The causes of feudal fragmentation and their manifestation in Western Europe in the earlier Middle Ages. Causes of feudal fragmentation

In the history of the early feudal states of Europe of the 10th-20th centuries are a period of political fragmentation. By this time, the feudal nobility had already turned into a privileged group, belonging to which was determined by birth. The existing monopoly property of the feudal lords on land was reflected in the rule of law. The peasants were mostly in personal and land dependence on the feudal lords.

Having gained a monopoly on the land, the feudal lords also acquired significant political power: the transfer of part of their land to vassals, the right to legal proceedings and coinage of money, the maintenance of their own military power, etc. In accordance with the new realities, a different hierarchy of feudal society now has a legal fixation: "The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal." Thus, the internal cohesion of the feudal nobility was achieved, its privileges were protected from encroachments by the central government, which was weakening by this time. For example, in France before the beginning of the XII century. the real power of the king did not extend beyond the domain, which in size was inferior to the possessions of many large feudal lords. The king, in relation to his direct vassals, possessed only formal suzerainty, and the large lords behaved independently. Thus, the foundations of feudal fragmentation began to take shape.

On the territory of the disintegrated in the middle of IX century. the empire of Charlemagne, three new states arose: French, Germanic and Italian (Northern Italy), each of which became the basis of the emerging territorial-ethnic community - nationality. Then the process of political disintegration swept each of these new formations. So, in the French kingdom at the end of the IX century. there were 29 possessions, and at the end of the X century. -about 50. But now they were mostly not ethnic, but patrimonial-seignorial formations.

The collapse of the early feudal territorial organization of state power and the triumph of feudal fragmentation represented the completion of the formation of feudal relations and the flourishing of feudalism in Western Europe. In terms of content, it was a logical and progressive process, due to the rise of internal colonization, expansion of the area of \u200b\u200bcultivated land. Thanks to the improvement of tools, the use of draft animals and the transition to a three-field, land cultivation improved, industrial crops began to be bred - flax, hemp; new branches of agriculture appeared - viticulture, etc. As a result, the peasants began to have surplus products that they could exchange for handicrafts, rather than make them themselves.

The labor productivity of artisans increased, and the technique and technology of craft production improved. The artisan turned into a small commodity producer working for a trade exchange. These circumstances led to the separation of crafts from agriculture, the development of commodity-money relations, trade and the emergence of a medieval city. They became centers of craft and commerce.

As a rule, cities in Western Europe arose on the land of the feudal lord and therefore inevitably obeyed him. The townspeople, most of whom were mostly former peasants, remained in the land or personal dependence of the feudal lord. The desire of citizens to free themselves from dependence led to a struggle between cities and seniors for their rights and independence. This movement, widely developed in Western Europe in the 10th – 13th centuries, went down in history as the “communal movement”. All rights or privileges won or acquired as a ransom are entered into the charter. By the end of the XIII century. many cities have achieved self-government. So, about 50% of English cities had their own self-government, city council, mayor and their own court. Residents of such cities of England, Italy, France, etc. became free from feudal dependence. A runaway peasant who lived in the cities of the named countries for a year and a day became free. Thus, in the XIII century. a new class appeared - the townspeople - as an independent political force with its status, privileges and liberties: personal freedom, jurisdiction of the city court, participation in the city militia. The emergence of estates that achieved significant political and legal rights was an important step towards the formation of estate-representative monarchies in Western Europe. This was made possible thanks to the strengthening of central authority, first in England, then in France.

Feudal fragmentation in England

The process of feudal fragmentation in the X-XII centuries. began to develop in England. This was facilitated by the transfer by the royal authority of the nobility of the right to collect feudal duties from peasants and their lands. As a result, the feudal lord (secular or church), who received such an award, becomes the full owner of the land occupied by the peasants and their personal master. The private property of the feudal lords grew, they became economically stronger and strove for greater independence from the king.
The situation changed after England in 1066 was conquered by the Norman Duke William the Conqueror. As a result, a country marching towards feudal fragmentation turned into a united state with strong monarchical power. On the European continent at this time this is the only example.

