Major events in the 18th century. Events in Russia at the end of the 18th century

The eighteenth century in the history of Russia was marked by the reign of two great enlightened monarchs - the reformers, Peter I and Catherine II. Russia in the 18th century is briefly characterized not only by palace coups, increased serfdom, peasant and rifle revolts, but also by military victories, the development of education, the modernization of the army, navy and society as a whole.

Emperors of Russia in the 18th century

The first Russian emperor was proclaimed Peter, this happened in 1721, after Russia defeated Sweden in the Northern War. He was elevated to the throne at the age of ten in 1682 by the Naryshkins with the support of Patriarch Joachim. The second contender for the throne was Ivan Alekseevich, who was in poor health. However, the relatives of Princess Sophia and Ivan Alekseevich Miloslavsky prompted the archers to a riot, which ended in the murder of many supporters of Peter's mother, after which Princess Sophia became the actual ruler.

Ivan and Peter were proclaimed kings. During the reign of Princess Sophia, Peter was far from the palace. In the villages of Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky, from his peers, he created two "funny regiments", of which, over time, became the elite units of the real army of Peter. Unable to get the knowledge he needed from his compatriots, the future Emperor spent a lot of time in the German Quarter, getting to know foreigners and studying their way of life, and began an affair with Anna Mons.

Natalya Kirillovna, Mother of Peter I, dissatisfied with the behavior of her son, married him to Evdokia Lopukhina, who gave birth to Peter's two sons, Alexei and Alexander. Princess Sophia, who did not want to surrender power, tried to organize a new rifle revolt, but most of the troops remained loyal to Peter. Sophia tried to escape, but in Vozdvizhenskoe she was returned to Moscow and soon imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent. Ivan Alekseevich gave all power to Peter, but formally remained co-ruler until his death in 1696.

In 1697-1698, I, as part of the Great Embassy, \u200b\u200bunder the name of Peter Mikhailov, a sergeant of the Preobrazhensky regiment, went to Europe. After a new streltsy rebellion, Peter returned to Moscow, where he began an inquiry, as a result of which several hundred archers were executed, and Evdokia Lopukhina was forcibly sent to the Suzdal monastery. After returning from Europe, Peter began his transformations, deciding to change Russia according to the European model.

At first, by his decrees, he achieved external imitation of the Europeans in dress and manners, introduced the chronology from the birth of Christ, the celebration of the New Year - January 1st. More significant structural reforms followed. The army was reformed, state administration, the Russian church hierarchy was subordinated to the state. Also, Peter spent financial reform... For transformations and military campaigns, educated people were needed. Therefore, schools were opened: mathematical and navigational sciences, medical, engineering. And in St. Petersburg there is a marine academy.

For construction in 1704-1717. Petersburg, as well as for work in factories and plants, the labor of serfs was used. To teach children to read and write, digital schools were opened in the province. The result of military reforms were Peter's victories in the Northern War of 1700-1721, the Caspian campaign of 1722-1723, thanks to which the Russian Empire gained access to the Baltic Sea and a number of territories. However, there was also an unsuccessful Russian-Turkish war, as a result of which Russia lost access to the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov. In 1712, Peter married a second time to Ekaterina Alekseevna, from whom he was left with two daughters, Anna and Elizaveta.

In 1725, when Peter died, it was Catherine who became the first empress of Russia. However, in fact, the country at that time was ruled by Menshikov and the Supreme Privy Council, created on the initiative of A.P. Tolstoy. At this time, Russia did not wage significant wars. The government of Catherine in 1726 concluded an alliance agreement with Austria, also, at this time the Academy of Sciences was created and Bering's expedition passed. In 1727, Catherine died, and Peter II became the emperor, on whose behalf Menshikov ruled the country first, and then the Dolgoruky princes. His reign did not last long either. In 1730, Peter died of smallpox.

After him, Anna Ioanovna ruled, invited to the throne by the Privy Council on the condition of limiting her powers. However, she later restored absolutism. Anna carried out some reforms: reform of the army, streamlining the work of state. institutions, declaration of a fair trial, reform of the Senate, reform of the fleet. Also, she established the Office of Secret Investigation Affairs, which was engaged in the search for conspirators and simply dissatisfied, all this happened with huge abuses, which were later associated with the name of the favorite of the Empress Biron.

Foreign policy was a continuation of the policy of Peter. In 1740, Anna died and left the young Ioann Antonovich heir, under whom Biron became regent, and then the mother of the emperor, Anna Leopoldovna. In 1741 she overthrew him. She continued the policy of her father, Peter I. The Senate was restored, the Cabinet of Ministers was abolished, the activities of the Secret Chancellery became invisible. Elizabeth conducted a population census, abolished customs duties within the country, carried out a tax reform, and expanded the rights of the nobility.

