Plantation countries. Main geographical types of agriculture

Plantation farming

a large agricultural enterprise in capitalist countries in which industrial and food crops are grown, mainly from tropical and subtropical agriculture (sugar cane, coffee, cocoa, tea, rice, bananas, pineapples, tobacco, cotton, rubber, indigo and many others). Arose in the era of the so-called. primitive accumulation of capital (See Primitive accumulation of capital) in colonies captured by European capitalist countries. The first plantations were created by the Spaniards at the beginning of the 16th century. in the West Indies on the island of Hispaniola (the modern island of Haiti). Having established itself on the islands of the Caribbean, the plantation system in the 16th-18th centuries. spread to Brazil, Mexico, the southern group of the Atlantic colonies of England in North America, as well as in Indonesia (Java). At this stage P. x. It was slave-owning and characterized by predatory methods of exploitation, based on the forced labor of enslaved Indians, and then black slaves brought from Africa, and primitive tools. Development of P. x. accompanied by the rapid growth of the slave trade (see Slavery) . The highest flowering of P. x. reached in the first half of the 19th century, when the United States became the center of the plantation system. The demand of the European machine industry for cotton caused a huge expansion of cotton plantations in the southern states of that country. From the middle of the 19th century. The plantation slave-owning system entered a period of protracted and deep crisis, and in place of the former slave-owning farms. large latifundia appeared, exploiting mainly hired and partly forced labor (see Latifundism) . From the end of the 19th century. P. x. colonies and dependent countries became the sphere of application of monopoly capital. In Asia and Latin America, plantations owned by foreign monopolies developed. P. x. intensively implanted by monopoly capital in Africa. Cheap labor and wide possibilities for using pre-capitalist methods of exploitation (forced recruitment, peonage , debt repayment) provided the monopolies with high profits from the sale of agricultural products on the world market. The collapse of the colonial system undermined the socio-economic foundations of agriculture. In the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, Cuba, Algeria, Mali and other countries, plantations were nationalized and state and cooperative farms were created on their basis. At the same time, P. x. persists in a number of developing countries.

Lit.: Marx K., Capital, vol. 1, ch. 8, 13, 24, Marx K. and Engels F., Works, 2nd ed., vol. 23; him, Capital, vol. 3, ch. 23, ibid., vol. 25, part 1; him. Theories of surplus value (IV volume of Capital), ch. 12, ibid., vol. 26, part 2; Tarle E.V., Essays on the history of the colonial policy of Western European states, M.-L., 1965; Developing countries in the struggle for an independent national economy, M., 1967; Agriculture and agrarian relations in countries Latin America, M., 1971; Economy of independent African countries. M., 1972.

T.K. Pajitnova.

Big Soviet encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

See what “plantation farming” is in other dictionaries:

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All the above classifications and typologies do not allow us to consider all indicators of socio-economic development in a comprehensive manner, as well as to predict development. In addition, experts international organizations As a rule, only countries participating in their work are included in classifications.

This problem is solved by geographical typologies that take into account all countries of the world. Geographical typologies take into account both quantitative indicators and level of development, as well as similar features of the territorial structure of the economy, economic and political history:

• scale of the country (area, population);
• economic potential of the country (GDP, GNI, structure of external income);
• level of economic development and quality of life;
• urbanization of the country;
• features of historical development;
• features of the country's participation in the international division of labor;
• peculiarity of the territorial structure of the economy and society;
• ethnic composition of the population;
• the nature of the political organization of society.

The typology below is based on the developments of scientists from the Faculty of Geography of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov.

Types economically developed countries . These countries are characterized by high per capita indicators of GNI, energy consumption, high average life expectancy, the predominance of the service sector in the economic structure of the economy, and a low share of agriculture. All of them are members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.

Major capitalist countries- these are the USA, Japan, Germany, France, Italy and Great Britain. They occupy leading places in the world in terms of GDP. They and Canada are called the G7 countries. They account for more than half of the world's total industrial output and the bulk of foreign investment. They form three main economic “poles” modern world: Western European with a “core” in Germany, American (USA) and Asian (Japan).

Over the past decades, the role of these states in the global economy has changed significantly. The role and influence of Japan in the Asia-Pacific region and in the world as a whole is growing; over the past decades, Japan’s share in global GDP has almost doubled, Japanese high-tech goods are conquering markets in other regions.

Economically highly developed small countries Western Europe (Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Denmark, Iceland, Switzerland, Austria, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Liechtenstein, Malta, Monaco, San Marino, Andorra) are characterized by high level income per capita, high quality life, political stability (Fig. 104).

