What is the state in the 18th century. Russian state in the XVII-XVIII centuries

In 1584, Ivan IV died, and his son Fedor Ivanovich asked for the throne. Under it, as a ruler, the "mid-road" and "average" boyar Boris Godunov was put forward. After Fedor's death (1598), a dynastic crisis came. The only brother of Fedor - Tsarevich Dmitry, who lived in Uglich, died in 1591 under unclear circumstances (whether "Self" at the game "in the knife", whether he was killed by Godnov's people). For the first time, Russia received the elected king, who became the ruler Boris Godunov, officially erected by the Kingdom of the Zemsky Cathedral in 1598. While the ruler, he conducted a successful internal and foreign policy. So, in 1589, Patriarchate was established in Russia; As a result of the war with Sweden in 1590-1593. It was concluded in 1595. Successful toesinsky world, according to which the Baltic cities were departed to Russia: Ivan City, Yam and Koporye. With his name is connected and victory over Crimean Khan under Serpukhov.

In the inner life of the country, Godunov conducted a number of reforms: ordered trade, the bribery was actively stopped, routing justice. Contemporaries highly appreciated his state mind. So, Dyack Ivan Timofeyev, the famous writer of the XVII century, wrote about him: "- We have about it and other clever kings, but their mind is only the shadow of his mind." However, Godunova pursued failures. In 1601-1602 A terrible hunger broke out in Russia (people ate "worst Scot food" and wooded Cour), which caused mass relocations from central counties and the Volga region to Don, Urals and Siberia. In order to save the ruin of small farms, Godunov allowed temporarily the transition of peasants from one landowner to another, but not in large faiths and not into monastic economies, but this prime determination almost did not bring.

In 1601-1602 Folk unrest sweated around the country, and since 1603, rumors began to spread about the wonderful salvation of Tsarevich Dmitry. The most reasoned version to the present time

Mikhail Skopin-Shuisky, together with this detachment, freed a number of cities and blocked the Poles to the north. But in the fall of 1609, the Polish king of Sigismund III Ag. siege to Smolensk and proclaimed the collection of all Polish troops under the departed city. Tushinsky camp due to the mass departure of Polyakov collapsed. The impostor fled to Kaluga. Tushinsky boyars decided to achieve peace with Sigismund L, they made him a proposal for the invitation to the Russian throne of his son of Koriiccha Vladislav. On February 4, 1610, an agreement was concluded in Smolensk on the vocation of the Koriiccha Vladislav into Russian throne. It stipulated the competence of the supreme power and the rights of the highest estates of Russian society. However, the siege of Smolensk was not discontinued, but, on the contrary, adopted more fierce forms, the Russian army was smashed under Smolensk under the villager. The impostor took advantage of the defeat of the Russian troops and again approached Moscow. The boyars and nobles expressed discontent with the helplessness of the Government of Shuisky and overthrew it. Russian state It became "gospely", the Board went to the "Semiboyarschin" ("seventh boyars"). The question of the loss of Russia of independence arose about the loss of Russia.

After the overthrow of Vasily, Shui Swedes violated the terms of the contract of 1609 and occupied the Novgorod land and Novgorod, putting their governors there. Polish and Swedish troops hosted in Russia, negotiations with Vladislav were dragged on (he did not want to take Orthodoxy), meanwhile Moscow already swore him. On November 6, 1610, Patriarch Hermogen spoke with a call to all Russians to begin a serious struggle with the intervention for the liberation of the Russian state. In Central Russia, the Polish detachments were commissioned under the command of Sapega, Lisovsky, Hotkevich, and others. Zholkevsky squad joined Moscow and took the Kremlin. The position of the Russian state was extremely difficult. Sigismund did not shoot the siege of Smolensk, did not send Vladislav, and soon it became known that the Russian crown wants to get Sigismund III himself.

Many cities of the Russian Earth began a movement aimed at the liberation of the country from the interventionists. The cities were among themselves correspondence and agreed on joint actions against the invaders. Many people "were filed in Shishi", i.e. in partisans. Patriarch Hermogen called on all Russians "Once upon a time" standing for the freedom of the Fatherland. The first militia was formed on the Ryazan Earth, and his leader was the nobleman of Prokoki Lyapunov. Cossacks led by Ataman I. Zarutsky and the remains of Tushinsky troops under the command of Trubetskoy. Lyapunov promised all the battles and nobles that would take part in the militia, forgiveness, as well as "will and salary". The militia joined Moscow and besieged the Kremlin China City. The prince Dmitry Pozharsky fought especially bravely on Lubyanka, but she failed to win over the Poles this militia. In addition, disagreements began between the Cossacks, nobles and peasants. The militia had his own plan to restore statehood. "Sentence of the whole Earth" was compiled, according to which the rights of Cossacks were cut compared to the nobles (they, for example, did not receive the right to hold public positions), and the peasants were prescribed a return to the university: "And for the sics of peasants and runaway people to give back old landlords " In addition, the nobles began to occupy land inhabited by state peasants, and severely disappeared with the Cossacks, expressing discontent for any reason. Cossacks called Lyapunov on a circle and killed. The militia broke up. The defense in the capital was kept Cossack Tabor led by Trubetsky and Zarutsky, a total of approximately 10 thousand soldiers. And at this time, Smolensk fell resisting 642 days, and Sigismund discovered his claims to the Russian throne, the Swedes seized Novgorod and Pskov and offered to the Russian throne of Prince Karl-Philip on Russian. In Novgorod and its surroundings established the power of the Swedish administration.

In the fall of 1611, the second national militia began to be formed in Nizhny Novgorod. His initiator was the Posansky man - Zemsky Starost (favorite head) "Beefader" Goat Minin-Suchuk. Posad people decided to collect the "third day", G.E. one third of income, and invite those skillful in the considerable business. At the suggestion of Mini, they turned to the prince Dmitry Pozharsky, who distinguished himself in the battles of the first militia. At that time, he heal wounds in his Suzdal estate. Thus, the Nizhny Novgorod militia was headed by two people: Dmitry Pozharsky, who commanded the army, and the goat minin, headed with money and supply. The chronicler recorded on this:: In the Moscow state, the last people gathered and went against the godless Latin and their trains. " To guide the militia, the "Council of the whole Earth" was created from elected people (from each city two or three people), then the government and orders were formed as the management authorities - in the Nizhny Novgorod militia, the management scheme of the Moscow state was repeated. In the spring of 1612, the militia moved to Moscow through Yaroslavl. In August 1612, the militia and fire militia approached Moscow and connected with the remnants of the first militia of Trubetskoye and part of the noble militia. To Moscow, the Polish detachments of Khodkevich approached Moscow, but were repulsed. Minin in these battles showed himself a talented organizer and brave warrior. October 26, 1612 Moscow was released.

In January 1613, the Zemsky Cathedral of the Expanded Composition was held, which decided that no ingenic applicants for the Russian throne were invited. The name of Mikhail Romanova, who originated from the ancient Boyarsky Staromoshkovsky kind, related to relationship with the fastest dynasty Rurikovichi was called. Mikhail Romanov, despite the youthful age and a heavy environment in which he was on the throne, led the country skillfully. Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich accepted urgent measures to eliminate military danger. Diplomatic means, thanks to the mediation of England, relations with Sweden were settled and in 1617 the Stolbov world was signed. In this world, Russia again lost the coast (pit, coporye, nuts), but returned the Russian Novgorod lands occupied by the Swedes.

Negotiations with Poland were delayed, and Vladislav went on a campaign to "extract the throne." Hetman Sagaidachnaya moved to the rescue. But the defense of Moscow was organized successfully, and by Moscow in the village of Rubtsov, Polish troops were broken down by headlong, on December 1, 1618, the world was concluded in the village of Deulino near the Trinity-Sergian Monastery. The prisoners returned home, and among them - the father of the king - Metropolitan Filaret, who was solemnly erected in San Patriarch. Under the conditions of the Deulin world with Poland, Russia gave Smolensk (except Vyazma), Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversk land. The city of Smolensk went to Poland.

Smolensk's loss was seriously survived in Russia, and in 1632, when Sigismund III Augustus died and In Poland arose "Inkurvolev", Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich presented Poland "her guilt" in relation to the Russian state (increasingness during the University, the plundering of Russian lands). Russian troops under the command of Mikhail Shein began a campaign to Smolensk. At this time, the Polish king was elected Vladislav - Son Sigismund, who headed the army, managed to surround the troops of Shein and seize weapons, traffic and provisions. As a result of these actions in 1634, the Polianovsky world was concluded, according to which Russia did not receive Smolensk and Chernigov, but Vladislav officially refused claims to Russian throne.