The fact was that the conquerors deprived many representatives of the former nobility of their possessions, conducting a massive confiscation of land ownership. The king became the actual owner of the land, who transferred part of it as flax to his warriors and parts of local feudal lords who expressed their readiness to serve it. But these possessions were now in different parts of England. An exception was only a few counties, which were located on the outskirts of the country and were intended for the defense of border areas. The dispersion of feudal estates (130 large vassals had land in 2-5 counties, 29 in 6-10 counties, 12 in 10-21 counties), private return to the king served as an obstacle to the transformation of barons into independent landowners, as it were, for example in France

The development of medieval Germany

The development of medieval Germany was characterized by a certain peculiarity. Until the XIII century. it was one of the most powerful states in Europe. And then here the process of internal political fragmentation begins to develop rapidly, the country breaks up into a number of independent associations, while other Western European countries embarked on the path of state unity. The fact is that the German emperors in order to maintain their power over dependent countries needed the military assistance of the princes and were forced to make concessions to them. Thus, while in other European countries the royal power deprived the feudal nobility of its political privileges, in Germany the process of legislative consolidation of the highest state rights for princes developed. As a result, imperial power gradually lost its position and became dependent on large secular and church feudal lords. .
In addition, in Germany, despite the rapid development already in the X century. cities (the result of the separation of crafts from agriculture) did not work out, as was the case in England, France and other countries, an alliance between the royal power and cities. Therefore, German cities could not play an active role in the political centralization of the country. And finally, in Germany, like England or France, a single economic center was not formed, which could become the core of a political union. Each principality lived apart. With the strengthening of princely power, the political and economic fragmentation of Germany intensified.

The growth of Byzantine cities

In Byzantium to the beginning of the XII century. the formation of the basic institutions of feudal society was completed, feudal estates were formed, and the bulk of the peasants were already in land or personal dependence. The imperial power, presenting wide privileges to secular and church feudal lords, facilitated their transformation into omnipotent patrimonies, who had the apparatus of judicial and administrative power and armed squads. It was the emperors' pay to the feudal lords for their support and service.
The development of crafts and trade led at the beginning of the XII century. to a fairly rapid growth of Byzantine cities. But unlike Western Europe, they did not belong to individual feudal lords, but were under the rule of a state that did not seek an alliance with the townspeople. Byzantine cities did not achieve, like Western European, self-government. Citizens, subjected to severe fiscal exploitation, were thus forced to fight not with the feudal lords, but with the state. Strengthening the position of feudal lords in cities, establishing their control over the trade and sale of manufactured products, undermined the welfare of merchants and artisans. With the weakening of imperial power, the feudal lords became sovereign masters in the cities. .
Increased tax oppression led to frequent uprisings that weakened the state. At the end of the XII century. the empire began to fall apart. This process accelerated after the capture of Constantinople in 1204 by the crusaders. The empire fell, and the Latin empire and several other states formed on its ruins. And although in 1261 the Byzantine state was restored again (it happened after the fall of the Latin Empire), but the former power was no longer there. This continued until the fall of Byzantium under the blows of the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

History [Crib] Fortunatov Vladimir Valentinovich

10. Feudalism and feudal fragmentation in Europe

Europe did not suffer from the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Mongol armies reached the Adriatic Sea. Although at the battle of Legnica in 1241 they defeated the Polish-German army, the vast Russian lands remained in the rear of the Mongols, in which the powerful Prince Alexander Nevsky gathered his forces to fight the invaders.

In the X – XI centuries. after the collapse of the empire Charles the greatin Western Europe it is approved feudal fragmentation.The kings retained real power only within the boundaries of their possessions. Formally, the king's vassals were obliged to perform military service, to pay him a monetary contribution upon entry into the inheritance, and to obey the decisions of the king as the supreme arbiter in interfeudal disputes. In fact, the fulfillment of all these obligations was already in the 9th – 10th centuries. almost entirely depended on the will of the powerful feudal lords.Strengthening of their power led to feudal feuds.

In France, the Capetian dynasty (987–1328) was weak and could not oppose the feudal lords, who lived freely and were not particularly reckoned with the king. The feudal lords waged endless wars among themselves. Serfssuffered under the burden of many duties. The Valois dynasty (1328–1589) managed to complete the process of gathering French lands and French under their leadership.

The social system that took shape in the Middle Ages (V – XV centuries) is commonly called in many western and eastern countries feudalism.The land allotment that belonged to the landowner along with peasant farmers who worked on the land had different names in many countries. Feudin Western Europe, this is inheritance of land granted by senor vassalu on condition of service or payment of customary contributions. Theod was also called beneficial(“Beneficence”). The owners of the feuds, landowners in the era of feudalism constituted the first estate - estate feudal lords.Peasants, small producers were not the owners of the cultivated land.