Under her, there was a reorganization educational institutions, the Academy of Arts was founded, as well as Moscow University. The Winter and Catherine Palaces were built, the architect of which was Rastrelli. As a result of the Russian-Swedish (1741-1743) and Seven Years (1756-1763) wars, Russia received the Kymenegorsk and part of the Savolak province, some lands in Prussia. Elizabeth died in 1761, Peter became emperor. Under him, the Secret Chancellery was abolished, he began the secularization of church lands, and the Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility was published.

In 1762, as a result of a palace coup, he was overthrown by his wife, Catherine II. She carried out provincial and judicial reforms, strengthened the army and navy, strengthened the bureaucratic apparatus, and increased the exploitation of serfs. Under Catherine, city schools and colleges were created, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens was opened, after that the Educational Society for Noble Maidens. The Academy of Sciences opened an anatomical theater, an observatory, a botanical garden, a physics study, a library, and workshops.

The fight against epidemics has become a state measure, smallpox vaccination has been introduced, and many hospitals and shelters have been opened. During the reign of Catherine, there were several conspiracies and riots: Peasant war, whose leader was Emelyan Pugachev, 1773-1775, in 1771 - the Plague riot. With the accession of Catherine, a new territorial growth began Russian Empire... In 1774, after the Turkish war, important fortresses at the mouths of the Don, Dnieper and the Kerch Strait retreated to Russia. In 1783, Catherine annexes the Crimea, Kuban and Balta.

After the second Turkish war - the coastal strip between the Dniester and the Bug. And after the partitions of Poland - part of Belarus, Volyn, Podolsk and Minsk regions, Lithuanian provinces, the Duchy of Courland. In 1796, Catherine the Great died, and Paul ascended the throne. He carried out several counter-reforms. Paul adopted a law on succession, effectively excluding women from the pretenders to the throne, weakened the position of the nobility, improved the position of the peasants, carried out an administrative reform aimed at centralizing power, and increased censorship. As a result of the military reform, more attention was paid to the external attributes of service.

The main direction in foreign policy Paul - a struggle with France, for which Russia joins the anti-French coalition. The commander-in-chief of the troops was who liberated Northern Italy and crossed the Alps. However, Russia soon ended its alliance with Austria and withdrew its troops from Europe. And in 1800, Paul even began preparations for an alliance with Napoleon. These plans were not destined to come true. In 1801, Paul was killed in his own palace.

Major events and wars in the history of Russia in the 18th century

the abolition of the patriarchate in 1700,
the foundation of St. Petersburg in 1703, the Bulavin uprising of 1707-1708,
reform of administrative management in 1708,
the Caspian campaign of 1722-1723,
establishment of colleges 1718-1721,
administrative reform of 1719,
peter's acceptance of the imperial title,
russian-Persian war of 1722-1723,
"Table of Ranks" 1722,
Establishment of the Academy of Sciences 1724
reign of Catherine I 1725-1727,
the reign of Peter I 1727-1730,
the reign of Anna Ioanovna 1730-1740,
Russian-Turkish war of 1735-1739,
Russo-Swedish war 1741-1743,
the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna,
reign of Peter III 1761-1762,
reign of Catherine III 1762-1796,
Commission on the Code of 1767-1768
Plague riot in 1771,
Peasant War led by Yemelyan Pugachev 1773-1775
Victories under the command of Suvorov near Kuchuk-Kainardzhi and Karasu in 1772,
Kuchuk-Kaynardzhi peace of 1774,
base Black Sea Fleet in 1779,
annexation of the Crimea in 1783,
Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791,
Russian-Swedish war of 1788-1790,
Reign 1796-1801

Heroes of Russia in the 18th century

Grigory Aleksandrovich Potemkin-Tavrichesky participated in the battles of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, contributed to the development of the Northern Black Sea region, created and strengthened the Black Sea Fleet, liquidated the Zaporozhye Sich, and in 1783 joined the Crimea to the Russian Empire. The subordinates of G.A. Potemkin, there were such naval commanders and military leaders as A.V. Suvorov, N.V. Repnin, F.F. Ushakov. Alexander Vasilievich Suvorov during the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774 inflicted several defeats on the Turkish army, commanded troops in the Crimea in 1776–1787, in 1790 led the storming of the fortress of Izmail, during the Italian campaign of 1799 he defeated the French in several battles.

Fyodor Fedorovich Ushakov took part in the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, made several voyages to the Mediterranean from the Baltic, supervised the construction of the Black Sea Fleet, which he commanded since 1790, destroyed the Turkish fleet in the decisive battle at Cape Kaliakria in 1791, led the Black Sea squadron in the war against France, but was recalled by Paul in 1800.

Results of the 18th century for Russia

The results of Russian policy in the 18th century were a significant increase in territory, the conquest of access to the Baltic and Black Seas, the modernization of the army, the creation and modernization of the navy, the founding of many educational institutions, including for women, the strengthening of serfdom, structural transformations in all spheres of life society.

7.1. The European path: from the Enlightenment to the Revolution.

7.2. American Revolution and the emergence of the United States.

7. 1. The European path: from the Enlightenment to the Revolution.