In 1637, Cossacks without coordination with the Government of Mikhail Fedorovich seized the Azov and after a long "seat" requested the king of help. The government was in dual provisions on the one hand, the acquisition of Azov was part of Russian foreign policy plans, as it would ensure the exit of Russia to the Black Sea, and on the other - Russia, exhausted by Smutow, was not ready for war with a powerful Ottoman Empire. Zemsky Cathedral of 1641 decided to withdraw the Cossacks and the war with the Turks did not start. In 1642, the Cossacks left the Azov.

With the Tsar, Mikhail Fedorovich actively launched the development and settlement of Siberia. In 1618, Russian people reached the Yenisei and founded there. Krasnoyarsk. In 1619 - Yenisei, in 1631 - Bratsky and in 1632 - Yakutskiy. In 1622, Bishopat was established in Tobolsk.

The king strongly contributed to the development of the fertile lands of Siberia, directing in these lands not only servicing people, but also pastry peasants.

In general, the government of Mikhail Fedorovich (1613-1645) adhered to a peaceful orientation in its foreign policy.

Outcome: During the time of troubles, there was an attempt to implement reforms as in political (collective leadership, the election of the king, the creation of temporary governments, etc.) and in the economic spheres (tax transformations, liberalization of the order of peasant transitions, etc.) . During the struggle against the intervention, national consolidation (folk militia) occurred, but unresolved economic problems were constantly led to the exacerbation of the social struggle, which took different forms - from the palace coups to the peasant war.

In 1613, Karem Mikhail Fedorovich was elected to the Russian throne, which placed the beginning of the Romanovsky Dynasty, which ruled Russia until March 1917

In the second half of the XVII century. After the death of Mikhail Fedorovich, Russia is ruled by His Son - Tsar Alexey Mikhailovich (1645-1676).

The social composition of the society remained the same. The non-fermented population (serviced people) was represented by boyars, nobles, Cossacks and Archers. The top of this group was the court ranks: Duma Boyars and Sound. Among the nobles, a twum walker was considered the highest rank. Military service for them was mandatory. Served noblemen "in the Fatherland", for which they were awarded the estates and worship.

Streletskaya service was built as in the XVI century, "according to the device", i.e. Inviting free "horses" of people to "twitched places". The number of shooting regiments in the XVII century. significantly increased, and by the middle of the XVII century. They counted 70 thousand people. In the 30s. XVII century There were "the shelves of a new building" - the first experience of creating a regular army. They were on the full provision of the state and were formed from datic (dependent) people designed for lifelong service. The officer was noble and replenished with foreign experts. General military administration in the country carried out the governor. Voivodship significantly strengthened in the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich (1613-1645).

Military reforms allowed the central authority to become independent of the nobility in the formation of the Armed Forces and at the same time use the obligation of the service of the nobles when creating officer's personnel.

The city was presented by the trade and craft population and traditionally shared on: "the best, medium, young and black people.

The peasants constituted two main groups: proteinic and private owners.

Mid XVII century Related to the development of small-handed production, the products of which are supplied to the market. The division of labor arises and develops, primarily on the geographical basis: the ferrous production - Pavlovo on OK, Tula, Lipetsk and Kashira; Textiles - Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Vladimir, Vologda, Lyskovo; The canvas - cities in the top of the Volga; Feling crafts - Kimra. Specialization leads to an increase in production. In the second half of the XVII century. In Russia, manufactories arise, which are large specialized manufacturing products that are usually hired work. The first manufactories were formed in Russia in iron production (Tool-Kashir region). Production development led to the formation of the All-Russian market. There is a layer of people employed only by the sale of products - merchants. In the formation of a market structure playing the role of manufactory and small-handed production, which was widespread in Russia, especially in the non-black minion provinces. Interregional ties led to the creation of large fairs: Makarevskaya, Irbitan, Svenskaya and a number of others, less significant. Moscow was also a major industrial and agricultural shopping center. Wholesale trade focused in the hands of famous merchants, the most privileged group of which - guests - had the right to keep overseas trading; Retail trades were engaged in small merchants. Receives development and foreign trade, which is carried out with the East through Astrakhan, and with Western countries - through Arkhangelsk and Kholmogory.

The government provided the patronage of trade and for its further development, two protectionist trade charters took place: a trade charter of 1653 (on the petitions Stroganov) and a new-trading charter of 1667, presented by the Ordin-Nachokin, not only supported by the Russian merchants, but also giving certain freedom cities in trade issues.

In the financial field, the end of the XVII century. It is marked by intensive transformation of submitted and tax systems. Staying the main type of taxation, "Sokh" (economic territorial unit) is subject to a long number of additional taxes: customs assembly, shooting, Yamsk, salt and tobacco excise taxes.

At the end of the century "Sokha" as a unit of taxation is inferior to the "yard". Tagging begins to acquire more and more personal character. In 1646, a resident census is carried out, and in 1678 census books are compiled. In 1679-1681. There was a final transition from the stitch to the residential taxation. All the work on taxation from 1680 was concentrated in the order of a big treasury.

The system of vessels shared on the central (king, boyars and orders) and local (luminous and goddan authorities of self-government and governor).

The compilation of the deposition "was a complex process in which the moments of codification, meeting, revision, legislative decisions and zaruly jar" (V.O. Kleevsky) can be distinguished.

In the cathedral, the long-term process of legal registration of serfdom has found its completion.

Already in the period of Kievan Rus, measures were carried out on the economic and noncommissory challenge of the peasants feud. The establishment of the dependence of the peasants from the landowners was the main sign of the entire system of feudal relations.

Forms of noncommotic dependence were reduced mainly to different shapes of the choleracy (slavery). The Kola Stop in ancient Russia was special, different from the Eastern and European (Greek, Roman) slavement, character. It can be described as a patriarchal.

Quite soon (in the XIV century) showed signs of general cutting of the coolant as a form of dependence. The place of extraconomic coercion began to occupy the form of economic, banging, property dependence. Slowing sources are reduced, the bonda coolant appears.

Reduction of the coolant was carried out by different paths. Some traditional forms disappeared, such as the "urban key" (admission to the service to the Mr. without a contract), it was forbidden to boil "boyar children" (nobles). Participated cases of holopes leave on the will.

The development of the bonded coolant (in contrast to the complete, the bonded coolant could not be transmitted by the will, his children did not automatically become holsters) led to the position equation of holopes with serfs.

The special category of "big", or "reports", the horses, who were princely or boyars who made individual branches of the economy were highlighted, - Kustoms, Tiuna, Flashling, Old Towns. They performed administrative, judicial and police functions in the estates of their Lords.

A significant part of the "big" hills passed into the category of free people, and at the end of the XVI century, during the period of the Okrichnin, some of them sat on the former Boyar lands, having received the name of "new high-minded Lords."

From the end of the XV century. Cabital coolant displaces the coolant full. At the same time, the Cabscallery turned into a dependence form, which from the XVI century. It began to extend to the new layers of the free population, which fell into an economic dependence (nobles, clergy, serve people in general, etc.). This required the conclusion of a special agreement.

Forms of economic dependence of peasants also have an ancient origin. Already procresses mentioned in Russian truth were the category of peasants who fell into a batch dependence. In the state of Mr., they were forced to fulfill the different job percentage of their debt.

A semi-free position of the purchase, the presence of the Mr. the rights to his personality and property brought to the public to the status of the Hall. In some cases (escape, committing a crime), the purchase could turn into a complete slave.

Attaching the peasants to the ground begins early enough. Already in the XIV century. In transferential contracts, it was recorded not to lure each other with the black (applied) peasants.

From the middle of the XV century. A number of literacy of the Grand Duke are published, which establishes a single day of leave and reception of peasants for all feudals. In the same place, it was indicated for the obligation to pay certain money for a leaving the peasant ("Elderly").

Attachment developed in two ways - out-economic and economic (bonded). In the XV century There were two main categories of peasants - Older trucks and new arrivals. The first behaved their farm and fully carried away the basis, constituting the basis of feudal economy. The feudal sought to consolidate them for himself, prevent their transition to another owner. The second, as the newly arrived and just those who were on their land, could not fully bear the burden of duties and used certain benefits, received loans and loans. Their dependence on the owner was debt, bally. In the form of dependence, the peasant could be a half (work for half a crop) or a silverman (work per percent).

The first legal act aimed at attaching the peasants was the Faudsale of 1497, who established the rule of "Yuryye Dn," (a certain and very short term of the transition of peasants from one feudal to another, the need to pay an "elderly"). These provisions were developed in the judiciary of 1550, an increase in the size of the "elderly".

