masses with other properties in the intermediate layer.

Regional features of the vertical hydrochemical water structure

AT Atlantic Ocean The following factors affect:

a) The effect of Upwelling (Water Rise) on the distribution of biogenic elements and oxygen in the surface layer in North-West and South-West Africa.

b) the introduction of intermediate subarctic and subnutrctic water, which creates additional layers of a minimum and a maximum of dissolved oxygen at various depths in tropical latitudes.

c) The reduced silicon concentration in the intermediate layer is associated with the penetration of subarmed silicon and Mediterranean waters.

d) the water of the depth layer of the Atlantic Ocean is less rich in biogenic elements than in other oceans, since the intense horizontal and vertical exchange favors aligning their concentrations.

AT Indian Ocean The hydrochemical structure of water is largely different from the structure of the water of the Atlantic Ocean. This is most clearly manifested in equatorial, tropical and subtropical latitudes.

a) Only some quantitative differences in the concentrations of biogenic elements are traced in the south of the Indian Ocean.

b) The surface layer is very clearly expressed in the monsoon area of \u200b\u200bthe Indian Ocean. A sharp increase in phosphorus content is largely determined by high productivity within the upper 50-100 m. The change in the more powerful summer monsoon to decrease the phosphorus content in the photosynthetic zone. Changes in concentrations of dissolved oxygen and biogenic elements are traced almost up to 3000 m (sometimes even more), which determines the lower boundary of the intermediate layer. The feature of the Indian Ocean is also the fact that the water of the intermediate layer is rich in silicon both in the northern and in southern latitudes.

AT Pacific Ocean The main zonal features of the hydrochemical structure are kept in most of its districts.

a) The most significant deviations are observed in the eastern parts of the ocean. They are associated with the penetration of colder waters under the influence of oriental border flows into subtropical and tropical latitudes, with coastal appendication processes, leading to elevated content of biogenic elements, and as a result, the formation of very productive districts. Here in the surface and partially in the intermediate layers, gradients of hydrochemical characteristics increase. In the east of the equatorial zone, the system of subsurface flows rising into relatively small depths and reinforcing the density separation of water creates noticeable differences in oxygen mode of biogenic elements already within the upper 50-meter layer. Penetration into this area of \u200b\u200bwater of various origins, including and rising from depth, leads to a high content of biogenic elements, especially phosphorus, the concentration of which at a depth of 100 m can exceed 2 μg-at / l. With lifting water, a decrease in the power of the surface layer towards the shore to 75-100 m is also connected. It may exceed 150 m in removal from the coast.

b) the subnatrotic zone is limited to the position of the zones of subtropical and equatorial convergence. The lowering of water in the convergence zones creates certain differences in the distribution of density and hydrochemical characteristics in the north and south. In the north, this lowering penetrates to the depths of 400-700 m, in the south - over 1000-1200 m.

c) you can distinguish the differences between the Sanctarctic and Antarctic zones. If in the subnutrctic zone, the intermediate layer of the hydrochemical structure is expressed quite clearly and is characterized, perhaps, even greater variability of the concentrations of dissolved oxygen and biogenic elements than the surface, then in the Antarctic zone, the intermediate layer is extremely small changes in concentrations and is almost no different from the deep.

The latitudinal zonality of the hydrochemical structure of the World Ocean, at the same time, does not exclude significant differences in the distribution of hydrochemical characteristics between the central and peripheral areas of the ocean reflecting circumcontinental zonality . These differences are mostly manifested in the surface layer and affect both the absolute values \u200b\u200bof the hydrochemical characteristics and on their temporary variability.

Daily variability The hydrochemical characteristics on which biological processes affect, covers the surface layer of photosynthesis. In low-productive areas, the burling of oxygen and biogenic elements may vary. The impact of changes in the synoptic scale (the passage of cyclones and anticyclones) is estimated at 20% of the measured hydrochemical characteristics.