European Enlightenment and its Impact on World Development.

In Western Europe, the Reformation was replaced by the Enlightenment under the influence of the changes taking place, which during the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries determined the spiritual aspirations of the advanced strata of society.

The Enlightenment, as an ideological trend, was based on the belief in the decisive role of reason and science in the cognition of the "natural order" corresponding to the true nature of man in society. The enlighteners spoke out against ignorance, obscurantism, and religious fanaticism, which they considered to be the causes of human misery. The enlighteners spoke out against feudal-absolutist regimes, for political freedom, civil equality, and human rights.

The Enlightenment arose in England, where its most prominent representatives were J. Locke, J. A. Collins, J. Toland, A.E. Shaftesbury. A whole galaxy of enlighteners was given by France in the period from 1715 to 1789, which was called the "century of enlightenment." Works by Voltaire, C. Montesquieu, J.J. Rousseau, D. Diderot, K.A. Helvetius, P.A. Holbach received the widest popularity. In Germany, G.E. did a lot to educate his people. Lessing, I.G. Herder, I.V. Goethe. In the USA, educators T. Jefferson, B. Franklin, T. Payne actively participated in public and political life. It was not easy for N.I. Novikov, A.N. Radishchev in Russia.

The Enlightenment became a turning point in world development. The old moral and political authorities were replaced by new moral and political principles. A person with the help of his own mind, without any religious or secular influences, began to solve issues that arose in the life of society. The Enlightenment laid the foundations for a new worldview. The supremacy of reason, the supremacy of science, the striving for a universal brotherhood of people have become fundamental guidelines for millions of people for decades and centuries.

Folding the system international relations in Europe.

The history of international relations from the middle of the 17th to the end of the 18th centuries. researchers call the Westphalian system, which arose after the end of the Thirty Years' War (1618 -1648). Having begun on religious grounds, the war soon took on the character of political confrontation, devastating and ravaging Central Europe. Sweden and France were able to use the fruits of the Thirty Years War. European countries finally recognized the independence of the Republic of the United Provinces (Netherlands), as well as Switzerland.

The Westphalian system was very unstable, as evidenced by the large number of military conflicts. Thus, from 1667 to 1714, wars were continuously going on between France and the European coalitions. From the 30s to the 70s XVIII century. In Europe, there were several more military clashes of various scales: the War of the Polish Succession (1733 - 1735), the War of the Austrian Succession (1740 - 1748), the Seven Years War (1756 - 1763), in which Russia also participated. To the named military conflicts should be added those that took place in Eastern and Southeast Europe - with the participation of Russia and the Ottoman Empire.

The Westphalian era was characterized by a flexible system of military coalitions and alliances that were extremely unstable. Period XVII-XVIII centuries. It was marked by great socio-economic and political changes in Europe, the formation of the common European market, early capitalism and a series of colonial conquests almost all over the world. The foundations of the future colonial empires and the future global system of international relations were laid.

The problem of the transition to the "kingdom of reason".

A man of the Middle Ages (IV-XIV centuries) believed in an almighty Christian God and was interested only in how this or that phenomenon relates to God. Medieval man did not strive to change the world arranged by God.

It took more than a century for faith in God to gradually cease to be a stable support for people in a changing world. This support in the minds of people ultimately became reason and faith in the power of human genius, replacing many faith in God.

The human mind of the Age of Enlightenment, which began at the end of the 17th century, was “knowing”. Learning about the world around them, people acted in accordance with what they managed to learn and comprehend, and use the new acquired knowledge and skills to their advantage. Science, practical experience, dissemination of knowledge helped a person of the Enlightenment to learn and change the world around him.

The people of the Enlightenment tried to prove themselves in the field of science, art, politics, showed great interest in bright human personalities and lives devoted to serving people. During the Enlightenment, the most important ideas about the value of the human person and its rights were formed; the principle of the presumption of innocence and proportionality of the punishment to the crime was formulated; the concepts of public, state and national security have developed; consulates and representations of states in other countries were established, rules of diplomatic protocol were formed.

The Enlightenment man was called a rational man (Latin rationalis), which meant "guided by the result." Freedom of choice and action is becoming one of the main values \u200b\u200bin life. The man of the Enlightenment rationally manages the economy, rationally uses his work and free time. A rational way of life, earlier than in other countries, was established in Holland and England, in their colonies.

In various European countries from the end of the 17th century. a new cultural community of people engaged in mental labor was gradually formed - enlightened elite... The aristocracy and a large part of the nobility are actively strove to gain knowledge. The enlightened elite of society manifested itself not only in the spiritual field, but also in the rules of etiquette, fashion, behavior, raising children (home education and upbringing was prestigious), and knowledge of foreign languages.

Scientists of the 18th century proved that science is capable of revealing many secrets of nature and significantly enrich people's lives. During this period, the formation of independent sciences began - physics, chemistry, astronomy and others, including the humanities.