For using the allotment, the peasant was obliged to cultivate the land of the feudal lord on enslaving conditions, to pay rent -developmental, grocery or monetary, that is, a quitrent (chinsh). Occurred commendation, establishing a relationship of weak to strong. The personal dependence of the peasant often approached the slave. But the peasant possessed some immunity.On the land given to him in the holding, the peasant led independentsmall-scale farming, owning a house, livestock and, most importantly, tools, with which he worked on the plot at his disposal, as well as stocking the feudal lord in the case of working rent. The feudal lord in Western Europe could not kill the serf, but had the right to the first wedding night in relation to the female part of the serfs. The economic autonomy of the peasant inevitably gave rise to non-economic coercion,characteristic of the feudal system of economy, as peasants were forced to perform conscription by force. Dependence serfsfrom feudal lords determined by law. Feudal lawsometimes called fist, since it was built on direct violence. Feudal economy was predominantly natural, since most of the output was consumed within the economy itself. The feudal lords, having different incomes (trophies, money from the king, from the sale of part of the products), ordered artisans to arms, clothes, jewelry, etc.

Along with secularby feudal lords (dukes, counts, barons, etc.) among the second estate - clergy -there were also many feudal landowners. Solid land was controlled by the pope, bishops, abbots, abbots, etc.

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Having received a monopoly on the land, the feudal lords also acquired significant political power: transferring part of their land to vassals, the right to legal proceedings and minting money, maintaining their own military power, etc. In accordance with the new realities, a different hierarchy of feudal society now has a legal fixation: "The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal." Thus, the internal cohesion of the feudal nobility was achieved, its privileges were protected from encroachments by the central government, which was weakening by this time. For example, in France before the beginning of the XII century. the real power of the king did not extend beyond the domain, which in size was inferior to the possessions of many large feudal lords. The king, in relation to his immediate vassals, possessed only formal suzerainty, and the large lords behaved completely independently. Thus, the foundations of feudal fragmentation began to take shape.

It is known that on the territory of the disintegrated in the middle of the IX century. the empire of Charlemagne, three new states arose: the French, Germanic and Italian (Northern Italy), each of which became the basis of the emerging territorial-ethnic community - nationality. Then the process of political disintegration swept each of these new formations. So, in the French kingdom at the end of the IX century. There were 29 possessions, and at the end of the tenth century. - about 50. But now they were mostly not ethnic, but patrimonial-seignorial formations.

The situation changed after England in 1066 was conquered by the Norman Duke William the Conqueror. As a result, a country marching towards feudal fragmentation turned into a united state with strong monarchical power. On the European continent at this time this is the only example.

In addition, in Germany, despite the rapid development already in the X century. cities (the result of the separation of crafts from agriculture) did not work out, as was the case in England, France and other countries, an alliance between the royal power and cities. Therefore, German cities could not play an active role in the political centralization of the country. And finally, in Germany, like England or France, a single economic center was not formed, which could become the core of a political union. Each principality lived apart. With the strengthening of princely power, the political and economic fragmentation of Germany intensified.

The development of crafts and trade led at the beginning of the XII century. to a fairly rapid growth of Byzantine cities. But unlike Western Europe, they did not belong to individual feudal lords, but were under the rule of a state that did not seek an alliance with the townspeople. Byzantine cities did not achieve, like Western European, self-government. Citizens, subjected to severe fiscal exploitation, were thus forced to fight not with the feudal lords, but with the state. Strengthening the position of feudal lords in cities, establishing their control over the trade and sale of manufactured products, undermined the welfare of merchants and artisans. With the weakening of imperial power, the feudal lords became sovereign masters in the cities.

Increased tax oppression led to frequent uprisings that weakened the state. At the end of the XII century. the empire began to fall apart. This process accelerated after the capture of Constantinople in 1204 by the crusaders. The empire fell, and the Latin empire and several other states formed on its ruins. And although in 1261 the Byzantine state was restored again (it happened after the fall of the Latin Empire), but the former power was no longer there. This continued until the fall of Byzantium under the blows of the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

The labor productivity of artisans increased, and the technique and technology of craft production improved. The artisan turned into a small commodity producer working for a trade exchange. Ultimately, these circumstances led to the separation of crafts from agriculture, the development of commodity-money relations, trade and the emergence of a medieval city. They became centers of craft and commerce.