Since 1581, the so-called protected years are introduced, during which the peasants temporarily forbidden to move even in Yuryev day. The ban extended to the owned, state (black), palace peasants and the Posad population.

By 1592, the preparation of "tubers", in which the names of all the owners of the courtyards were entered. The books were a documentary basis for the subsequent attachment of the peasants, their waste was monitored, the wanted and return were controlled.

In 1597, a five-year term of the cheek of the rigged peasants is established in the royal decree, in 1607 this term is extended to 15 years. The years of the search was called "urgent years."

The final act of the Realification Process was the Cathedral Code of 1649, which abolished the "urgent years" and established the indefiniteness of the cheek of the runaway peasants spreading to all categories of the peasantry.

By the middle of the XVII century. In the hands of the feudal, there were almost all the "black" (state) volosts in the central regions of the country, and the peasants who lived on them turned into serfs.

Unlike the protein vehicle, the ownership of the peasants (on the lands belonging to victims, landowners, monasteries and the palace) all the duties carried directly in favor of the owner.

The Cathedral Clause forbade landowners to take peasants recorded in sister books, and their families. The fortress state has become hereditary.

The peasants were sought up with their landowners on a wide range of cases, carried property responsibility for the debts of their Lords.

On the lands of the state, the palace and feudal police after the establishment of serfdom continued to exist the traditional peasant community. The community carried out a redistribution (exchange) of land plots, distributed as a statement and duty (the main boring barbecues and natural or monetary lifts), controlled the contractual relations of their members. The peasant putors were inherited by sons, but their disposal was limited to the land rights of the community.

In the XV century The church played an important role in the process of uniting Russian lands around Moscow and strengthening a centralized state. In the new power system, she took the appropriate place.

There was a system of church management authorities - episcopates, dioceses, parishes.

In 1589, the Patriarchate was established in Russia, which strengthened the claims of the church to political power, which resulted in conflicts of Patriarch Nikon with King Alexey Mikhailovich (mid-XVII century), and on a wider level - in split, collision of old and new political and ideological positions of the church.

The clergy as a special estate was given a number of privileges and benefits: the release of filters, duties and corporal punishment.

On the issue of land ownership of the church from the XVI century. A serious dispute was conducted. From 1580, the monasteries were forbidden to buy faults from serviced people, take them to mortgage and "on the soul member." The most tangible restriction was the elimination of the "White" monastic, patriarchals, metropolitan and bishops in cities, fastened in the cathedral cessation of 1649.

Paline Patriarch relied on the subordinates of the church organizations of people, the special status of monasteries, which were large landowners, representatives of the Church in the estate and representative bodies and management.

The church carried out his court perpetrators through the bishops, their governors and monastic courts headed by Igumen. The bishop was appointed by a metropolitan or king.

From the middle of the XVI century. Church authorities for their prescriptions prohibit secular entertainment, sceneousness, gambling, excitement, filmkins, etc.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe "two authorities" (spiritual and secular) made the church organization a strong competitor for state bodies.

In 1653, under the leadership of Patriarch Nikon, a church reform began, aimed at the unification of the rites of the Orthodox Church. The foundations of the Orthodox fault were not affected by reform. The church cathedral approved some of the ritual innovations and made changes to the text of the liturgical books, eliminating the accumulated duration of the discrepancy. The response to the reform was the powerful protest of the supporters of the "Old Faith", which later, asked in the form of individual directions and sense, the main one was old-cohaded. In general, this movement has acquired a mass opposition in relation to the church, but also to the state.

According to its social composition, old-handedness was rather diverse, but his mainly moving force was the peasants, possessing people and closely connected with them the lower white clergy, as well as local seruners. The black clergy in some places also actively supported adherents of the old faith; So, for example, these sentiments were very strong in one of the authoritative monastery in Russia - Solovetsky. For eight years (1668-1676), the monks of the monastery provided armed resistance to the government troops Alexei Mikhailovich, the monastery, who refused to adopt new liturgical books, corrected by reform.

Many old-supplied senses (directions) defended the ideals of the common property and considered labor as the only source of honest and efficient existence. In old-supplied literature, an appeal to the ideals of equality of all people on Earth is often found.

A particularly strong part of the splitness was the criticism, which the hierarchs of the Church and the highest ranks of state power were subjected. The prominent fighter for the "old faith" Protopop Avvakum openly condemned the order at which the "humble and small" oppositely oppressed "large". Equality of all people on Earth Avvakum considered the only pleasing to God.

Supporters of the official church doctrine in the fight against old-handedness used the state apparatus and repressive organs and the army.

There was a peculiar "nationalization" of the church. This is the fact that the Cathedral Code of 1649 first includes crimes against religion (GL.1) to the composition of the secular codification (before that, such acts were governed by church charters).

The rapprochement of the Church with the state prepared the reform of the beginning of the XVIII century, as a result of which the church was finally included in the system of state organizations, losing its independence.

After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich in 1676, the throne moved to his eldest son from the first marriage with Marya Ilinichny Miloslavskaya, Fyodor Alekseevich (1676-1682). During his reign, an important reform was carried out - the cancellation of the settlement in 1682, which influenced the organization of military affairs.

To discuss the issue of military reforms in the state (the holding of them has long been naply), seruners were convened, who offered the king to appoint commanders "without seats and without selection, in which the Great Sovereign will indicate." The Special Commission suggested that the noblemen serve in permanent troops, and the outdated custom of locality would be completely canceled as damaged by discipline and order.

To solve this issue, the king convened the Zemsky Cathedral, but not in full, but only the upper chamber as the most interested in solving this problem. The Cathedral condemned the custom of locality, calling him the "gential" and "terranevice", and canceled it, pointing out that the "discharge books", in which the local affairs were recorded, would be burned by the palace. It was also ordered to make new pedigree for the entire hereditary nobility. Fedor Alekseevich's death interrupted military transformations.

After the death of Fyodor Alekseevich in 1682, the struggle for the throne between the two groupings of Boyar: Miloslavsky (Rodna Alexei Mikhailovich in the first marriage) and Naryshkin (relatives of the second wife Alexei Mikhailovich - Natalia Kirillovna Naryshkina). Miloslavsky insisted on the erection of the son of the king from the first marriage - Tsarevich Ivan, and Naryshkina, pointing to the weak health of Ivan, demanded the transfer of the throne to the younger son of the king from marriage with Natalia Kirillovna Naryshina - Peter. On the side of the Naryshkina, the influential Patriarch Joakim. However, Peter's preference was clearly violated by the rights of the eldest son Ivan. Miloslavsky, taking advantage of the dissatisfaction of the Streltsov, who did not pay a salary for a long time, raised them to the riot. Based on the support of the Sagittarius, the authorities wanted to capture the eldest daughter Alexei Mikhailovich for marriage from Miloslavskaya - Tsarevna Sophia, who gained an excellent education under the leadership of the poet and the enlightener of Simeon Polotsk. The uprising, which was led by the new head of the Streetsky Order of Prince Khovansky, began on May 15, 1682 and took a wide range and bloody. Numerous relatives of Queen Natalia Naryshkina, including her native brothers, were cruelly killed. At the request of Streltsov adopted an unprecedented decision: two brothers were erected on the throne - Ivan and Peter (even the royal throne was built for two persons). "By the inability of Ivan" and "Maltlestry Peter" Sophia was announced by the government, its board continued for seven years (1682-1689).

Peter and Mother settled in the village of Village Preobrazhensky, where childhood and the youth of the future king were held. In the summer of 1689, an open conflict took place between Peter and Sofia: Peter accused the government in the intention to assign power. As a result of the armed confrontation of Sophia, she was sent to the Novodevichy Monastery, where she subsequently accepted the victim under the name of Susanna.

Peter was a special message invited Brother Ivan "The kingdom to rule himself." However, the Country Management was actually engaged in the government formed by Naryshkin and consisting of their supporters.

In 1696, after the death of Ivan Peter alone established on the throne. In 1697, he set off as part of the "Great Embassy" abroad, but having received the news about Streletsky Bunte, interrupted stay abroad and returned to Moscow. The uprising was suppressed with great cruelty, the Streletsky army was disbanded, the Archers were gradually poured into the regiments of the "New Building" (a model of the future regular army). Finally, the Streletsky shelves were abolished in 1713

Peter began to manage the country independently.

Foreign policy.In accordance with the artemries of the "Eternal Peace" concluded with the Commonwealth speech in 1686, Russia took several military campaigns against the Crimean Khanate (1687 and 1689). Russian troops under the command of V. Golitsyn failed.