The scientific revolution made by G. Galileo (1564-1642) and I. Newton (1642-1727) in mechanics (the law of universal gravitation) convinced that everything in the Universe is built according to a single plan and is governed by simple and understandable laws. The English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) expressed the idea that the forces in society and the state should also balance each other. This is how the idea of \u200b\u200bseparation of powers (legislative and executive, parliament and king) was formulated, which included the judiciary.

The search for general laws for the structure of the state and the development of society continued at the end of the 18th-19th centuries. Such was the power of Newtonian ideas.

Ways of transformation of Western European absolutism in the XVIII century.

The founder of the theory "Enlightened absolutism" considered the English thinker Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). In accordance with the theory of the contractual origin of the state, absolute power had to act not only for the narrowly understood "state benefit", but also to take care of the general welfare. The policy of an enlightened monarch should be built on rational, reasonable principles, based on the advanced ideas of philosophers.

The activities of the enlightened monarchs were of a dual nature. They were enlightened, but still despots.

The transformations were carried out exclusively from above. Striving for political freedom, public activity were viewed with great suspicion as an attempt on their power, attempts to limit it.

Specifications enlightened absolutism belong to most European countries in the XVIII century. Moreover, in England in the XVIII century. formed not just an enlightened, but already a bourgeois monarchy. There was no royal absolutism in Poland. In France, Louis XV and Louis XVI hindered reforms and brought the country to revolution.

King of Prussia Frederick II (1740-1786) was fond of music, philosophy, dance, French culture. Frederick, having come to power, abolished torture. He guaranteed the property rights of his subjects, centralized legal proceedings and separated it from the executive branch, approved new codes of law. He abolished censorship, made freedom of the press possible. Prussia was a Lutheran state, but under Frederick II it became famous for its exceptional religious tolerance. Wars of Frederick II went on with varying success, but in the overall result the territory of Prussia doubled. It was for his territorial gains that he was called the Great. He founded the Royal Opera (1742), the Berlin Academy of Sciences (1744), and the first public library in Berlin (1775). During his reign, the "Prussian Versailles" was built - the palace and park complex of Sanssouci. During his reign, the composer Johann Sebastian Bach and the mathematician Leonard Euler worked. The philosopher-king Frederick the Great is honored in Germany along with Bismarck and K. Adenauer.

Politics enlightened absolutismwas aimed at carrying out reforms, modernizing society. The essence of this process was the elimination of the remnants of the medieval system and the gradual establishment of capitalist relations.

European revolutions of the 18th-19th centuries The French Revolution and its impact on the political and sociocultural development of European countries.

The event that left a huge imprint on all world development was Great French Revolution 1789-1799.

In France, as in England, in many other countries, the revolution began with the problem of money. After a short-term economic upsurge and a powerful take-off of national culture associated with names Voltaire, C. Montesquieu, J. J. Rousseau, D. Diderot. G. B. Mably, K. A. Helvetia, P. A. Golbakh and others, by the 80s of the 18th century. France was on the brink of financial bankruptcy.

King Louis XVI was forced to gather representatives of the estates - States General. This French parliament arose back in 1300, but did not meet regularly, and since 1614 it did not meet at all. The States General, like the English Parliament in the previous century, had to authorize new taxes. But instead, the deputies from the third estate (bourgeois, artisans, peasants, workers), meeting separately, proclaimed themselves on July 9, 1789 the Constituent Assembly, the purpose of which was to develop constitution, limitation of royal power, change in the state system of France. In response to the government's military preparations, the people of Paris revolted, seized the arsenal and armed themselves. July 14, 1789 the rebels took the main prison of the kingdom by storm - Bastille 5. A year later, they dug it down and put a sign: "They dance here." The storming of the Bastille began The French Revolution.

In France itself, the revolution was accompanied by a fierce political struggle between various political groups, powerful peasant uprisings. Numerous radical changes took place in the political, economic and spiritual life of the people. Was fundamentally resolved agrarian question: communal lands and emigre lands (opponents of the revolution) were transferred to peasants for division. Completely, without any ransom all feudal rights and privileges were destroyed... Several million private small peasant farms arose in the country ... The church was separated from the state, the king was executed, and the Constitution adopted shortly thereafter on June 24, 1793 proclaimed France a republic.

During the revolution, a lot of new things appeared in various areas of life: new holidays, new customs, new clothes, new art, new relationships between men and women, for example, the old Catholic restrictions on divorce were removed. The special commission developed unified system of measures and weights... Science in general was given great importance as a force capable of indicating the correct path for the development of a nation.

At the same time rebirth revolution. The end of the revolution is considered November 9, 1799 when the promoted revolution republican general Napoleon Bonaparte established a regime of personal dictatorship. Europe entered the era of the Napoleonic wars, which became a transitional period to the next stage in the development of European Western civilization.

1700-1721 - The Northern War of Russia (as part of the Northern Union - Denmark, Poland and Saxony) with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea.