As a rule, cities in Western Europe arose on the land of the feudal lord and therefore inevitably obeyed him. The townspeople, most of whom were mostly former peasants, remained in the land or personal dependence of the feudal lord. The desire of citizens to free themselves from such dependence led to a struggle between cities and seniors for their rights and independence. This movement, widely developed in Western Europe in the X-XIII centuries. went down in history under the name of “communal movement”. All rights or privileges won or acquired as a ransom are entered into the charter. By the end of the XIII century. many cities achieved self-government, became communal cities. So, about 50% of English cities had their own self-government, city council, mayor and their own court. Residents of such cities of England, Italy, France, etc. became free from feudal dependence. A runaway peasant who lived in the cities of the named countries for a year and a day became free. Thus, in the XIII century. a new class appeared - the townspeople - as an independent political force with its status, privileges and liberties: personal freedom, jurisdiction of the city court, participation in the city militia. The emergence of estates that achieved significant political and legal rights was an important step towards the formation of estate-representative monarchies in Western Europe. This was made possible thanks to the strengthening of central authority, first in England, then in France.

The development of commodity-money relations and the involvement of the village in this process undermined subsistence farming and created the conditions for the development of the domestic market. The feudal lords, trying to increase their incomes, began to transfer the land to the peasants in hereditary holding, reduced the landlord, encouraged internal colonization, eagerly accepted the runaway peasants, settled the uncultivated land with them and provided them with personal freedom. The estates of the feudal lords were also drawn into market relations. These circumstances led to a change in the forms of feudal rent, the weakening, and then the complete elimination of personal feudal dependence. Quickly enough, this process took place in England, France, Italy.

The development of public relations in Kievan Rus follows, perhaps, in the same scenario. The onset of a period of feudal fragmentation fits into the framework of the pan-European process. As in Western Europe, tendencies towards political fragmentation in Russia appeared early. Already in the X century. after the death of Prince Vladimir in 1015, a power struggle erupts between his children. However, a single Old Russian state lasted until the death of Prince Mstislav (1132). It is from this time that historical science counts the feudal fragmentation in Russia.

What are the causes of this phenomenon? What contributed to the fact that the unified state of the Rurikovich quickly disintegrated into many large and small principalities? There are many such reasons.

We single out the most important of them.

The main reason is the change in the nature of relations between the Grand Duke and his warriors as a result of the settling of warriors on the ground. In the first century and a half of the existence of Kievan Rus, the squad was completely kept by the prince. The prince, as well as his state apparatus, collected tribute and other requisitions. As the combatants received land and received from the prince the right to collect taxes and duties themselves, they came to the conclusion that the income from military robbery production was less reliable than the fees from peasants and townspeople. In the XI century. intensified the process of "settling" squads on the ground. And from the first half of the XII century. in Kievan Rus, patrimony becomes the predominant form of ownership, the owner of which could dispose of it at his discretion. And although the possession of the estates imposed on the feudal lord the obligation to perform military service, his economic dependence on the grand duke was significantly weakened. The income of former feudal warriors no longer depended on the grace of the prince. They themselves provided for their existence. With the weakening of economic dependence on the Grand Duke, political dependence is also weakening.

A significant role in the process of feudal fragmentation in Russia was played by the developing institute of feudal immunity, providing for a certain level of sovereignty of the feudal lord within the borders of his patrimony. In this territory, the feudal lord had the rights of the head of state. The Grand Duke and his authorities did not have the right to act in this territory. The feudal lord himself collected taxes, duties, and adjudicated. As a result, the state apparatus, squad, courts, prisons, etc. are formed in independent principalities-estates, the individual princes begin to dispose of communal lands, transfer them on their behalf to the power of the boyars and monasteries. Thus, local princely dynasties are formed, and local feudal lords make up the court and squad of this dynasty. Of great importance in this process was the introduction of the institution of heredity on the earth and the people living in it. Under the influence of all these processes, the nature of relations between local principalities and Kiev has changed. Relationships of political partners, sometimes in the form of equal allies, sometimes overlordship and vassal, are replacing official dependence.

All these economic and political processes in political terms meant the fragmentation of power, the collapse of the former centralized statehood of Kievan Rus. This collapse, as was the case in Western Europe, was accompanied by internecine wars. Three most influential states were formed on the territory of Kievan Rus: the Vladimir-Suzdal principality (North-Eastern Russia), the Galician-Volyn principality (South-Western Russia) and Novgorod land (North-Western Russia). Both within these principalities, and between them, fierce clashes took place for a long time, destructive wars that weakened the power of Russia, led to the destruction of cities and villages.