In 1695, the first campaign against the Turkish fortress of Azov was taken. The blockade of the fortress failed due to the lack of the Russian fleet in the Russians. The Turkish courts constantly delivered food and weapons to Azov.

In 1696, a second Azov campaign took place. Russian flotilla (built in Voronezh) approached Azov (built in Voronezh) with a 40,000th army. After the assault from the sushi and the sea of \u200b\u200bAzov fell. Peter himself took part in both campaigns in the rank of Bombarer Mikhailov.

In 1697, a "great embassy" went to Europe from Russia, as part of which Peter I was. The tasks of the embassy included familiarization with the political situation in Europe, identifying potential allies and opponents of Russia.

It turned out that compulcient, Denmark and Saxony could become the real allies of Russia. Enclosed in 1699. The Antiswalie Northern Union and a truce with Turkey in 1700, Russia decided to speak against Sweden.

In 1700, the war begins against Sweden, which entered the story called North. From the very beginning, it becomes unsuccessful for the Northern Union. Karl Xii landed the landing under Copenhagen and led Dania from the war. The released 12-thousandth army he moved under Narva. In November 1700, the Russians were defeated. The Swedish army numerically exceeded Russian, in addition, was well armed and trained. In addition, she used the more perfect artillery - the Gaubic, and Russia had mostly morty. The victim defeat, Peter urgently engaged in the reorganization of the army. He built four executed metallurgical plant in the Urals (cast iron, kernels, guns) and five - on Olonets and Belozersky ores. In eight years, he built 30 state-causary manuffs that dressed and equipped the army (no more than 15 manufactories were built during the whole century). A first-class small arms, multi-powered cannon, equipped with horse artillery.

In 1701, the first victory of Russian troops under the command of Sheremetyeva was obsessed under the command of Sheremetyeva, the Fortress of Nurents was also taken. May 17, 1703 at the mouth of the river. Neva was founded by a new city - the future capital of St. Petersburg, the construction of which began with the bookmark Petropavlovsk Fortress. Moving on, Russian troops took holes, Coporye, Korela and Oreke. Peter I noted that "the truth is the beer of a cruel, this nut was, however, the glory of God is happily."

In 1704, Narva and Derptit capitulated. Karl XII changed the tactics of warfare and began military actions against Poland. In 1706, he mastered the Warsaw, Summors of August II and built a Posnislav Leschinsky to the throne of the Posnislovsky. Thus, Poland and Saxony (since August II was both Kurfürst Saxon) were also brought out of the war. Russia remained with Sweden one on one. Karl decided to start an offensive in Moscow with Western Lights, through Smolensk, but his prolonged siege forced to go to Kiev, where he enlisted the support of the Hetman Mazepa. Kochubey and Colonel Iskra warned Peter about the preparing treason, but Peter trusted Mazepene and considered Kochubey and sprout with slanders. In this direction, the first battle of Russians with the Swedes occurred on September 28, 1708 at the village of Forest. The body of General Lewenga Paul suffered a defeat, and Peter called this battle the "mother of Poltava Batlia".

On June 27, 1709, the siege of Poltava began, which lasted about three months. On June 27, 1709, Poltava battle broke out, in which Peter himself took part. The Swedes were defeated, Karl and Mazepa fled to Bender (Turkey). The Swedes lost 9 thousand killed, 3 thousand. Delighted, during the retreat of the remnants of the army, Nastig A. Menshikov and captured another 16,250 Swedes. The first-class army of Charles XII no longer existed. The Polish throne took August II, and recovered the Northern Union: Denmark, Commonwealth and Saxony's speech again became allies of Russia.

In 1710, Turkey, in violation of the Peace Constantinople, announced Russia to Russia. Russian army suffered a defeat on r. Rod, where a peace treaty was concluded. The efforts of the Shaffirov diplomat, the conditions of the Prut State Treaty of 1711 were not particularly difficult for Russia: Russia lost azov, it was obliged to not interfere in the internal affairs of the Commonwealth.

The next stage of the Northern War was actions in the Baltic States. Russian troops in 1710 took Riga, Revel, Vyborg and Kexgolm, in 1714 - Shttin and Helsingfors. On July 27, 1714, the largest marine battle occurred at Cape Gangut, in which the Russian fleet broke the Swedish squadron. In 1718, a peace treaty was concluded on the Aland Islands, but England's dissatisfied with his conditions continued to incite Sweden to continue the war, promising. In 1720, the Island of Grengam in the Harbor in the Aland Islands the Swedish squades again tolerate defeat. At this time, Karl XII dies, and the new Queen of Ulrica Eleonora asks for the conclusion of the world. The peace treaty was signed on August 30, 1721 in Nesteadt (Finland). According to him, Russia has moved part of Karelia, Estonia with Revel, East Latvia with Riga. The Finnish lands were returned to Sweden, but the Vyborg province remained behind Russia. The shores of the Baltic at the high length of the Russians. In Nesteadt, the population of these provinces retained the previous rights and privileges. In 1727, Liflandia received a special seam. The German nobility, which owned the main array of lands in these parts, gradually penetrated the highest Russian nobility.

Conversion.Above Alexei Mikhailovic there was a tendency to concentrate power in the hands of a monarch. The value of the Zemsky Cathedral has fallen. With the establishment of the order of the mystery, which controlled the entire orders, the country's management focused in the hands of the king. At the ground, the governors became increasingly important, finally submitted to the Zemskiy and lift elected self-government. Legal registration of absolutism as a form of government (absolute monarchy) has already received under Peter I. All the conditions necessary to establish such power have developed in his reign: a strong regular army, an extensive state office, the financial independence of state power, the subordination of the Church to the state.

Absolutist trends in approving the status of the supreme power in the state found their expression in the articula of the military (1716), in which the unlimitedness of the power of the king was confirmed. So, in Art. 120 The articula of the military facilitated: "His Majesty is an independent monarch, who should not give anyone in the world in the world."

After the victory in the Northern War in 1721, the Senate and Synod proclaimed Peter Emperor All-Russian. Peter accepted the title of the emperor and became referred to as the Great.

In the spiritual regulation, which determined the situation and form of the Synod activity, it was also argued that the "Emperor Russian there is a monarch self-adjustable and unlimited, to obey his authorities not only for fear, but also for the conscience God himself commands." Archbishop Faofan Prokopovich, who supported Peter I reforms. He wrote in his treatise "True will of the monarch", that the royal power is inviolable "by virtue of her invalidation" (1722)

Thus, the term "autocracy" changed its value and began to be used not to designate the sovereignty and independence of the authorities, as it was in the XIV-XVI centuries. (In the sense of "I myself hold your table"), and to determine its unlimitedness.

Russian absolutism has been inherent in the distinctive features. If the absolute monarchy in Europe developed in the context of the development of capitalist relations and the abolition of old feudal institutions (especially serfdom), then absolutism in Russia coincided with the maximum development of serfdom.

If the social base of Western European absolutism was the Union of Nobility with cities (free, imperial), then Russian absolutism relied mainly on the nobility-destroyers and serve.

The establishment of an absolute monarchy in Russia was accompanied by a broad state expansion in all spheres of public, corporate and private life.

Economy.The area of \u200b\u200bthe origin of capitalist elements (without the appearance of which the establishment of absolutism is impossible) in Russia, manufactory production (public and private) and a barbecan landfill production, exhaust fishing and peasant trade. The sphere of capital accumulation remained merchant trade. The number of manufactories increased, but the lack of a free labor market (on manufactories were occupied by the attribute peasants, peasants and runaway) made industrial development.

In the XVIII century The all-Russian market begins, Moscow remains the center of trade relations.

The economic activity of the peasants was pushing the resistance of the nobility and bureaucracy. The terrestrial labor prevalted over free. This was facilitated by the fact that the work of serfs was used in the state industry.

Peasant Means (Bargy Days) were not regulated by law, which increased feudal arbitrariness. Private owner peasants XVIII century. The majority of the population was, and the distribution of state (protein-sized) land in the landowners increased their number.

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. The merchants and breeders were allowed to acquire populated villages to provide working hands created by enterprises. It was also allowed to attribute to the factories and plants working on their runaway and eligible people. Later to the assigned began to be equal to enterprises in enterprises illegitimate and "tenting differences". Ascribed to the enterprises of the peasants could not be sold separately from the factory, to translate from the factory to the plant, let go on the will or lay out.

In 1718, a pillow of the population was conducted, and financial services moved to the pillow. As a result of this action, groups of non-documentary estates (nobility and clergy) were allocated and the various groups of the peasant population (state, possession, posting, chores) were equal in applied terms.