1705-1706 - Astrakhan uprising. Archers, soldiers, townspeople and workmen took part. It was caused by a sharp increase in taxes and duties, increased arbitrariness of local authorities and garrison officers, a decrease in monetary and grain salaries for soldiers. Suppressed by the tsarist troops.

1705 g. - introduction of compulsory recruitment.

1707-1708 - the uprising led by K. Bulavin. It covered the Don Cossack Region, the Russian Don region, part of the Volga region and partly the Zaporozhye Sich.

Reasons: the introduction of new heavy taxes, the state's offensive on the autonomy and self-government of the Don, the demand for the return of fugitive peasants. The main goal of the movement: the restoration of the estate privileges of the Cossacks. Suppressed by the tsarist troops.

1708-1710 - Reform of administrative management (introduction of provincial government).

1708 g., September 28 - defeat at the village. Forestry Swedish troops under the command of General Levengaupt.

1709 g., 27th of June - Battle of Poltava. The defeat of the Swedes and the flight of Charles XII to Turkey.

1711 g. - the establishment of the Governing Senate (directed the work of all state institutions, dealt with issues of manning the army, the development of trade and industry, supervised finances).

1711 g. - Prut campaign of Peter I. Russian troops led by Peter I are surrounded by superior forces of the Turks on the river. Prut (Moldova). Under a peace treaty with Turkey, Russia was forced to abandon Azov.

1711-1765 - years of life of M.V. Lomonosov. 1714 g. - Decree of Peter I on single inheritance (equalized estates and estates).

1714 g., July 27 - the victory of the Russian fleet over the Swedish at Cape Gangut in the Baltic. Allowed to transfer hostilities to Swedish territory, significantly strengthened the position of Russian troops in Finland.

1718-1721 - institution instead of orders of the collegiums. Conducting judicial reform (depriving the governor of judicial powers). Tax reform (introduction of a poll tax instead of household taxation).

1720 g., July 27 - the victory of the Russian fleet at Grengam Island in the Baltic. It gave the Russian troops an opportunity to fortify in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Aland Islands and hastened the conclusion of the Nystadt Peace.

1721 g., August 30 - the conclusion of the Nystadt peace treaty between Russia and Sweden. Russia received Livonia with Riga, Estonia with Revel and Narva, part of Karelia with Kexholm, Ingermanlandia (Izhora land), the islands of Ezel, Dago and other lands from Vyborg to the Kur-ilyand border. She returned Finland, occupied by Russian troops, to Sweden, and paid her 2 million efimks as compensation.

1721 g. - the establishment of the Spiritual College (the future Holy Synod). Abolition of the patriarchate.

1721 g. - the proclamation of Peter I as emperor, Russia as an empire.

1722 g. - the publication of the "Table of Ranks" - a legislative act that determined the procedure for the passage of service by officials.

1722 g. - the publication of a decree on succession to the throne (the reigning emperor was given the right to arbitrarily appoint an heir).

1722-1723 - The Caspian campaign. The purpose of the campaign: to ensure trade relations between Russia and the eastern countries, to help the Transcaucasian peoples in liberation from Iranian domination and to prevent Turkish expansion in the Transcaucasus. It ended with the liberation of Dagestan and Azerbaijan and their annexation to Russia.

1724 g. - adoption of the Customs Tariff (introduction of a 75 percent duty on the import of foreign goods).

1725-1762 - the era of palace coups.

1725-1727 - the reign of Catherine I.

1726 g. - the establishment of the Supreme Privy Council (higher government agency Russia to solve the most important state issues). Dissolved by Empress Anna Ioannovna.

1727-1730 - the reign of Peter II.

1730-1740 - the reign of Anna Ioannovna. "Bironovschina".

1740-1741 - the reign of Ivan Antonovich, the grand-nephew of Anna Ioannovna, during the regency of Biron first, then Anna Leopoldovna's mother.

1741-1761 - the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna.

1754 g. - the establishment of the Noble and Merchant loan banks. 1756-1763 - Seven Years War. It was led by the Prussian king Frederick II in alliance with Great Britain and Portugal against Austria, Russia, France, Sweden, Spain and Saxony. Causes of the war: aggravation of the Anglo-French struggle for colonies in North America and the East Indies and the clash of Prussian politics with the interests of Austria, France and Russia. The Russian government sought to stop the expansion of Prussia in the Baltic, expand its territory towards Poland, and connect the trade routes of the Baltic and Black seas. The victories of the Russian army at Gross-Jegersdorf (1757), Kunersdorf (1759).

In 1761, Russian troops entered Berlin. It ended with the signing of the Paris Peace Treaty and the victory of Great Britain over France in the struggle for colonies and trade primacy.

1761-1762 - reign of Peter III Fedorovicha, the son of Anna Petrovna and Karl Friedrich.

1762 g. - the adoption by Peter III of the "Manifesto on the freedom of the nobility" (the release of the nobles from compulsory service to the state).