Foreign conquerors did not fail to take advantage of this circumstance. The uncoordinated actions of the Russian princes, the desire to achieve victory over the enemy at the expense of others, while maintaining their army, the lack of a single command led to the first defeat of the Russian army in the battle with the Tatar-Mongols on the Kalka River on May 31, 1223. Serious disagreements between the princes, which did not allow they act as a united front in the face of the Tatar-Mongol aggression, led to the capture and destruction of Ryazan (1237). In February 1238, the Russian militia was defeated on the River Cit, and Vladimir and Suzdal were captured. In October 1239, Chernigov was besieged and captured, in the autumn of 1240 Kiev was captured. Thus, since the beginning of the 40s. XIII century the period of Russian history begins, which is commonly called the Tatar-Mongol yoke, which lasted until the second half of the 15th century.

It should be noted that the Tatar-Mongols did not carry out the occupation of Russian lands during this period, since this territory was unsuitable for the economic and economic activities of nomadic peoples. But this yoke was very real. Russia was in vassal dependence on the Tatar-Mongol khans. Each prince, including the Grand Duke, should have received the permission of the khan for the rule "table", the khan's label. The population of the Russian lands was heavily taxed in favor of the Mongols, invaders were constantly raiding, which led to the ruin of the lands and the destruction of the population.

Then, on the northwestern borders of Russia, a new dangerous enemy appeared - in 1240 the Swedes, and then in 1240-1242. German crusaders. It so happened that Novgorod land had to defend its independence and its type of development under conditions of pressure from both the East and the West. The struggle for the independence of Novgorod land was led by the young prince Alexander Yaroslavich. The basis of his tactics was the struggle against the Catholic West and a concession to the East (Golden Horde). As a result, the Swedish troops landed in the mouth of the Neva in July 1240 were defeated by the retinue of the Novgorod prince, who received the honorary nickname "Nevsky" for this victory.

Following the Swedes, German knights attacked Novgorod land, who at the beginning of the XIII century. settled in the Baltic states. In 1240 they captured Izborsk, then Pskov. Alexander Nevsky, who led the fight against the crusaders, managed to free Pskov in the winter of 1242, and then defeat the German knights on the ice of Lake Peipsi in the famous ice battle (April 5, 1242). After that, they no longer made serious attempts to capture the Russian lands.

Thanks to the efforts of Alexander Nevsky and his descendants in Novgorod land, despite their dependence on the Golden Horde, traditions of Westernism were preserved and features of citizenship began to take shape.

However, in general, by the end of the XIII century. Northeastern and Southern Russia fell under the influence of the Golden Horde, lost ties with the West and previously established features of progressive development. It is difficult to overestimate the negative consequences that the Tatar-Mongol yoke had for Russia. Most historians agree that the Tatar-Mongol yoke significantly delayed the socio-economic, political and spiritual development of the Russian state, changed the nature of statehood, giving it the form of relations characteristic of the nomadic peoples of Asia.

It is known that in the fight against the Tatar-Mongols, the princely squads took the first blow. The vast majority of them died. Together with the old nobility, the traditions of vassal-retinue relations were leaving. Now, as the formation of the new nobility affirmed relations of citizenship.

Relations between princes and cities have changed. Veche (with the exception of Novgorod land) has lost its significance. The prince in such conditions acted as the sole protector and lord.

Thus, Russian statehood begins to acquire the features of eastern despotism with its cruelty, arbitrariness, and complete disregard for the people and the individual. As a result, a peculiar type of feudalism was formed in Russia, in which the “Asian element” was quite strongly represented. The formation of this peculiar type of feudalism was facilitated by the fact that, as a result of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, Russia developed for 240 years in isolation from Europe.

Ministry of Sports of the Russian Federation FSBEI HPE Volga GAFKSIT

ESSAY

on history

TOPIC:Feudal fragmentation in Western

Europe

Made by:

Abdullin Nurzat Almazovich, student 4213з

Accepted:

Shabalina Julia Vladimirovna

Kazan

1) Feudal fragmentation is a natural process.