The ruling class was the nobility. During the formation of an absolute monarchy, there was a combination of various categories of feudalists. Their economic consolidation has completed the decree "On the Union of Charter" (1714), eliminating the differences between the behavior and estate and united these concepts into one - "Real Estate". With the elimination of the Boyarskaya Duma, the boyars and the nobility were combined into one estate - "shine" (the term did not fit, and this estate became traditionally called the nobility).

The nobility becomes the only served class, and the service is the main sphere of the application of its strength and energy. The established procedure for transferring real estate by inheritance to one of the sons forced others to go to the service (military or civilian) state, trade trade, etc.

In 1722, the new principles of the formation of the ruling layer (saw, the qualifications, dedication of the sovereign) were enshrined in the "Range Tabel". This document actually turned the old company's idea: the title and the title turned out of the ground to obtain a post in the state apparatus to the result of promotion. Having achieved a certain rank, it was possible to become a nobleman, i.e. Get a personal or offacarious nobility. By the end of the 20s. XVIII century The number of the noblewood arrived to the noblepiece amounted to a third of the entire noble class.

"Tabel about ranks" for the first time divided the service for military and civil, and the latter - to Stat and Courtnic.

Since 1714, compulsory is established for noble children. primary education. Special military and maritime schools are created, for training the navigation case of young nobles, send abroad.

The noblemen were monopolists in the field of land tenure and constituted a significant part of the bureaucratic apparatus, as well as the entire officer corps.

Administrative reforms of the first quarter of the XVIII century. (under Peter I) affected all the spheres of government.

With the cessation of the existence of the Boyar Duma, the Senate (1711) became the highest government authority. Senate was provided with special powers ("Anyone, there will be a decree of them, as our own"). He became the highest executive, administrative and judicial body, for the meetings of which the Senate office was established in Moscow. The Senate issued decrees and clarifications, followed the actions of governmental and judicial institutions, and after his work, observed the Ober-Prosecutor ("Oco Sovereign"), which reported to all the king personally. In addition, specially allocated guardsmen who followed the behavior of senators attended the meetings of the Senate.

In 1718, a general and political police was created; The Governor General of St. Petersburg was put at the head of the general, and the Political Police Bodies were the Preobrazhensky order and the secret office.

In 1717-1720 Peter I created new bodies of industry management - the college, which replaced outdated orders.

Three of them were considered the main points: Admiralteyskaya, or maritime, military and foreign affairs, in addition, there were still Bergollegia, the Manufactory-Collegium, the Justice College, and others. The work of the Board was determined by the general and industry regulations, which participated in foreign experts. At the head of the board, the president and vice president stood, and the tracks and advisors worked in them.

Local control was also converted. In 1702, the authorities of the Clarification were finally eliminated - luminous and sommens and their functions were transferred to the voivod. A new territorial division of the state was introduced: eight provinces were established, on which all counties and cities were painted. In 1713-- 1714 The number of provincial increased to 11.

The governor was delivered at the head of the province, focusing in his hands all the administrative, judicial and military power.

The second territorial reform was carried out in 1719 (after the introduction of pillow). Its content was to divide the provinces on the province. New administrative division finally destroyed the old supplementary system of territorial relations, which remained since Moscow Rus.

For the more successful development of trade and industry, Peter I created bodies of urban self-government. In 1699, the Burgomister Chamber was established in Moscow and Zemsky huts in other cities. In 1720-1721 Peter unified urban management: The main magistrate was created in St. Petersburg and city magistrates in places with administrative, financial and judicial functions.

Military reform was one of the most important links in the chains of state transformations of the beginning of the XVIII century.

The sample for transforming the military parts of the steel shelves of Personal Protection Peter I - Preobrazhensky, Semenovsky and Lefortovo.

The shooting uprising of 1698 accelerated the elimination of the old shooting units and their disbandment (however, their individual parts also participated in the capture of Narva in 1704 and the Poltava battle of 1709). Moscow Archers were disbanded in 1713.

Since 1699, the formation of the recruit system of recruitment in the army begins. On February 20, 1705, the law "On the set of recruit from 20 yards for one person" was adopted, which the recruitment of the peasants and the mesh was introduced. The service life was determined in 20-25 years, the acquisition was made by the birth of troops: infantry, cavalry, artillery. The army became regular.

From among the owners of the peasants, the courtyards and the Posh population, 27 infantry and two drago regions were formed. By 1708, 52 infantry regiments were as part of the army, the kit was carried out on the established recruitous districts. For training soldiers and officers, military charter and numerous instructions were prepared. In 1716, military introduced, and in 1720 - Maritime Charter (by this time a strong fleet was built in Russia). The commander-in-chief of the army was the king himself, with him a military council acted. At the beginning of the XVIII century. The general headquarters arises.

The reform activity of Peter I touched and the church. In 1700, by Peter I, the Patriarchal discharge was abolished, and its functions were transferred to the monastic order. In 1721, the adoption of the spiritual regulation was abolished by the patriarchy, the spiritual board was established to manage the church, transformed shortly to the Holy Synod. The monarch himself turned into the chapter of the Church (formally, at the head of the Synod, there was an Ober Prosecutor), he solved the issues of the organization of church life, the appointment of hierarchs. The church has lost its independence, its land and property passed under state control.

In connection with the leading of the Northern War, the Government of Peter I increased the size of direct and indirect taxes spreading to the urban population and the total amount of obligations for land and servicing people. The deterioration of living conditions caused a number of uprisings, especially on the outskirts of the Russian state.

In 1705, an uprising broke out in Astrakhan against the arbitrariness of Rzhevsky's governor, which independently increased taxes and established excise taxes to some products. Dutters were subject to all types of trading, and often the amount of taxes exceeded the amount accepted from trade. In addition, Voivod Timofey Rzhevsky severely used the Decree of Peter I on the Brandrs and Short Caftans. Taxes and excise taxes were primarily affected by the position of poor people and serve people living on a salary (Sagittarov). The salary did not pay the shooters, and the prices for food rose. On the night of July 30, 1705, the uprising of the Arched and the lower social groups of the city population of Astrakhan began, as a result of which the governor and the "primary people" were interrupted. The residents of the cities and Black Yar, Guryev and the Town town joined the rebel. Schemetyeva, sent by the government, Sheremetyeva smashed them and mastered Astrakhan. The rebels did not support nor Don Cossacks nor Volga Posads. The investigation of Astrakhan uprising was produced in Moscow, several hundred people died from torture, many were exacted in Siberia, others were executed on Red Square.

Soon after the pacification of the Astrakhan uprising in the south of Russia, another, more powerful movement (1707-1708) began on the Don under the leadership of Kondrai Bulavin. After taking Azov (1696), the Russian troops of the Cossacks were attracted by the Government to carry border service. The government began to constrain the Cossack self-government and limit its number, as a large and independent army represented a danger. On Don, especially from the end of the XVII century, a large number of peasants from various counties of Russia have accumulated. The landowners of these counties complained to the government to the outflow of the peasants from their places. The government sent the punitive detachments several times to Don the punishable detachments, which were caught by running and returned to their landowners. With similar tasks, he was sent to the Don and a detachment under the command of Prince Yuri Dolgorukova. This detachment acted with exceptional cruelty, without stopping before burning villages. The former Bakhmut Ataman Kondrati Bulavin collected the Cossack squad and in the fall of 1707 on the river. Idar at night destroyed the detachment of long-year. Bulavin moved up the Don and everywhere spread "charming letters" with calls to destroy officers and soldiers who tried to return runaway (violating the well-known rule: "There is no don issue"), straighten with the boyars and governors. The uprising shifted on the "work schedule" of the Voronezh shipyard, captured Tambov and Kozlovsky counties, in which the peasants have a landsel drivers and went to the Cossacks. Against Bulavina joined the Cossack foreman under the leadership of Ataman Lukyan Maximov. In the battle with him, Bulavin was defeated and went to Zaporizhia, hoping to raise the Ukrainian Cossacks. But Zaporizhia Hetman banned the Ukrainian Cossacks to join Bulavin. With a small squad of the Ukrainian "Gultyaev" Bulavin in 1708, he returned to the head of the Don, where the Protean town on the r. Hoper became the center of the uprising. From Hopra, Bulavin moved to the center of Donskoy Donskoy - Cherkaska - and took it. The population of the villages met his bread and salt. In Cherkassk, Bulavin was elected to the military ataman, and Ataman Lukyan Maximov Kaznen. The uprising covered all large territories. Bulavinsky troops occupied Tsaritsyn and mastered the cities on the Volga. Among the companions of Bulavin, Nikita Nikita, Ataman Nekrasov and Semyon Drani. Bulavin himself at that time headed for Azov, where failed, the cause of which was the disunity of his troops and action in different directions. The royal government sent a 30-thousand army under the command of Vasily Dolgoruky. The dominated Cossacks were a conspiracy against Bulavin, surrounded his house in Cherkask, he was shooting, but was either killed or shot himself. The detachments of Bulavintsev continued to fight on Don, in the Volga region and Ukraine. Movement during this period covered about 60 counties. The remains of Bulavinsky squads were broken from the village of Rutovskaya.