1762-1796 - the reign of Catherine II.

1764 g. - the abolition of hetman rule in Ukraine. Transfer of management of the Left-Bank Ukraine to the Little Russian Collegium.

1764 g. - the issuance of a decree on the secularization of church and monastic lands and the transfer of 2 million monastic peasants to the category of state ones.

1767-1768 - Activities of the Legislative Commission with the aim of developing a new set of laws. Dissolved by Catherine II after the start of the war with Turkey.

1768 g. - the creation of banknote banks that started issuing paper money.

1768-1774 - Russian-Turkish war. According to the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi peace treaty Crimean Khanate passes under the protectorate of Russia. Russia receives the mouths of the Dnieper and the Southern Bug and part of the steppe between them, the cities of Azov, Kerch, Kinburn, the right to freely sail in the Black Sea and the passage of merchant ships through the Black Sea straits.

1772, 1793, 1795 - Partitions of Poland - the first between Russia, Prussia and Austria, the second - between Russia and Prussia, the third - between Russia, Prussia and Austria. The Right-Bank Ukraine and Belarus, the South Baltic region went to Russia.

1773-1775 - peasant war led by E. Pugachev. Participants: peasants, Cossacks, working people, national minorities. It covered the Orenburg region, the Urals, the Urals, Western Siberia, the Middle and Lower Volga regions. Causes of the war: strengthening of serfdom and exploitation, restriction of Cossack self-government, the introduction of army orders in the Cossack regiments. Defeated.

1775 g. - Catherine II's implementation of the provincial reform (abolition of provinces, separation of administrative, judicial and financial bodies at all levels). 1783 g. - the entry of Crimea into the Russian Empire.

1783 g. - signing of the Georgievsky treatise. Transition of Eastern Georgia under the protectorate of Russia.

1785 g. - the publication of letters of gratitude to the nobility and cities (consolidation of the estate rights and privileges of the nobility, the estate structure in cities, the creation of city government bodies).

1787-1791 - Russian-Turkish war.

Reasons: aggravation of the Eastern question in connection with the Greek uprising against Turkish rule that broke out in 1821, Turkey's desire to return the Crimea and other territories that were ceded to Russia during the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. It ended with the Yassy Peace (confirmed the annexation of Crimea and Kuban to Russia and established the Russian-Turkish border along the Dniester River).

1796-1801 - the reign of Paul I.

1797 g. - cancellation established by Peter I order of succession to the throne. Restoration of the succession to the throne by birthright through the male line.

1797 g. - the publication by Paul I of the manifesto on the three-day corvee and the prohibition of landowners to force peasants to work on Sundays and church holidays.

1799 g., April-August - Italian campaign of Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov during the war of the second coalition (Great Britain, Austria, Russia, Turkey, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies) against France. Liberation of Italy from French rule.

1799 g., September October - the Swiss campaign of Russian troops under the command of A. V. Suvorov during the war of the II coalition (Great Britain, Austria, Russia, Turkey, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies) against France. Russia's withdrawal from the war, the conclusion of an alliance with Napoleon, the severance of relations with England.

The 18th century in the history of Russia is a cruel, even merciless century of the reign of Peter I, who decided to change Russia in a short time.

This is the time of streltsy riots and palace coups, the reign of Catherine the Great, peasant wars and the strengthening of serfdom. But at the same time, this period of Russian history is characterized by the development of education, the opening of new educational institutions, including Moscow University, the Academy of Arts.

In 1756, the first theater appeared in the capital of the Russian Empire. The end of the 18th century - the heyday of the creativity of artists Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky, Fedor Stepanovich Rokotov, Vladimir Lukich Borovikovsky, sculptor Fedot Shubin.

Now let's take a closer look at the main events of the 18th century and the historical characters of that time:

At the end of the 17th century, in 1676, Alexei Mikhailovich died, and his son Fyodor Alekseevich came to the throne. Peter Alekseevich, who later became Emperor Peter I, will become tsar in 1682. In 1689, Peter, at the suggestion of his mother, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina, marries Evdokia Lopukhina, which means that, as it was believed at that time, he reaches adulthood.

Sophia, who wanted to remain on the throne, raised the archers against Peter, but the revolt was suppressed, after which Sophia was imprisoned in a monastery, and the throne passed to Peter, although until 1696 Peter's brother, Ivan Alekseevich, was the formal co-ruler of Peter.

Peter I had a rather remarkable appearance. His height was 2m 10 cm, he was narrow in shoulders, had long arms and an unusual gait, so that his entourage had to not just follow him, but run.

From the age of 6, Peter began to learn to read and write and received an encyclopedic education at that time. Left without a father, Peter was engaged in self-education. With the permission of Princess Sophia, he creates a personal amusing guard, and later it was these two amusing regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky who played big rolewhen Peter came to power.

In addition, the young tsar's favorite pastime was the shooting of the boyars with a steamed turnip.