Fig. 104. Cities in small countries of Western Europe: a - Amsterdam (Netherlands); b - Horgen (Switzerland)

Many of them are neutral states with the lowest defense spending in the world. The high-tech industry of these countries operates primarily on imported raw materials, and most of the products produced are exported. In GDP, a large share of income received from the service sector - banking and tourism.

Countries of settler capitalism- These are mainly former colonies of Great Britain, some of them still recognize the English Queen as their head of state. The population of these countries was formed with the determining role of migration from the metropolises. The indigenous population has been placed on reservations and has significantly lower income levels and quality of life (Figure 105).

Rice. 105. Aboriginal people standing up for their rights (Australia)

In the economy of these countries, the leading role is played by companies of the former metropolis or neighboring countries - economic giants. Compared to other developed countries great value Their economy has a mining industry.

This type of country also includes Israel, formed by decision of the UN in 1948. Its population was formed through aliyah - the return of Jews to the land of Palestine. The first stream of immigrants consisted of immigrants from Eastern Europe (second half of the 1940s); the bulk of the second stream of repatriates were citizens of the USSR (in the 1960s-1980s).

Countries with an average level of economic development in the past they possessed huge colonial empires and lived through the exploitation of overseas colonies and unequal exchange with them (Fig. 106). The loss of the colonies led to a weakening of their economic power and loss of political influence in Europe. During the 20th century. Almost all of these countries were ruled by military and fascist dictatorships, which also affected their lag behind other economically developed countries.

Rice. 106. Monument to Henry the Navigator in Lisbon (Portugal)

Accession to the European Union, the signing of the Schengen agreements and entry into the euro zone contributed to an increase in economic growth and a rise in living standards. This group includes Greece, Ireland, which for a long time was dependent on Great Britain, Spain and Portugal (Fig. 107).

Rice. 107. The port city of Barcelona was built up with pompous buildings emphasizing the wealth of Spain

Countries with economies in transition. For similar problems of socio-economic development, two subtypes can be distinguished:

1. European CIS countries, countries of Central and Eastern Europe;
2. Asian countries - members of the CIS.

In fact, by 2006, there was only one country left in the world that strictly adheres to the principles of the administrative-command system - the DPRK.

Following the accession of ten Central and Eastern European countries to the EU in 2004, followed by Bulgaria and Romania in 2007, differences in development levels between countries in this group have widened.

Developing countries. This type includes states with market economy and low level of socio-economic development. The differences between them and industrialized countries lie not so much in the area of ​​economics as in the peculiarities of the territorial structure of the economy.

Some countries classified as developing countries not only approach developed countries in a number of indicators (GDP per capita, development of pioneering industries), but sometimes even surpass them. Nevertheless, the main characteristics of the socio-economic development of developing countries - dependence on foreign capital, the amount of external debt, the territorial structure of the economy - allow us to classify them as developing countries.

Within the boundaries of the territory of developing countries, as a rule, areas with different socio-economic structures coexist - from primitive appropriating economies, subsistence economies to modern industrial ones. Moreover, natural and semi-natural lifestyles occupy significant areas, but are practically excluded from general economic life. Commodity structures are associated primarily with the foreign market. Many developing countries have not yet identified their “face” in international economics and politics.

Key countries(countries of great potential). This group includes China, India, Brazil, Mexico, which occupy respectively the second, fourth, ninth and fourteenth places in the world in terms of GDP. They have the most significant human potential in the developing world, cheap labor, diverse mineral reserves of global importance; A number of manufacturing industries produce high-tech and high-quality products.

Rice. 108. Modern neighborhoods in Shanghai (China)

Brazil and Mexico have been politically independent states since the first quarter of the 19th century. They have achieved a high level of development through the use of foreign investment. In these countries, there are sharp contrasts between poor and rich areas, between poor and rich groups of the population (Fig. 108-110). India and China are the world leaders in terms of population; These countries are characterized by low per capita GNI indicators, a low share of the urban population, and low quality of life indicators.

Highly urbanized migrant countries with rich agricultural resources and a high standard of living - Argentina and Uruguay stand out in separate group countries The lack of significant mineral reserves hampered the development of those industries from which industrialization usually began, and European Union bans on the import of cheap agricultural products to support farmers, introduced in the 1970s, began to restrain the development of their agricultural sector.

Rice. 109. Outskirts of Mumbai (India)

Countries of enclave development. Home distinctive feature The economies of many countries of this type are the existence of export-oriented mining enclaves that are controlled by foreign capital and weakly connected to national economy. Venezuela, Chile, Iran, and Iraq receive their main income from the development of deposits and the export of minerals (oil in Venezuela, Iran and Iraq; copper and nitrate in Chile).