Only at the end of 1708. Government troops managed to finally suppress the uprising. Following this, the massacus followed. To determine the Cossacks along Don, the rafts were floated with the gallows of the executed. Only a part of the Cossacks led by Ataman Nekrasov was saved and moved to Turkey. As a result of this, the rebellion of the Cossacks of the Cossacks was trimmed, and the lands in the upper reaches of Don (the Verkhovsky Cossacks most actively participated in the uprising) are included in the Voronezh province. On Don there were landlord estates with migrating fasteners here.

From 1705 to 1711, the uprising continued in Bashkiria, the center of which was Ufa. The root cause of the uprising was the taxation and strict forms of its recovery for the population. But here, the leadership of the uprising was in the hands of the Bashkir feudalists, who sent him against Russia and the Russians living in the territory of Bashkiria. They captured and burned the Russian villages, and the Russian peasants paid in slaves or sold into slavery. The leaders of the uprising sent embassies to the Ottoman Empire and Crimean Khanate for negotiations on the transition of Bashkiria to the authorities of the Turkish Sultan or Crimean Khan as a single rulers. This uprising was suppressed in 1711.

The creation of civilian education in Russia is related to the activities of Peter I. The Sole Educational Institution of the Greco-Slavic-Latin Academy after leaving the Vykhudov brothers was in decline. There were no civilian schools in Russia.

In 1700, at the initiative of Peter I, the christian was introduced from the Nativity of Christ, as was customary in European countries (and not from the creation of the world). New Year He began to start from January 1, and not from September 1, as before. In 1702, a wooden "comedic chorometa" was built, in which the arrival of the troupe led by the Johann Kunsht. In this theater, at the request of Peter, the Triumphal Comedy for Taking A Hard was shown. In 1703, the first Russian newspaper "Vedomosti about military and other matters" was published. In 1704, the rules of town planning were published, according to which cities began to be built according to plan, the streets were brought to them and covered.

New educational institutions opened: in 1701 - the navalist school, located in Moscow in the Sukharev Tower. One of the teachers of this school was Leontius Magnitsky, the author of the first Russian arithmetic textbook. In 1715, the naval school was translated into St. Petersburg and was transformed into the Marine Academy. In 1707, a medical school was opened in Moscow, in 1710 - an engineering school.

School studies spread widely. There were 42 cyphic schools, and under the supervision of the bishops, a network of spiritual schools was formed. School education It became covered by the wide ranges of Russian society. The practice of sending young people abroad is also spread.

In 1710, a civil font was introduced in the immediate participation of Peter. In Moscow, new printing houses were formed, a large number of books were translated, especially scientific, Assembly were arranged in the Tsarskoya Decree - entertainment meetings. In order to educate the youth and grafting the manner of a good tone, a special guide has appeared - "Youth Honest Zernalo". In 1713, the capital was postponed from Moscow to St. Petersburg. Foreign architects and artists were designed to decorate the city. Bricks lacked, and stone construction in other cities was temporarily forbidden. The most important architectural monuments of that time were: the summer palace of Peter (architect D. Trezini); Building of twelve colleges (Trezini together with I.K. Korobovy), Admiralty (boxes). Summer garden decorated with sculptures. Old long-profile clothing was replaced by a new fashionable Western pattern. In painting, along with the iconography, attention began to be paid to the portrait and genre scenes. In the literature, the treatises of Feofan Prokopovich ("True will of the monarch" and "spiritual regulation") receive great fame. I.T. Posochkov wrote a "book about poverty and wealth", V.N. Tatishchev - "Russian history from ancient times."

XVIII century marked by a number of scientific discoveries. IK Cyril is a first geographical satin. In the development of mining and metallurgy, a serious scientific contribution was made by V.N. Tatishchev and V.G. de Gennina; M. Serdyukov came up with a project for the reconstruction of the Vyshnevolotsky Canal, which connected the Volga with the Lake Ilmen pool and the Volkhov River, after the implementation of which the channel would become shipping.

Peter I prepared a project to create russian Academy Sciences implemented next year after his death. Under the lifetime of the Emperor, the famous Bering Expedition, who opened the shed between Asia and America was preparing.

Peter I died, not leaving the will. The heirs included the grandson of Peter - the son of Tsarevich Alexey, and two daughters - Anna (married to the Golshtinsky Prince) and Elizabeth (by that time another minor). The Senate proclaimed the Empress of Peter's wife, Catherine I (Marta Skavron). With it, the Supreme Governmental Authority was created - the Supreme Secret Council (1726), which included the largest states of the state led by A.D. Menshikov. The decision of all the most important cases in the state passed to this advice.

Catherine died in two years, and the throne over her will moved to the grandson of Peter I - Peter II (1727-1730). Since he was only 12 years old, then things in the state continued to be left to the Supreme Secret Council. However, it was rearranged in it: Menshikov was removed and exiled in the city of Berezov, and Tsarevich A. Osterman and Princes of Dolgoruky and Golitsyn entered the Council. In 1730, Peter II dies from smallpox, and again the question of replacing the throne. With his decree "On the Preconsession" (1722), Peter I expanded the circle of heirs, providing the ability to choose. Taking advantage of this right, members of the Supreme Secret Council were invited to the throne of the Kourlenanda Duchess (Petra niece) Anna John (1730-- 1740). The invitation was due to the signing of "Conditions" (conditions), limiting the autocratic power, and in the case of their violation, the empress was deprived of the Russian crown. According to these conditions, the Empress did not have the right to independently begin the war and conclude the world; introduce new taxes and grants; appoint to senior positions; Condemn the nobility without trial, confiscation of the estates and complain new, as well as get married and assign a successor to yourself.

However, within the dominant class, opinions on these edges were divided, and the bulk of the nobility (servant) did not agree with their content. On behalf of the whole nobility, the Empress was filed for the abolition of the condition and the restoration of traditional autocracy. Based on the support of the Preobrazhensky regiment (the empress declared himself colonel of this regiment), Anna Johnnna ruined the condition and "worked in sovereignty." The Supreme Secret Council was abolished. To manage the state, the Cabinet was formed in which the Cabinet-Minister was included. Of particular importance was the office of secret search cases, which horrified on the population of sudden arrests and torture during the investigation. All cases in the state peaked invited by Anna John Germans, among whom her favorite Biron and former member of the Supreme Secretary Council Osterman were particularly distinguished. Her government satisfied a number of the requirements of the nobility: in 1731 the land of the shutter case was created; The nobleman was recorded in him since birth and after graduation received officer Chin, who freed him from service as a simple soldier or sailor. In 1736, the Petrovsky Decree "On the Union of Charter" (1714) was changed, a permanent service of the nobles was canceled. In order to better use and the content of noble estates, one of the noble sons was generally exempted from the service for managing the estate, and the service life for others was limited to 25 years, after which the possibility of retired was given. Many nobles, using these benefits (especially by recording from birth to military schools), went round of service. As a result, in 1740, a decree was issued, according to which only those officers who really served 25 years were subject to.

According to Anna Ioannovna, his heir was appointed a grand-nephew - Baby Ivan Antonovich Braunschweigsky (1740-1741), and Biron was defined by regent. The regency continued him only a few weeks. The baron hated by all was removed, deprived of all posts and exiled.

The government at the Minor Ivan Antonovich proclaimed his mother Anna Leopoldovna. However, there were no changes in politics, all positions continued to remain in the hands of the Germans. The new coup in 1741 was followed, who made the daughter of Peter Elizabeth (1741-1761), using the support of the Guards Transfiguration Regiment. Braunschweig surname (Anna Leopoldovna and her husband and children) was arrested and exiled to Kholmogory, and Ivan Antonovich, after a few years, sharpened in the Shlisselburg fortress, former Ministerial Cabinet and Osterman sent a reference; The Senate was restored as rights, and the office disbanded. The privileges of the nobles were expanded, and also confirmed their exclusive right to own lands in populated peasants. Senate explained that only those persons who are able to prove their noble origin are considered nobles. The nobility can be inherited or acquired thanks to the royal sufficiency. Nobles were released from all types of corporal punishments. A noble bank opened in St. Petersburg, which provided loans only to nobles.