Seasonal variability It is traced not only in the entire surface layer, but also in the upper part (and sometimes deeper) intermediate layer. It is most expressed in the zones of intensive convective mixing (water polar and moderate latitudes), in monsoon areas, in the East Equatorial zone of the Pacific Ocean. For the habitat conditions of organisms and the bioproduction process, the role of seasonal changes in hydrochemical characteristics in the surface layer is especially large. The connection of these changes with the latitudinal features of the hydrochemical structure in the ocean is clearly traced. In moderate and high latitudes, seasonal changes in the illumination of biogenic elements, temperature and water dynamics are limited by the development of phytoplankton. The growing season here continues from 1 to 7 months. The basic mass of phytoplankton during this period lives and produces in a relatively thin upper water layer (up to 50-75 m), limited to the bottom of the heap of the density jump, arising from the heating of surface waters. As a result of the vital activity of phytoplankton, the content of biogenic elements is significantly reduced compared to the foresecting period. In certain areas, it becomes as small that it almost completely limits the development of phytoplankton. However, as a result of the autumn-winter cooling of surface waters, the seasonal layer of the jump destroys, convective stirring captures a deeper compared to the warm periods of the year water layers - up to 200-500 m, characterized by a high content of biogenic elements. This determines the leveling of the concentrations of biogenic elements within the 200-260-meter layer and, consequently, an increase in their content in the fotic layer. By the beginning of the next vegetation period, phytoplankton again turns out to be quite well equipped with nutrients. So, in a highly productive area about. Yu. George in the sea of \u200b\u200blivestock The amount of phosphorus and silicon during the growing season in the summer warmer layer (~ 50 m) is an average of 1.4 and 2-3 μg-at / l, respectively. Low silicon content in the first half of the growing season limits the development of phytoplankton. In autumn and in winter, convective mixing captures aqueous thickness of about 200 m, increasing the phosphorus content to 2.2, and silicon to 20 μg-AP / L in the upper layer. In the deep sea part of the Bering Sea, for example, the content of biogenic elements in the fotic layer due to the autumn-winter convective stirring increases from 0.5 to 2.6 μg-at p / l and from 7.14 to 35 μg-at Si / l.

Unlike regards of moderate and high latitudes, in equatorial-tropical regions due to the lack of a clearly pronounced change of seasons, the vertical structure of water within the surface layer retains its main features throughout the year. Dynamic and light conditions here are favorable for the development of phytoplankton all year round, the growing season covers 12 months. There is a constant consumption of biogenic elements, which is not compensated by their regeneration, although quite fast. The same powerful factor in the delivery of biogenic elements, as convective mixing, is missing here. The fotic layer turns out to be depleted nutrients; The neoplasm of the organic matter is sharply weakened. For example, in the western part of the tropical area of \u200b\u200bthe Atlantic Ocean south of the equator, the concentration of nitrogen, phosphorus and silicon remains at a very low level during the entire year - on average 0.5, respectively; 0.2 and 2.6 μg-at / l. And only in the zones of coastal upwelling, partially equatorial divergence, the rise of surface water leads to the formation of areas rich in nutrients and, as a result, highly productive.

The interannual variability of hydrochemical characteristics can reach 10-20 and even 50% of the values \u200b\u200bof hydrochemical characteristics and is associated with the general change in the ocean mode under the action of large-scale ocean oscillations and the atmosphere.

Reasons that violate equilibrium: flows of tides and population change of atmospheric pressure Wind coastline Water drain from sushi

The world ocean is a system of communicating vessels. But their level is not always and not everywhere the same: on one latitude above the Western shores; On one meridian rises from the south to the north

Circulation systems horizontal and vertical wicked mass transfer is carried out in the form of a vortex system. Cyclonic whirlwinds - the mass of water moves counterclockwise and rises. Anticyclonic vortices - the mass of water moves clockwise and lowered. Both movements are generated by front atmospheric perturbations.

Convergence and divergence convergence - the convergence of water masses. The ocean level rises. Pressure and water density increase and it is lowered. Divergence - divergence of water masses. The ocean level decreases. It occurs with the rise of the depth water. http: // www. YouTube. COM / Watch? V \u003d DCE. Myk. G 2 J. Kw.