Rice. 110. Camp of landless peasants in Brazil

Countries of externally oriented development. This type includes countries with average population and resource potential - Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay (in Latin America), Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia (in Africa), Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand ( in Asia).

The economy of these countries is focused on the export of minerals, light industry products, and agricultural products. For some countries - Colombia and Bolivia - drug production and illegal transactions, illegal political movements and labor immigration to richer countries are important.

In this group of countries there are Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs), whose economy has developed at an exceptionally high rate in recent decades due to foreign investment, imported technology and the availability of cheap and relatively skilled labor. The development of knowledge-intensive industries (electronics, electrical engineering) has made these countries among the world leaders in the export of consumer goods (clothing, consumer electronics) to developed countries. NIS of the first wave - the Republic of Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong (SAR of China) and the island of Taiwan were able to reduce their gap with economically developed countries (Fig. 111). The classification of the International Monetary Fund since 1997 classifies them as economically developed countries.

Rice. 111. Hong Kong (map and satellite image)

Hong Kong

Hong Kong (since 1997 - a special administrative region of China) in terms of GDP is in 40th place in the world, behind the Czech Republic and ahead of Portugal and Singapore (54th place in the world in terms of GDP). Its rapid economic development in the 1960-1990s. occurred due to the attraction of foreign investment. The attractiveness of Hong Kong and Singapore was ensured by their favorable geographical position - at the intersection of the most important transport flows of the second half of the 20th century, developed infrastructure, qualified labor and low taxes.

Newly industrialized countries also include Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines (second-wave NICs). Newly industrialized countries are playing an increasingly important role in the export of knowledge-intensive industrial goods to developed countries.

Oil exporting countries with their modern development owe to the influx of petrodollars. The export of oil, the fountains of which began to flow in desert areas previously known only to nomads, radically transformed the economies of these countries, making it possible to create modern cities and develop education and healthcare (Fig. 112, 113). It is interesting that economic growth has changed little the traditional social institutions of oil-exporting states: the majority have retained the monarchical system, norms everyday life and even the laws are based on the commandments of Islam. This type includes the oil-producing monarchies of the Persian Gulf (Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, Bahrain), which in recent decades have transformed from the backward nomadic periphery of the Arab world into the largest oil exporters. Some of these countries have begun, at the expense of petrodollars, the formation of “funds for future generations”, the funds of which are spent on the creation of manufacturing industries and irrigated agriculture.

Rice. 112. New neighborhoods in Dubai (UAE) have grown following the discovery and development of oil fields (satellite image)

Rice. 113. Fashionable hotels and business centers will be built on bulk islands near the coast of Dubai

Plantation countries(“banana republics”) do not have large human and resource potential (Fig. 114). This type includes Costa Rica, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Cuba (in Latin America), Sri Lanka (in Asia), Ivory Coast and Kenya (in Africa).

The ethnic composition of the population of Latin American countries was formed under the influence of the slave trade. The political life of all countries, with the exception of Costa Rica, where the Creole population predominates, is characterized by political instability, frequent military coups and guerrilla movements.

The low standard of living of the population, the dominance of foreign capital, and dependent national policies contribute to the growth of social contrasts, which in turn give rise to frequent military coups and revolutions.

Concession development countries. These are Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname, Gabon, Botswana, Papua New Guinea. These countries recently gained political independence and have world-class mineral reserves. The extraction and export of mineral resources, on the one hand, provide the bulk of foreign exchange earnings, on the other hand, they make the economies of these countries dependent on price fluctuations on world markets.

Rice. 114. Banana plantation Favorable agro-climatic conditions are the basis for the development of plantation farming. Bananas, coffee, and sugar cane are grown. In some countries, plantations are owned by foreign capital, primarily American

"Apartment-leasing" countries- small island and coastal independent states and colonial possessions located at the crossroads of the most important international transport routes. Profitability geographical location, preferential tax policies have turned their territory into locations for the headquarters of the largest transnational corporations and banks. Some countries, thanks to extremely favorable conditions for freight and insurance of ships, became the “home ports” of huge fleets that collected merchant ships from all over the world (Cayman Islands, Bermuda, Panama, Bahamas, Liberia).

Malta, Cyprus, and Barbados have become global centers of tourism business.

Large low-income countries. This group includes Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria, and Vietnam. These countries occupy the leading places in the world in terms of population (with the exception of Vietnam). Rural residents predominate in the structure of the economically active population.