According to the will of Elizabeth, the heir to the throne was appointed by the Golchtinsky Prince Peter III (son of the senior daughter of Peter I - Anna), which, in order to continue the dynasty, married the Anhalt Church Princess - Sofia August, Frederic, who accepted the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna in Orthodox baptism.

Peter III (1761-1762) During his short reign, he managed to abolish the secret office and adopt a manifesto on the granting of liberty and freedom to the whole Russian nobility (1762). The nobles received the right to be easily resigned from military or civil service and not even serve at all, to live in the fatherland or abroad at their discretion.

In 1762, a new palace coup was carried out in favor of the wife of Peter III Catherine Alekseevna - Catherine II (1762-1796), after which her son Paul reigned (1796-1801). He issued a manifesto about the throne, introducing a strict and certain procedure for the inheritance of the throne. Over the death of the emperor, the throne should move to the eldest son, and then to the offspring of this son on the male line, but if the desires of the king did not turn out, then his elder brother should inherit.

The dissatisfaction with the internal and foreign policy of Paul I led to a new coup committed on the night from 11 to 12 March 1801. The throne took His eldest son Alexander I (1801-1825).

It was the last palace coup in Russia.

The territory of Russia by the end of the XVIII century. achieved significant sizes. The Earth of the European part of the territory of Russia was divided into chernozem and non-black-earth. In the non-sinnamine, the urgent feudal service system prevailed, providing greater freedom to the manufacturer. In these places various fisheries were developed. In the chernozem (mainly agricultural purposes) a born was spread.

The largest industrial region of the country is developing in the neighbors to Moscow. Moscow, Yaroslavl, Tula, Kaluga, Vladimir possessed a developed and diverse manufactory. The second industrial area became the Urals. The expansion of domestic trade led to the deepening of specialization in the production of goods and products of all kinds, which in turn has determined the further development of the All-Russian market. The growth of trade turnover in the country as a whole contributed to the abolition of domestic customs duties, produced by Elizabeth in 1753, intensified trade and industrial development and declaration of trade and business activities by Decree of 1755, according to which the peasants were allowed to be easily engaged in useful needlework and sell their products.

At the end of the XVIII century. in domestic trade big role Russian fairs played, which had about 800. The largest of them were Nizhny Novgorod, Irbitan and Svrenskaya. In foreign trade, England, Sweden, Denmark, and the East - Turkey, Iran, India and China were the main partners of Russia.

At the beginning of the XVII century. The main northern ports were Arkhangelsk and Kholmogors, but after the Northern War (1700-1721), most of the trade turnover went through Riga and Revel. In the south, the main trading goal was Astrakhan.

The manufactory industry enters into a strip of intensive development in the second half of the XVIII century. During this period, there is a significant (increase in the total number of manufactories and the expansion of the production of the previous ones. Many of them have become large enterprises with hundreds, and sometimes thousands of employees, but the predominant form was a small manufactory with 15-20 employees. Machines and mechanisms were almost no applied. The most developed industries of industrial production were metallurgical and metalworking (Tula, Urals). Sukonny and stationery manufactories focused on the central areas, and the production of textiles received preferential development in Moscow, Vladimir and Yaroslavl provinces.

The largest mining enterprises of the Urals, as well as Olonetsky and Kirillovsky; Power plants belonged to the treasury, nobles and merchants. Among them were the fame of Stroganov and Demidov, who were granted the noble rank.

We worked industrial enterprises mainly on the subalkal labor "assigned" to the factories and factories of peasants. "Possession" manufactories could belong to both the treasury and individuals, but the peasants were attributed directly to the manufactory and could not be sold separately from it. Fortress peasants worked on progressive enterprises, the work of which was a kind of barbecue form. At mercenary manufactures was mainly used by a civilian work.

An increase in the number of manufactories stimulated the use of volincons. In 1762, the attack of peasants to the factories was canceled. Since 1775, peasants are officially allowed to engage in industrial activities. The formation of a free labor market began. From the end of the XVIII century. Restrictions are canceled for persons who are not included in the merchant estate, but those who want to engage in trade.

Ekaterina II encouraged entrepreneurship. To attract the largest number of nobles to this process, in 1765, a free economic society was opened. It published the works on agronomy, the economy, announced contests to solve urgent economic issues. Many writers of that time considered various industrial and economic problems in their works, discussed the price policy, found out the reasons for the high costs of certain goods.

"Enlightened absolutism" in Russia is associated with the name of Empress Catherine II. However, it should be borne in mind that it was a forced attempt to adapted to adapt to new, emerging bourgeois relations in the country, to eliminate some of the unborn institutions of the absolute monarchy, while maintaining its foundations. At any time, it could be returned to previous receptions and management methods. Thus, the liberal period of the Board of Catherine II ended after Pugachev's peasant war.

As part of the ideology of "enlightened absolutism", the monarch is considered not simply as a "father of the nation", but as a guardian of legality: "Enlightened absolutism" is inextricably linked with legitimacy (legitimacy), the "right organization" management and court. The ideas of the all-known nature of power begin to penetrate the official ideology. These ideas manifested themselves in the work of the Commission on the preparation of new deposits (laid commission). Representatives collected in it should have developed a law that satisfies the interests of all subjects. The Commission was convened in 1767. The main ideas with which she had to be guided in their work was formulated in the "Aactions prepared Catherine II. Its main provisions were borrowed from the works of French enlightener philosophers.

In "Aactions", the principles of the state of the state, general forms of legal policies and the organization of the estate system were determined. The monarchy was presented as the best form of government, the monarch was declared a source of unlimited autocratic power consolidating society.

The purpose of all the actions of the supreme power is to ensure the safety of every citizen, for "the power is created for the people." Monarchy is designed to promote the continuous improvement of society. To achieve these goals, it is necessary to establish in the state "best laws". At the same time, no restrictions (except moral) "Okaz" did not install for the supreme power.

"Okaz" declared freedom (liberty) and equal duties of all in the face of state power for all citizens. However, he further justified the unequal position of classes before the government and law, gave a clear division of society on the ruling and obee, which was associated with natural laws, origin and abilities of each.

In the middle of the XVIII century. The texture structure of society not only persisted, but its differentiation even became more complicated, it became even more formalized. The rights and obligations of each class were regulated in detail, the ruling estate remained the nobility, the legal status of which was recorded by complicated diplomas.

Another Emperor Peter III in 1762 accepted a diploma "On the granting of liberty and freedom of the whole Russian nobility", on which the mandatory service of the nobles was canceled both in the army and in civilian institutions. The nobles received permission to live abroad. In 1785, Ekaterina II of his "literacy for the rights, liberty and advantages of the noble Russian nobility" confirmed the privileges, data by Peter III Russian nobility, significantly expanding their volume. Nobles were exempted from filters, mandatory service, corporal punishment. They were allowed to have factories, plants, as well as trade on them produced. Behind the nobles, not only the earth was fixed, but also its subsoil. They received a wide class self-government: the right to choose the leader of the county and provincial nobility, to have its own treasury and administrative homes, handle the petitions to the highest name directly.

Simultaneously with the humble diploma, a humbled diploma was adopted by the nobility.

The document was fixed by a single textual status of the entire population of cities, regardless of professional classes and childbirth - Mesh. The personal rights of the Meshan included the right to protect honor and dignity, personality and life, the right to move and exit abroad. Property rights were: ownership of property owned by the property, the right of ownership of industrial enterprises, fisheries, the right to trade.

The entire urban population was divided into six discharges depending on the property and social status.

The cities created the general urban duma, which included representatives chosen from each discharge.

Earlier, in 1775, in the course of the provincial reform (who doubled the number of provinces in Russia) was formed a strictly estate judicial system.

For the nobility in the counties and provinces, noblestal courts (county and uppermal) were created.

For citizens, the judicial functions performed urban and provincial magistrates.

State peasants were suused in the county lower and upper disappears. The owner of the peasants for most cases the judge was a landowner.

Cast unit in the XVIII century. Based on the system of serfdom and institutes of the absolute monarchy.

In the middle of the XVIII century. In various fields of the country, there were excitements among the peasants and the mining workers. The spread of landlord land tenure on the Earth of the Middle and Lower Volga region, the operation of the local population (Bashkir, Tatars, Chuvash) also caused discontent in these parts. In the Ural, the post-finding mining workers were worried, and in the Volga, the situation was increasing in connection with the large outflow in these places of the Old Believers. The Russian-Turkish war was played by 1768-1774, which caused the deterioration of the economic situation in the country. In such an atmosphere, a person appeared capable of heading unhappy masses.