Vertical stratification The upper sphere (200 -300 m) a) the upper layer (several micrometers) c) layer of wind exposure (10 -40 m.) C) layer of temperature jump (50 -100 m.) D) Seasonal circulation penetration layer and temperature variability The oceanic flows capture only the aquatic masses of the upper sphere.

The deep sphere does not reach the bottom of 1000 m.

The properties and dynamics of ocean waters, the exchange of energy and substances both in the world ocean and between the oceanosphere and the atmosphere are greatly dependent on the processes that determine the nature of our entire planet. At the same time, the world ocean itself has an extremely strong impact on planetary processes, i.e., on those processes with which the formation and change in the nature of the whole globe is connected.

The main ocean fronts on the position almost coincide with atmospheric. The importance of the main fronts is that they delimit the warm and high-headed sphere of the World Ocean from Cold and Low-Sole. Through the main fronts inside the ocean thickness, the properties between low and high latitudes occur and the final phase of this exchange is completed. In addition to the hydrological fronts, the ocean climatic fronts isolated, which is especially important, since the climatic fronts of the ocean, having a planetary scale, emphasize the general picture of the zonality of the distribution of oceanic characteristics and the structure of the dynamic water circulation system on the surface of the world's ocean. They also serve as the basis for climatic zoning. Currently, within an oceanosphere, there are quite a variety of fronts and frontal zones. They can be considered as borders of waters with different temperatures and salinity, flows, etc. The combination in the space of the aqueous masses and the boundaries between them (fronts) forms the horizontal hydrological structure of water of individual areas and the ocean as a whole. In accordance with the law of geographic zonality, the following most important types are distinguished in the horizontal structure of water: Equatorial, tropical, subtropical, subarctic (subogenous) and subnutrctic, arctic (polar) and antarctic. Each horizontal structural zone has a respective and own vertical structure, for example, an equatorial surface structural zone, an equatorial intermediate, equatorial deep, equatorial bottom and vice versa, in each vertical structural layer, horizontal structural zones can be distinguished. In addition, more fractional divisions are allocated within each horizontal structure, for example, Peru-Chilean or California structure, etc., which, ultimately, causes the allotion of the waters of the world's ocean. The boundaries of the separation of vertical structural zones are border layers, and the most important types of water horizontal structure ocean fronts.

· Vertical Water Structure Ocean

In each structure, the aquatic masses in various geographic regions have different properties in different geographic regions. Naturally, the Aleutian islands, or off the coast of Antarctica, or at the equator, the water thickness is different in all its physical, chemical and biological characteristics. However, the same type of aquatic masses associates the commonality of their origin, similar conditions for transformation and distribution, seasonal and long-term variability.

Surface water masses are most susceptible to hydrothermodynamic influence of the entire complex of atmospheric conditions, the city of particular the annual movement of air temperature, precipitation, winds, humidity. When transferring currents from the fields of education to other areas, surface water is relatively quickly transformed and acquired new qualities.

Intermediate waters are formed mainly in the zones of climatically stationary hydrological fronts or in the seas of the Mediterranean type of subtropical and tropical belts. In the first case, they are formed as the collapsed and relatively cold, and in the second - both warm and salty. Sometimes an additional structural association is distinguished - subsurface intermediate waters located at a relatively small depth of superficial. They are formed in the areas of intensive evaporation from the surface (salted water) or in areas of strong winter cooling in the subarctic and Arctic areas of the oceans (cold intermediate layer).

The main feature of the intermediate waters compared to superficial is almost complete independence of them from atmospheric influence on the entire path of distribution, although their properties in the field of formation differ in winter and summer. The formation of them occurs, apparently convective on the surface and in the subsurface layers, as well as due to dynamic lowering in the areas of fronts and convergence of flows. Intermediate waters are propagated mainly on isopic surfaces. Languages \u200b\u200bof increased or reduced salinity, detected on meridional cuts, cross the main zonal jets of ocean circulation. Promotion of nuclei of intermediate waters in the direction of languages \u200b\u200bstill has no satisfactory explanation. It is possible that it is carried out by side (horizontal) stirring. In any case, geostrofic circulation in the kernel of intermediate waters repeats the main features of the subtropical circulation of circulation and is not distinguished by extreme meridional constitues.