Slide 2

Plantation farming

Plantation farming is a large land-owning economy in capitalist countries in which industrial and food crops are grown, mainly from tropical and subtropical agriculture (sugar cane, coffee, cocoa, tea, rice, bananas, pineapples, tobacco, cotton, rubber, indigo and many others). It arose during the era of primitive accumulation of capital in colonies captured by European capitalist countries. The first plantations were created by the Spaniards in the early 16th century in the West Indies on the island of Hispaniola (the modern island of Haiti). Having established itself on the islands of the Caribbean, the plantation system in the 16th-18th centuries spread to Brazil, Mexico, the southern group of England's Atlantic colonies in North America, as well as to Indonesia (on the island of Java). At this stage, the plantation economy was slave-owning and characterized by predatory methods of exploitation, based on the forced labor of enslaved Indians, and then black slaves brought from Africa, and primitive tools. The development of the plantation economy was accompanied by the rapid growth of the slave trade. Nowadays, plantation farming has been preserved in a number of developing countries.

Slide 3

Plantation Products

Typical crops for plantation farming were tea (India, Sri Lanka, Kenya), rubber (Malaysia, Indonesia), bananas (Ecuador, Colombia and other Latin American countries), sugar cane (Cuba), coffee (Brazil, Colombia), cocoa (Ghana), oil palm (Malaysia, Indonesia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone). Production was located in separate centers in areas that were most naturally favorable for a particular crop and conveniently located for the export of products, although factors such as the possibility of providing the created farms with cheap labor and supplying it with food had an impact. With the emergence of the plantation sector of the economy, many formerly colonial and dependent countries acquired monocultural agricultural specialization. Their exports often consist of more than half of the products of one or a few plantation crops, for example, in Ecuador - bananas, cocoa, coffee, in Colombia - only coffee, in Ghana - cocoa.

Slide 4

In recent decades, the world market has been saturated with many products of tropical origin. In this regard, producing countries are forced to introduce restrictions on their production and strive to expand the sectoral structure of their agriculture and the composition of exports.
The geography of the plantation economy was affected by the general orientation towards the concentration of industrial crops in the most advantageous geo-ecological situation, which grain crops, due to their mass distribution, cannot count on. Agricultural plants of both of these groups are most often independent of each other from an agronomic position, but the need for their combination is dictated by the objective needs of a particular country, the level of labor supply in the village, the landscape mosaic of the territory and many other factors that are not always limited to the agricultural sphere itself.

Slide 5

Sri Lanka

British colonialists, using favorable natural conditions Ceylon and the cheap labor of agricultural workers turned the island into an "unglazed greenhouse" for the production of export plantation crops.
Modern Sri Lanka is an agricultural country with a developed plantation economy. More than half of the economically active population is employed in agriculture. It creates almost 30% of the gross national product. The share of industry, although its importance in the economy is increasing, accounts for less than 20%. The bulk of the gross national product is created in the non-productive sphere (trade, services).
Sri Lanka is the kingdom of tea bushes. The tea bush is a heat-loving and moisture-loving plant that needs loose soils that are well permeable to water and air. Tea plantations are located on the western slopes of the Central Highlands at an altitude of 600 to 1800 m above sea level. The higher, the better quality grown tea.

Slide 6

Costa Rica

Coffee and Costa Rica are almost synonymous. In 1808, the first seedlings of coffee trees were brought to Costa Rica from Cuba, and soon this crop became widespread. Coffee became the source of the country's prosperity and remains an export item to this day. True, it cannot withstand competition with large manufacturers, because... On many plantations, only manual harvesting of coffee beans still exists, due to the fact that the plantations are located on mountain slopes.

Slide 7

Ecuador

The Latin American country has held the title of No. 1 banana supplier for many years. The main condition for growing bananas is the humid tropics. Ecuador has no problems with this: the country is located on the equator, and therefore humidity and temperature in some areas remain at the same level almost all year round.

Slide 8

Cuba

The cultivation of sugar cane in Cuba is facilitated by its natural conditions: climate, predominance of flat terrain, tropical red-brown soils formed under savannas and tropical forests. Currently, they are reserved for plantations of sugar cane and other crops. A constantly hot climate with high precipitation (1500-2000 mm per year), the regime of which promotes the development of reed and the accumulation of sugar.