2) Feudal fragmentation in Western Europe

a) Feudal fragmentation in England

b) The development of medieval Germany

c) The growth of Byzantine cities

d) A predatory campaign in Italy

e) The reasons for the fragmentation of Western Europe

e) The war between the feudal lords

g) Feudal ladder

h) Summary

Introduction

As the ruling dynasty branches in the early feudal states, expanding their territory and administrative apparatus, the representatives of which exercise monarch power over the local population, collecting tribute and the army, the number of applicants for central authority increases, peripheral military resources increase, and the control capabilities of the center weaken. The supreme power becomes nominal, and the monarch begins to be elected by large feudal lords from his own environment, while the resources of the elected monarch are usually limited to the resources of his original princedom, and he cannot transfer the supreme power by inheritance. In this situation, the rule “vassal of my vassal is not my vassal” works.

The first exceptions are England in northwestern Europe (the Salisbury oath of 1085, all the feudal lords are direct vassals of the king) and Byzantium in its southeast (at about the same time, Emperor Alexei Komnin forced the crusaders to capture the ground in the middle of the first crusade East, recognize vassal dependence on the empire, thereby including these lands in the empire and preserving its unity). In these cases, all the lands of the state are divided into the domain of the monarch and the lands of his vassals, as in the next historical stage, when the supreme power is assigned to one of the princes, again begins to be inherited and the centralization process begins (this stage is often called the patrimonial monarchy).

The full development of feudalism became the prerequisite for the end of feudal fragmentation, since the vast majority of the feudal layer, its rank-and-file representatives were objectively interested in having a single exponent of their interests:

Feudal fragmentation - natural

process

In the history of early feudal states of Europe of the X-XII centuries. are a period of political fragmentation. By this time, the feudal nobility had already turned into a privileged group, belonging to which was determined by birth. The existing monopoly property of the feudal lords on land was reflected in the rule of law. “There is no land without a lord.” The peasants were mostly in personal and land dependence on the feudal lords. Having gained a monopoly on the land, the feudal lords also acquired significant political power: the transfer of part of their land to vassals, the right to legal proceedings and coinage of money, the maintenance of their own military power, etc. In accordance with the new realities, a different hierarchy of feudal society now has a legal fixation: “The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal.” Thus, the internal cohesion of the feudal nobility was achieved, its privileges were protected from encroachments by the central government, which was weakening by this time. For example, in France before the beginning of the XII century. the real power of the king did not extend beyond the domain, which in size was inferior to the possessions of many large feudal lords. The king, in relation to his immediate vassals, possessed only formal suzerainty, and the large lords behaved completely independently. Thus, the foundations of feudal fragmentation began to take shape. It is known that on the territory of the disintegrated in the middle of the IX century. the empire of Charlemagne, three new states arose: the French, Germanic and Italian (Northern Italy), each of which became the basis of the emerging territorial-ethnic community - nationality. Then the process of political disintegration swept each of these new formations. So, in the French kingdom at the end of the IX century. There were 29 possessions, and at the end of the tenth century. - about 50. But now they were mostly not ethnic, but patrimonial-seignorial formations

The collapse of the early feudal territorial organization of state power and the triumph of feudal fragmentation represented the completion of the process

the formation of feudal relations and the flourishing of feudalism in Western Europe. In terms of content, it was a logical and progressive process, due to the rise of internal colonization, expansion of the area of \u200b\u200bcultivated land. Thanks to the improvement of tools, the use of draft animals and the transition to a three-field, land cultivation improved, industrial crops began to be bred - flax, hemp; new branches of agriculture appeared - viticulture, etc. As a result, the peasants began to have surplus products that they could exchange for handicrafts, rather than make them themselves. The labor productivity of artisans increased, and the technique and technology of craft production improved. The artisan turned into a small commodity producer working for a trade exchange. Ultimately, these circumstances led to the separation of crafts from agriculture, the development of commodity-money relations, trade and the emergence of a medieval city. They became centers of craft and commerce. As a rule, cities in Western Europe arose on the land of the feudal lord and therefore inevitably obeyed him. The townspeople, most of whom were mostly former peasants, remained in the land or personal dependence of the feudal lord. The desire of citizens to free themselves from such dependence led to a struggle between cities and seniors for their rights and independence. This movement, widely developed in Western Europe in the X-XIII centuries. went down in history under the name of “communal movement”. All rights or privileges won or acquired as a ransom are entered into the charter. By the end of the XIII century. many cities achieved self-government, became communal cities. So, about 50% of English cities had their own self-government, city council, mayor and their own court. Residents of such cities of England, Italy, France, etc. became free from feudal dependence. A runaway peasant who lived in the cities of the named countries for a year and a day became free. Thus, in the XIII century. a new class appeared - the townspeople - as an independent political force with its status, privileges and liberties: personal freedom, jurisdiction of the city court, participation in the city militia. The emergence of estates that achieved significant political and legal rights was an important step towards the formation of estate-representative monarchies in Western Europe. This was made possible thanks to the strengthening of central authority, first in England, then in France. The development of commodity-money relations and the involvement of the village in this process undermined subsistence farming and created the conditions for the development of the domestic market. The feudal lords, trying to increase their incomes, began to transfer the land to the peasants in hereditary holding, reduced the landlord, encouraged internal colonization, eagerly accepted the runaway peasants, settled the uncultivated land with them and provided them with personal freedom. The estates of the feudal lords were also drawn into market relations. These circumstances led to a change in the forms of feudal rent, the weakening, and then the complete elimination of personal feudal dependence. Quickly enough, this process took place in England, France, Italy. .