Gradually, the tsar had “favorite” confidants, and these were different people. Alexander Danilovich Menshikov or simply Aleksashka, the son of the palace groom, who, from the post of the tsar's orderly, became the Most Serene Prince, the richest man; "German" (Dutch) Franz Lefort, who became the main adviser to the king after his accession to the throne.

It was Lefort who advised Peter to establish foreign trade, but the problem lay in one of two well-known Russian troubles - roads.

Russia needed access to the sea through Sweden and Turkey. Peter I undertakes two campaigns to Azov, the second of which was successful and ended with the foundation of the Taganrog fortress (on the Taganiy Rog cape). The war with Turkey, which began in 1697, showed that Russia needed loans, allies and weapons.

For this, the Great Embassy is sent to Europe, in which Peter I was listed as a simple person - the sergeant Peter Alekseevich. He was the first Russian tsar to visit Europe.

Formally, Peter followed incognito, but his conspicuous appearance easily betrayed him. And the tsar himself, during his travels, often preferred to personally lead negotiations with foreign rulers. Perhaps this behavior is due to the desire to simplify the conventions associated with diplomatic etiquette.

Returning from a trip, and plunging back into life in Russia, Peter hated it, decided to completely redo it and, as you know, he succeeds.

The reforms of Peter I, with which he began his transformations:

Disbanded the streltsy army, created a mercenary army, which he dresses in an almost European uniform and puts at the head of foreign officers.
He transferred the country to a new chronology, from the Nativity of Christ, the old one was conducted from the creation of the world. January 1, 1700 in Russia began to celebrate New Year.
He ordered to build 1 ship every 10 thousand yards, as a result Russia received a large fleet.
He carried out a city reform - self-government was introduced in the cities, bailiffs were put at the head of the cities. Although this was the end of the "Europeanization" of the cities.

In 1700, Peter I decides to start a war with Sweden, which ended in 1721 g.

The Great Northern War began unsuccessfully, Peter was defeated at Narva, fled from the battlefield even before the start of the battle, but repented of this and decided to rebuild his army.

The transformations were carried out based on the needs of the troops. For the war, guns were needed, as a result, the bells of Russian churches are poured on them, then metallurgical enterprises are built. By the middle of the century, 75 metallurgical enterprises operated in the country, which fully satisfied the country's needs for pig iron, almost half of the production was exported. It was necessary to arm the army, so arms factories are being built. In addition, Peter I ordered the construction of linen factories. Shipbuilding, ropeway, leather and glass industries are developing.

Galleys are being built at shipyards, which played a decisive role in the defeat of the Swedes at Gangut.

Peter introduces military service - recruiting - from 20 households 1 person went to serve for 25 years; he also introduces compulsory service to the nobility for 25 years. These measures made it possible to quickly create a new army - 20 thousand sailors and 35 thousand. ground forces.

Peter I understands that Russia needs knowledge and money.

To do this, he forced hundreds of young noblemen and boyars to go abroad to study, fiscals were assigned to monitor them; created a number of technical universities (Higher Artillery School), where teachers were Western professors. In order to encourage learning not only nobles, but also ordinary people Peter issues a decree according to which everyone who graduates from the gymnasium will know foreign languages, will receive the nobility.

To raise the economy, the king in 1718-1724. introduces a capitation tax (male soul). The filing was difficult and exceeded the solvency of the people of the Russian Empire. This provoked an increase in arrears.

To stop the theft, because everyone was actively stealing, and the first thief was Menshikov, the tsar orders to hang up not only the suspect, but his entire family.

A number of additional fees are introduced - a fee for a beard, for wearing a Russian dress, those who did not drink coffee were fined.

In order not to spend money on wage labor, Peter I introduced serf labor. Villages were attributed to factories, craftsmen to cities.

By the decree of 1736, the workers of the factories were assigned to the manufactories for eternity and received the name "eternally given". This form of labor hindered the development of Russia, and it was only in the 19th century that they got rid of it.

In addition, Peter I strives to develop trade. Customs duties are imposed on them much more for imported goods than for exported ones. As a result, by the end of the Northern War, Russia had a developed economy, but it was a serf.
The time of Peter's reign is the time of transformations in Russia, the time of reforms. In addition to those listed above, Peter carried out administrative reforms, social ones, he also changed judicial system.

Administrative reforms of Peter I:

Peter divides the country into provinces, at the head of the provinces was the Governor-General, whose only form of punishment was the death penalty
Peter in 1711-1721 canceled the order system, created the collegia-prototypes of ministries. The head of the collegium was appointed by the tsar "according to intelligence, and not according to the nobility of the family" good education was needed for the service
The highest state body in 1711 became the Senate, which, in the absence of the king, performed his functions.
Emperor Peter I was at the head of all state power. This title was confirmed by Peter himself in 1721 after the end of the war with Sweden.

Social policy of Peter I.