3.2.4. Small dependent plantation economies. These include the 5 Central American republics - Costa Rica, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, as well as Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Haiti. IN Eastern Hemisphere Sri Lanka belongs to this type of country. The small human and resource potential of these countries, the ineffectiveness of bourgeois-democratic movements due to the constant direct intervention of the United States (and England in Sri Lanka) seem to have mothballed their agricultural specialization. At the same time, the programming of production for certain very large markets, the early penetration of foreign penetration into agriculture, the combination of foreign plantations with local latifundia, hired workers with a mass of minifundists eking out small-scale subsistence farming. The lion's share of all products is produced or purchased and exported directly by banana, sugar, coffee, cotton, cattle breeding and other companies in the USA and tea companies in England in Sri Lanka. Among all developing countries, these stand out for the highest share of exports, agricultural products and the food industry. Recently, both the countries of this type and their “guardians” - TNCs - have been persistently searching for ways to increase employment and industrialization. Labor-intensive parts of production began to be transferred here for re-export processing of imported semi-finished products (the so-called “industriaz maquiladoras”). For example, large enterprises have been created in Haiti for sewing uniforms for the US armed forces from American cut; the Dominican Republic produces bags, suitcases and simple electrical equipment for the US from semi-finished products. Sri Lanka's industrial and re-export development is also moving in the same direction.

3.2.5. Small countries of “concession development” - Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname, Gabon, Botswana, Papua New Guinea. These former colonies only recently gained independence. But the disproportionately large reserves of bauxite, oil, and copper discovered in their depths attracted substantial injections of capital from the metropolises and determined the accelerated development of capitalism. At the same time, concessions of the largest mining corporations became the centers and main factors in the development of these former purely plantation backward territories. They not only developed the corresponding production, but everything else in these small countries was subordinated to their interests. When Trinidad's oil reserves began to dry up and production began to decline, oil companies based here built large oil refineries to distill their oil from Venezuela and the Middle East for subsequent re-export. The Dutch aluminum company, in order to avoid unnecessary costs in the metropolis, went to build a large aluminum smelter in Suriname. Currently, the economies of these countries are completely dependent on world market conditions.

3.2.6. Small and tiny countries are “apartment landlords”. There are over a dozen such countries. All of them are islands or coastal countries located at crossroads. Some of them, until very recently, were or still remain colonies or dependent territories - Hong Kong, Macau (Macao), Bermuda, Grand Cayman, Virgin Islands, New Caledonia. In fact, in these countries, as in all others, the sovereign owners are transnational corporations, which, by paying certain amounts to nominal local owners, use their territories at their own discretion as “free economic zones.” Some are simply “hotel countries” that attract foreign tourism (Malta, Cyprus), others, along with this, are used to locate powerful international banking centers and corporate headquarters beyond the reach of metropolitan tax authorities (Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, Great Britain). Cayman, Bahrain, Panama), while still others, for the same purposes, evading taxes and various kinds of inspections, are used as “flag of convenience” countries for the registration of huge fleets of metropolitan countries (Panama, Bahamas, Liberia, Singapore). Some of the mini-states are used to house large, environmentally hazardous industries, such as the world's largest oil refineries and cement plants in the Bahamas, which also house transhipment bases for crude oil from deep-sea supertankers to regular US East Coast ports. There are also mini-countries on whose territory, along with the functions of “free economic zones,” accredited external tenants are engaged in the processing of large mineral wealth for the external market. Such is, for example, New Caledonia, which produces nickel, chromium, cobalt, alloys and products made from them for export. The largest and most “multi-profile” “apartment buildings” are the most populated “city-countries” - Hong Kong (more than 5 million inhabitants) and Singapore (2.5 million), in which TNCs not only combine almost all of the listed functions, but also they are used as large extraterritorial “industrial platforms”. Both the local population and the cleverly regulated influx of immigrants from the inexhaustible sources of neighboring countries provide ultra-cheap labor for the serially standardized production of consumer goods, as well as machinery, ships, and equipment. TNCs import their semi-finished products duty-free, profits are sold abroad, and countries receive only wages and deductions. Characteristics countries of this type: extreme liberalism of economic legislation (“tax paradise”), political stability and non-interference in the affairs of foreign capital, security and the presence of a powerful military base USA and England, high development infrastructure (especially international communications, ports and airports), free circulation of US dollars instead of and together with national currencies, bilingualism. This type of country is one of the most adapted of all DCs to modern globalization processes and has a clear upward trend. Nowadays, quite a few small dependent territories are striving to get a place and a voice in the UN, accounts in world banks and acquire rich “tenants”.

3.2.8. Large low-income countries - Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Vietnam. In terms of population size, it is among the top dozen countries in the world - significantly exceeding or approaching (Vietnam) the 100 million mark. The most developed areas of these countries are already fully covered by the market, large national capital has been formed here, and TNCs are gradually occupying stronger positions, aimed at ultra-cheap labor and the future consumer market.