Feudal fragmentation in western europe

Feudal fragmentation in England

The process of feudal fragmentation in the X-XII centuries. began to develop in England. This was facilitated by the transfer by the royal authority of the nobility of the right to collect feudal duties from peasants and their lands. As a result, the feudal lord (secular or church), who received such an award, becomes the full owner of the land occupied by the peasants and their personal master. The private property of the feudal lords grew, they became economically stronger and strove for greater independence from the king. The situation changed after England in 1066 was conquered by the Norman Duke William the Conqueror. As a result, a country marching towards feudal fragmentation turned into a united state with strong monarchical power. On the European continent at this time this is the only example.

The development of medieval Germany

The development of medieval Germany was characterized by a certain peculiarity. Until the XIII century. it was one of the most powerful states in Europe. And then here the process of internal political fragmentation begins to develop rapidly, the country breaks up into a number of independent associations, while other Western European countries embarked on the path of state unity. The fact is that the German emperors in order to maintain their power over dependent countries needed the military assistance of the princes and were forced to make concessions to them. Thus, while in other European countries the royal power deprived the feudal nobility of its political privileges, in Germany the process of legislative consolidation of the highest state rights for princes developed. As a result, imperial power gradually lost its position and became dependent on large secular and church feudal lords. . In addition, in Germany, despite the rapid development already in the X century. cities (the result of the separation of crafts from agriculture) did not work out, as was the case in England, France and other countries, an alliance between the royal power and cities. Therefore, German cities could not play an active role in the political centralization of the country. And finally, in Germany, like England or France, a single economic center was not formed, which could become the core of a political union. Each principality lived apart. With the strengthening of princely power, the political and economic fragmentation of Germany intensified.

The growth of Byzantine cities

In Byzantium to the beginning of the XII century. the formation of the basic institutions of feudal society was completed, feudal estates were formed, and the bulk of the peasants were already in land or personal dependence. The imperial power, presenting wide privileges to secular and church feudal lords, facilitated their transformation into omnipotent patrimonies, who had the apparatus of the judicial and administrative power and armed squads. It was the emperors' pay to the feudal lords for their support and service. The development of crafts and trade led at the beginning of the XII century. to a fairly rapid growth of Byzantine cities. But unlike Western Europe, they did not belong to individual feudal lords, but were under the rule of a state that did not seek an alliance with the townspeople. Byzantine cities did not achieve, like Western European, self-government. Citizens, subjected to severe fiscal exploitation, were thus forced to fight not with the feudal lords, but with the state. Strengthening the position of feudal lords in cities, establishing their control over the trade and sale of manufactured products, undermined the welfare of merchants and artisans. With the weakening of imperial power, the feudal lords became sovereign masters in the cities. . Increased tax oppression led to frequent uprisings that weakened the state. At the end of the XII century. the empire began to fall apart. This process accelerated after the capture of Constantinople in 1204 by the crusaders. The empire fell, and the Latin empire and several other states formed on its ruins. And although in 1261 the Byzantine state was restored again (it happened after the fall of the Latin Empire), but the former power was no longer there. This continued until the fall of Byzantium under the blows of the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

The predatory campaign in Italy

In the X century, the German feudal lords, led by their king, began to commit predatory campaigns in Italy. Having captured part of Italy with the city of Rome, the German king declared himself the Roman emperor. The new state was later called the Holy Roman Empire. But it was a very weak state. Large feudal lords of Germany did not submit to the emperor. The population of Italy did not stop the struggle with the invaders. Each new German king had to make a campaign for the Alps in order to conquer the country again. For several centuries in a row, the German feudal looted and ravaged Italy.