The deep and bottom aquatic masses are formed on the lower boundary of the intermediate waters by mixing and converting them. But the main foci of the origin of these waters is the shelf and the mainland slope of Antarctica, as well as the Arctic and subepolar areas of the Atlantic Ocean. Thus, they are associated with thermal convection in polar zones. Since convection processes have a pronounced annual move, the intensity of education and cyclicity in time and the properties of these waters should have seasonal variability. But these processes were almost not studied.

The listed community of water masses, the components of the vertical structure of the ocean, gave grounds to introduce a generalized concept of structural zones. The exchange of properties and stirring of water in the horizontal direction occur at the boundaries of the main macroscale elements of the circulation of water, along which hydrological fronts pass. Thus, water areas are directly related to the main cyphans of water.

Based on the analysis of a large amount of averaged T, S-curves throughout the water area of \u200b\u200bthe Pacific Ocean allocated 9 types of structures (from north to south): subarctic, subtropical, tropical and east-tropical northern, equatorial, tropical and subtropical southern, subnutrctic, Antarctic. Northern subarctic and both subtropical structures have oriental varieties caused by the specific regime of the eastern part of the ocean off the coast of America. Also on the shores of California and South Mexico, the Northern East Tropical Structure. The boundaries between the main types of structures are elongated in the latitudinal direction, with the exception of the eastern varieties, in which the Western borders have a meridional orientation.

The boundaries between the structures in the northern part of the ocean are consistent with the boundaries of stratification types of vertical profiles of temperature and salinity, although the initial materials and methods of their preparation are different. Moreover, the combination of types of vertical T- and S-profiles determine the structures and their boundaries are much more detailed.

The subarctic structure of water has a monotone vertical increase in salinity and a more complex change in temperature. At depths of 100 - 200 meters in a cold subsurface layer, the greatest gradients of salinity are observed. The warm intermediate layer (200-1000 m) is observed in the weakening of salinity gradients. The surface layer (up to 50 to 75 m) is subject to sharp seasonal changes in both properties.

Between 40 and 45 ° C. sh. There is a transition zone between subarctic and subtropical structures. Moved to the east of 165 ° - 160 ° C. D., it directly goes into the eastern varieties of subarctic, subtropical and tropical structures. On the surface of the ocean, at depths of 200 m and partly 800 m in the entire zone are close to the properties of water, which relate to the subtropical water mass.

The subtropical structure is divided into layers in which the appropriate aquatic masses of different salinity are located. The subsurface layer of elevated salinity (60-300 m) is characterized by elevated vertical temperature gradients. This leads to the preservation of the steady vertical stratification of waters by density. Below 1000 - 1200 m are deep, and deeper than 3000 m - bottom water.

Tropical waters differ significantly higher temperatures on the surface. The subsurface layer of high salinity has a smaller thickness, but higher salinity.

In the intermediate layer, the reduced salinity is expressed not thai abruptly due to the removal of the formation focus on the subarctic front.

The equatorial structure is characterized by a surface desalination layer (up to 50 - 100 m) with high temperatures in the West and a significant decrease in it in the East. In the same direction, salinity decreases, forming the eastern equatorial-tropical aqueous mass from the coast of Central America. The subsurface layer of elevated salinity occupies an average thickness of 50 to 125 m, and it is somewhat lower from the values \u200b\u200bof salinity than in the tropical structures of both hemispheres. Intermediate water here is southern, subnatrotic origin. It is intensively blurred on the long path, and its salinity is relatively high - 34.5 - 34.6% about. In the north of the equatorial structure, two layers of low salinity are observed.

The structure of the water of the southern hemisphere has four types. Directly to the equator adjoins the tropical structure, which extends to the south to 30 ° YU. sh. in the west and up to 20 ° sh. In the east of the ocean. It has the greatest salinity on the surface and in the subsurface layer (up to 36.5 ° / oo), as well as the maximum temperature for the southern part. The subsurface layer of increased salinity extends to a depth of 50 to 300 m. Intermediate waters are plugged to 1200 - 1400 m with salinity in the kernel to 34.3 - 34.5% of. Especially low salinity is celebrated in the east of the tropical structure. The deep and bottom water have a temperature of 1 - 2 ° C and salinity 34.6 - 34.7 ° / OO.