In 1722, the "Table of Ranks" was introduced, according to which all service people were divided into 14 ranks, the lowest rank was ensign. Those who rose to the 8th grade received the nobility. The judicial system was changed - “they were judged not with a word, but with a pen”, i.e. all court cases were drawn up in writing and judged on the basis of written laws, which made it possible for judges to take new bribes.

In 1703 St. Petersburg became the capital of Russia, which was built on the bones of serfs.

Peter I forcibly resettled about 1,000 noblemen to St. Petersburg, but after Peter's death the Russian tsars preferred Moscow (until 1918, when St. Petersburg again became the capital).

In 1725, together with the death of Peter I, began the era of palace coups.

During the reign of Catherine I, from 1725 to 1727, and Peter II, from 1727 to 1730, Menshikov performed the functions of the emperor.

During the reign of Anna Ioanovna, from 1730 to 1740, and Ioan Antonovich, from 1740 to 1741, various German adventurers were in power.

Under Elizaveta Petrovna, who ascended the throne in November 1741, the Shuvalovs played a prominent role, the Razumovskys - the Empress's favorites. Peter III Fedorovich became Elizabeth's heir. He pursued a policy that the Russian nobility did not accept. As a result, in 1762, after another coup, the wife of Peter III, Catherine II, ascended the throne at the age of 33.

It was announced that her husband, Peter, was killed "by accident." 34 years of the reign of Catherine II went down in history as "Golden age of nobility" since she pursued a pro-noble policy. Following her husband, Peter III, she allowed the nobles not to serve, carried out a general survey in 1765, i.e. divided the land between the nobles. There was an opportunity to buy and sell a pledge, which did not give the treasury a penny, but all the nobility was on the side of Catherine.

surveying Is a set of works aimed at determining and fixing the boundaries of a certain land plot on the ground.

In addition, she gave the nobles for the service, 600 thousand serfs, for example, Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov got several thousand people. In the interests of the nobility, it deprives the peasants of their last rights - under pain of hard labor, it was forbidden to complain about the landowner, it was allowed to trade in serfs "at retail", that is, families were ruthlessly split up.

Thus, if for the nobility the end of the 18th century was a golden period of history, then for the peasants it was the most terrible period of slavery.

During her reign, Catherine II relied on the personal loyalty of her favorites, brought up a whole galaxy of Russian politicians, suppressed revolutions in every way, was sick with the ideas of the philosopher Voltaire, read the books of Rousseau and Montesquieu, but perceived the Enlightenment in her own way, in an original way. So she believed that education should only affect the upper strata of society, did not give freedom to the peasants, tk. it would lead to a riot.

Catherine II was especially frightened by the Pugachev revolt (1773-1775), in which serfs, Cossacks, working people, Bashkirs, Kalmyks took part. The peasant war was defeated, but Catherine learned the main lesson from it - it is impossible to give freedom to the peasants, and did not abolish serfdom.

Transformations of Catherine the Great:

Abolished state monopolies on tobacco and some other activities, which contributed to their development.
Created whole line educational educational institutions, for example, Free Economic Society, Institute for Noble Maidens. So, in the Free Economic Society they studied and introduced agriculture, technical innovations (prizes were given for each invention), potatoes are being introduced through the efforts of this society (the initiator is Andrei Bolotov).
Under Catherine, the construction of manufactories expanded, new industries appeared, such as hosiery, the number of manufactories doubled, while they were not only serfs, but also hired ones, i.e. the first workers from the peasants appear (the right to migrate), foreign investments.
Development of new lands. To master new territories in the south of the country (Crimea, Kuban, South. Ukraine), she gives them to the nobles. After a couple of years, he realizes that it is ineffective and invites "foreigners" - the Greeks founded Mariupol, the Armenians - the village of Chaltyr, the Bulgarians bring viticulture. In addition, Catherine announces that those peasants who flee and settle on new lands will be free.
Catherine II did not sell Alaska to America, but rented it out for 100 years so that the Americans could master it.

After the death of Catherine II, her son Paul I (1796-1801) became emperor.

Paul I

Under him, domestic policy was also pro-noble and pro-serf. Serfdom is becoming more widespread. However, relations between the emperor and the nobility become extremely tense, after the next innovations of Paul I.

Paul forbade noble gatherings in the provinces; he, at his whim, could exile some nobles and elevate others. In addition, the severance of relations with England hit the landlords' incomes, since agricultural products were exported there. The result of this policy was a conspiracy, Paul was killed in 1801 and his son Alexander ascended the throne. This is how the 18th century ended in Russia.

Thus, the 18th century in the history of Russia was characterized by the following:

Ever since the reign of Peter I, a tradition has been established that all reforms are carried out by the state.
The modernization of Russia is carried out according to a catch-up scenario, and we take from the West what we like.
Modernization is carried out at the expense of its own people, i.e. Russia is a self-colony.
Any modernization is accompanied by bureaucratization. Although we can say that this was typical not only for Russia in the 18th century, this state of affairs has survived to this day.

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