The states of Western Europe were not united. Each of them broke up into large feudal estates, which were divided into many small ones. In Germany, for example, there were about 200 small states. Some of them were so small that they jokingly said: “The head of the ruler, when he goes to bed, lies on his land, and his legs have to stretch out to the neighbor’s possessions.” This was a time of feudal fragmentation in Western Europe

The reasons for the fragmentation of Western Europe

Why were Western European states fragmented? Under subsistence farming, there were and could not be strong trade ties between separate parts of the country, there were no links even between separate estates. At each estate, the population lived their own separate lives and had little contact with people from other places. People spent almost their entire lives in their village. Yes, they had no reason to go anywhere: after all, everything needed was done on the spot.

Each feudal possession was an almost independent state. The feudal lord had a detachment of soldiers, collected taxes from the population, did trial and reprisal against him. He himself could declare war on other feudal lords and make peace with them. Who owned the land, he also had power.

Large feudal lords - dukes and counts - had little regard for the king. They argued that the king was only “first among equals,” that is, they considered themselves to be no less noble than the king. Many large feudal lords themselves were not averse to seizing the royal throne.

The dominance of subsistence farming led to the fragmentation of Western European states. Royal power in the IX - X centuries. was very weak.

War between feudal lords

In times of fragmentation, the feudal lords continuously fought among themselves. These wars were called internecine warriors
.

What caused internecine wars? The feudal lords sought to rob each other of the land together with the peasants who lived on it. The more feudal lords had serfs, the stronger and richer they were, since serfs were responsible for land use.

Wanting to undermine the strength of his enemy, the feudal lord ravaged his peasants: he burned villages, stole cattle, trampled crops.

From internecine wars suffered most. Peasants; feudal lords could sit behind the strong walls of their castles.

Feudal Stairs

In order to have his own military detachment, each feudal lord distributed part of the land with serfs to smaller feudal lords. The land owner was a lord (“elder”) in relation to these feudal lords, and those who received land from him were his vassals, that is, military servants. Entering the possession of the feud, the vassal knelt before the lord and took him the oath of allegiance. As a sign of the transfer, the feudal lord handed the vassal a handful of land and a tree branch.

The king was considered the head of all feudal lords. He was the lord for dukes and counts.

In their possessions there were usually hundreds of villages; they disposed of large detachments of soldiers.

A step below stood barons - vassals of dukes and counts. Usually they owned two or three dozen villages and could put up a detachment of soldiers.

The barons were the lords of the small feudal lords - knights.

Thus, the same feudal lord was the lord of a smaller feudal lord and a vassal of a larger one. The vassals were to obey only their lords. If they were not vassals of the king, then they were not obliged to carry out his orders. This order was fixed by the rule: “ The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal».

Relations between feudal lords resemble a staircase, on the upper steps of which are the largest feudal lords, on the lower - small. These relationships are called feudal ladder

Peasants did not enter the feudal ladder. And seniors, vassals were feudal lords. All of them - from the petty knight of the king - lived by the labor of serfs.

The vassal was obliged by order of his lord to go on a campaign with him and lead a detachment of soldiers. In addition, he was supposed to help the lord with advice and redeem him from captivity.

The lord protected his vassals from the attacks of other feudal lords and from the rebellious peasants. If peasants rebelled in the village of a knight, he sent a messenger to the lord, and he and his detachment hurried to help him.

When the war began with another state, the entire feudal ladder seemed to move. The king called on the campaign of the dukes and counts, they turned to the barons, who led the troops of the knights. So the feudal army was created. But the vassals often did not follow the orders of their lords. In such cases, only force could force them to submit.

In the period of fragmentation, the feudal ladder was the organization of the feudal class. With its help, the feudal lords waged wars and helped each other keep the peasants in subjection.

Conclusion

Feudal fragmentation is a progressive phenomenon in the development of feudal relations. The collapse of the early feudal empires into independent kingdom-kingdoms was an inevitable stage in the development of feudal society, whether it concerned Russia in Eastern Europe, France in Western Europe or the Golden Horde in the East. The feudal fragmentation was progressive because it was the result of the development of feudal relations, the deepening of the social division of labor, which resulted in the rise of agriculture, the flourishing of crafts, and the growth of cities. For the development of feudalism already needed a different scale and structure of the state, adapted to the needs and aspirations of the feudal lords

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