The southern subtropical structure differs from the northern greater salinity at all depths. This structure also has a subsurface-surface layer, but it often goes to the surface of the ocean. Thus, it is formed a particularly deep, sometimes up to 300 - 350 m, superficial, almost homogeneous layer of high salinity - to 35.6 - 35.7 ° / OO. The intermediate water of the reduced salinity is at the greatest depth (up to 1600 - 1800 m) with salinity to 34.2 - 34.3% of.

In the subnatrotic structure, the salinity on the surface decreases to 34.1 - 34.2% o, and the temperature is up to 10 to 11 ° C. In the kernel of a layer of increased salinity, it is 34.3 - 34.7% of the depths of 100 - 200 m, in the core of the late salinity, it decreases to 34.3% o, and in deep and bottom waters the same as in Common in the Pacific Ocean, - 34.6 - 34.7 ° / oo.

In the Antarctic structure, the salinity is monotonously rising to the bottom of 33.8 - 33.9% of the maximum values \u200b\u200bin the outbreak and bottom waters of the Pacific Ocean: 34.7 - 34.8 ° / OO. In temperature stratification, cold subsurface and warm intermediate layers appear again. The first of them is at depths of 125 - 350 m with a temperature in summer to 1.5 °, and the second - from 350 to 1200 - 1300 m with a temperature of up to 2.5 °. The depths of water have the highest lower border here - up to 2,200 m.

(about 70%), consisting of a number of individual components. Any analysis of the structure of M.O. associated with component private ocean structures.

Hydrological structure MO.

Temperature stratification.In 1928, a theoretical position on the horizontal separation of MO into two thickness was formulated by the defant. The upper part is the oceanic troposphere, or the "warm ocean" and the oceanic stratosphere or the "Cold Ocean" border between them goes obliquely, varying from almost vertical to a horizontal position. At the equator, the border is at a depth of about 1 km, in polar latitudes can pass almost vertically. Water "warm" ocean is easier than polar waters and are located on them as on a liquid day. Despite the fact that the warm ocean is available almost everywhere and, consequently, the border between it and the cold ocean has a significant extent, water exchange between them occurs only in very few places, due to raising the deep waters (Apwelling), or lowering warm water (downwall) .

Geophysical structure of the ocean (The presence of physical fields). One of the factors of its presence is a thermodynamic exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere. According to Schuulekina (1963), the ocean should be considered as a thermal machine operating in the meridional direction. Equator - heater, and poles - refrigerators. Due to the circulation of the atmosphere and oceanic flows, there is a constant heat outflow from the equator to the poles. Equator divides oceans and 2 parts with partially isolated systems of flows , and the continents divide M.O. to regions. Thus, oceanography divide MO on 7 parts: 1) Northern Arctic, 2) Northern Atlantic, 3) Northern Indian, 4) Northern Pacific, 5) Southern Piece of Atlantic, 6) Southern Pacific, 7) South Indian.

In the ocean, as well as everywhere in the geographical shell, there are bordering surfaces (ocean / atmosphere, shore / ocean, bottom / aqueous mass, cold / warm VM, more saline / less salted VM, etc.). It is established that the greatest activity of the flow of chemical processes occurs on the border surfaces (Isaatulin, 1966). Around each such surface there is an increased field of chemical activity and physical anomalies. MO is divided into active layers, the thickness of which, when approaching the boundary, which generates them decreases up to molecular, and chemical activity and the amount of free energy increases as much as possible. If there is a crossing of several borders, then all processes occur even more actively. Maximum activity is observed on the coasts, on the edge of ice, on oceanic fronts (VM of different origin and characteristics).

Most active:

the equatorial zone, where in contact between the VM of the North and Southern Parts of the oceans, twisting in opposite directions (by or counterclockwise).
oceanic waters with different depths. In the areas of Apwelling, the water rises the stratospheres, in which a large amount of mineral substances that are food for plants are dissolved. In the Downwellin areas of the ocean, surface waters are lowered by oxygen. In such districts, biomass increases by 2 times.
areas of hydrotherm (underwater volcanoes). Here are formulated on the chemosynthesis "Ecological Oasis". They exist in them at temperatures up to + 400ºС and salinity up to 300. Here were detected archeobacteria dying at + 100ºС from supercooling and related 3.8 billion years ago, bristle worms - living in solutions resembling sulfuric acid at a temperature of + 260ºС.
the mouth of rivers.
straits.
underwater thresholds

The least active central part of the oceans removed from the bottom and shores.

Biological structure.

Until the mid-60s. It was the opinion that the ocean can feed humanity. But it turned out that only about 2% of the aquatic masses of the ocean was saturated with life. There are several approaches in the characteristics of the biological structure of the ocean.

The approach is associated with the identification of clusters of life in the ocean. There are 4 static accumulations of life: 2 films of life surface and bottom thickness of approximately 100 m and 2 concentrations of life: coastal and Sargassovo - accumulation of organisms in the open ocean, where the bottom does not play any role associated with the lifts and lowering waters in the ocean, frontal Ocean zones,
The approach of Zenkevich is associated with the identification of symmetry in the ocean exists. There are 3 planes of symmetry in the phenomena of the biotic environment: Equatorial, 2 meridional passing, respectively, in the center of the ocean and the center of the mainland. In relation to them, there is a change in biomass from the coast to the center of the ocean biomass decreases. The latitudinal belt in the ocean is distinguished in relation to the equator.
1. equatorial zone with a length of about 10 0 (from 5 0 s.sh. up to 5 0 Yu.Sh.) - the strip of life is rich. Very much species with a small number of each. Fish industry is usually not very profitable.
2. subtropic-tropical zones (2) - oceanic desert zones. There are quite a lot of species, phytoplankton is active year-round, but bioproductivity is very low. The maximum number of organisms lives on coral reefs and in mangrove thickets (coastal semi-filled vegetable formations).
3. zones of moderate latitudes (2 zones) have the greatest bioproductivity. A species diversity compared to the equator sharply decreases, but the number of individuals is sharply increased. These are areas of active fishing. 4) Polar zones - areas with minimal biomass due to the fact that phytoplankton photosynthesis is stopped in winter.
Environmental classification. Environmental groups of living organisms are distinguished.
1. plankton (from Greek. Planktos is a wandering), the totality of organisms living in the thickness of water and unable to resist the transfer to the flow. It consists of bacteria, diatoms and some other algae (phytoplankton), simplest, some intestine, mollusks, crustaceans, caviar and fish larvae, invertebrate larvae (zooplankton).
2. nekton (from Greek. Nektos is floating), a set of actively floating animals living in the thickness of water capable of resisting the flow and move at considerable distances. Nettle includes squid, fish, marine snakes and turtles, penguins, whales, laston-either, etc.
3. benthos (from Greek. Benthos - depth), a combination of organisms living on the ground and in the ground bottom of the reservoirs. Some of them move along the bottom: starfish, crabs, sea hedgehogs. Others are attached to the bottom - corals, scallops, algae. Some fish float at the bottom or lie at the bottom (skates, flounders), can be buried in the ground.
4. Other, smaller ecological groups of organisms are distinguished: Plestone - organisms floating over the surface; neaston - organisms that are attached to the film of water from above or below; Hyponestone - live directly under the film of the water.

In the structure of the geographic shell, MO distinguishes several features:

Unity Mo.
Inside the structure, MO highlighted circular structures.
Ocean anisotropen, i.e. transmits the effect of bordering surfaces at different speeds in different directions. A drop of water from the surface of the Atlantic Ocean is moving to the bottom of 1000 years, and from east west from 50 days to 100 years.
The ocean has a vertical and horizontal explanation, which leads to the formation within the ocean of the inner borders of lower rank.
Significant sizes of MO shifts the lower boundary of it in it up to 11 km depth.

There are significant difficulties in the analysis of the single geographic environment of the ocean.

small availability for man;
difficulties in the development of techniques for studying the ocean;
a small segment of time in which the ocean is studied.