Emelyan Pugachev was born on Don in the village of Zimovoye, he participated in the seven-year war with which he returned by illness, and soon became a runaway Cossack. I visited the Terek Cossacks in the North Caucasus, then at the Old Believers on the IRGYSE. Just in the early 1770s. Yaitsky Cossacks opposed their elderly. They killed General Traubenberg and several Cossack Atamans. The uprising was supplied, eliminated the Cossack self-government, and at the head of the Yaikovsky Town put a commandant with a military team. In 1773, Pugachev appeared on Yaik, who declared himself by the emperor Peter III. Cossacks began to finish it. He sent a manifesto with appeal to the Cossacks, chalkdom, peasants and Old Believers. Cossacks he promised the "law and will", as well as the endowment of their forests, gestures, vows and other land; Peasants - "Protection at home, all the estate of them in awarding", as well as the abolition of serfdom, exemption from recounts and state filters, endowment of the land, the Old Believers gave permission to freely confess the "old faith".

In September 1773, Pugachev, together with his detachment, took the fortress Tatischev (on the way to Orenburg), after which several thousand rebels joined him: the peasants, labor and Bashkirs led by Salavat Yulaev. The center of the uprising was made by the Southern Urals and Bashkiria. In winter, 1773-1774. Pugachev began the siege of Orenburg. 5 km from the city in the village of Berdy, he substantiated his "courtyard", in which there was a "military board" and "military court"; Formed military units of regular system. During the siege of Orenburg, the peasants of the Kazan and Symbirian provinces joined the rebel, but the rebels did not manage to take Orenburg. In the spring of 1774, Pugachev's troops suffered a number of defeats from government troops. The active assistants of Pugachev and the commanders of his troops should include Zarubin (Chiku), Ivan Beloborodova, Athanasia Clapper. The victims defeated under Orenburg, Pugachev went to Kamu and, having replenished his strength, moved to Kazan, the former administrative center of all the Volga region. Pugachevtsy entered the city, but take a well-fortified Kremlin, where the garrison was sitting, could not. A squad of Michelson approached the city, and Pugachev was again broken. He switched to the right bank of Volga, replenishing his squad in the densely populated areas of the right bank, and moved to the south, consistently occupying the city of Alatyr, Saransk, Penza, Saratov. By the Tsaritsyn, Black Yar is off the detachment of Michelson, and on August 25, 1774, Pugachev was finally divided. He fled to the yik, where the Cossack elder was discovered and issued to the government.

On January 10, 1775, Pugachev was publicly executed in Moscow. A wave of repression against the participants of the uprising rolled around the country, accompanied by special cruelty from government punitive organs.

Outcome: In the second half of the XVIII century. There is a further design of the textual system and the development of serfdom. At the same time, absolutism acquires the features of "enlightement". Careful regulation (including legal) of all parties to social and private life is carried out. Along with the bureaucratization, new features are manifested, first of all noble, corporate.

As a result of the Prutheskaya world with Turkey (1711), Russia lost azov and, therefore, access to the Black Sea. In the reign of Anna John Russia, Russia took an attempt to go to the Black Sea coast. In 1735-1739. Russia entered into war with Turkey and Crimea in allied by Austria. The Russian army invaded the Crimea and took the fortress of Ochakov, then broke the Turkish army from the der. Stavuly (under the city of Khotyn), collapsed by Kinburn and Yassam, took the capital of Crimean Khanate - Bakhchisarai. The war was carried out in difficult conditions, costing the life of 100 thousand Russian soldiers, but not given tangible results. Iran did not fulfill his preliminary obligations - to start a war with Turkey, and Austria concluded a separate world with Turkey. The Commander of the Russian Army, General of Minich, was popular due to commitment to the Prussian orders, which he imparted in the Russian army; It was badly supplied. As a result, in 1739, a Belgorod Peace Treaty was signed. Russia returned to Azov, but without the right to build a fortress and the content of the fleet, i.e. The exit to the Black Sea, she did not receive as a result of this war.

In the reign of Anna John, in 1731, Russia jumped into loyalty to the rulers of small and medium zhuzov (in the territory of modern Kazakhstan).

The largest foreign policy event in Russia in the middle of the XVII century. There was a seven-year war 1756-1763. She began at Elizabeth Petrovna. By that time, two coalitions of states were formed in Europe: France, Austria and Russia - on the one hand, and England and Prussia - on the other. The Antiprucian Union appeared as a reaction to Frederichi's conciliation policies. In 1756, Prussia attacked Saxony and broke the Austrian army who came to the rescue. In 1757, Russia entered the war. In the summer of the same year, the Russian army under the command of P.A. Rumyantsev entered Eastern Prussia and caused a serious defeat of the German army under Gross-Jersdorf, and then under the Corentorf. Especially impressive victory, Russian troops won under the Cunesdorf. The Prussian army was completely defeated, out of 45 thousand her soldiers survived only about three thousand. In 1760, Russian troops took Berlin.

Frederick II perceived his defeat as a complete catastrophe. But at that moment Elizabeth Petrovna dies, Peter III (1761-1762) enters the throne (1761-1762), a big fan of the Prussian king. He concludes a world with Prussia, unprofitable for Russia and providing for the return of all territories conquered by Russia in this war. Russia and Prussia became allies.

Russia's relations remained tense with Turkey and the Crimean Khumanism subject to it, which dominated the Black Sea. Russia, for its part, also sought to seize the lands on the Black Sea coast.

War of Russia announced Turkey, which in the fall of 1768 arrested the Russian ambassador and all members of the embassy and after this began military operations against Russia (1768-1774).

At the head of the Russian army, General P.A. Rumyantsev. The first victories of Russian troops were obsessed in battles on the danube's tributaries - the Larga and Kagul rivers. The territory between Dnipro and the Danube was released from Turkish troops. For the successful transition of Russian troops to the right bank, the Danube General of Rumyantsev was awarded the title of General Field Marshal and the honorable console to the last name - the Zadunaysky.

At the same time, major successes were achieved in marine battles. The Russian fleet, coming out of the Baltic Sea, heated Europe and entered the Mediterranean Sea, where in June 1770 near Circus destroyed the Turkish fleet. Seasy squadron commanded Admirals G.A. Spiridov and A.G. Orlov. Orlov for this victory received an honorable prefix to the name - Chesmesky.

In 1770, the Russian army took possession of all Crimea. In these battles distinguished himself. Suvorov. But during this period, Pugachevsky Riot broke out in Russia, and the Government of Catherine II hurried to conclude the world. In 1774, a world with Turkey was concluded in the village of Kychuk-Kainardi, which Crimean Khanate was proclaimed independent; Turkey recognized the double protectorate over Moldova (Turkey and Russia). Russia was given the right to free swimming in the Black Sea and the passage through the Bosphorus Straits and Dardanelles. In addition, Turkey paid Russia to condribution.

Crimean Khanate, surrounded by all sides of the territory of Russia, in 1783 it entered its composition, and Crimean Khan Shagin-Garya renounced the throne.

In the same year in Georgievsk, Russia and Georgia signed a treatise, according to the provisions of which the latter was under the patronage of Russia, providing her integrity and safety.

In 1787, after the journey of Catherine II in Tavrid and the appointment of Potemkin, Governor-General of Crimea, Turkey declared Russia to Russia. The Turkish army laid out the Fortress Kinburn, but was thrown off by the troops of Suvorov. On the side of Russia in the war against Turkey decided to speak Austria. In 1788, after a long siege, Ochasts were taken by Russian troops. A serious fracture in the war occurred in 1789, when Suvorov inflicted the enemy crushing strikes at Fokshans and on the river. Ramnik (Bessarabia), where he broke and turned into a flight of a 100,000 Turkish army under the command of the main vizary. For this victory, He was granted the title of Rimniksky. In the fall of 1790, the Russian troops took a number of Turkish fortresses, but on the left bank of the Danube remained well-fortified fortress Izmail. Potemkin failed here and sent to Izmail Suvorov. Suvorov suggested the Turks to pass the fortress, but received a refusal and began on December 11, 1790. I began to siege. Ishmael was taken by the evening of the same day. With the storming of the fortress, Kutuzov was distinguished by the commandant Izmail.

On the Black Sea FF. Ushakov (at Cape Kaliacria and about. Tenner) broke the Turkish fleet.

On December 27, the world was signed with Turkey in the city of Iasi. The peace treaty recognized the right to join the Crimea, passed the land between the Dniester and the Bug, as a result of which the new border was established on the Dnestra. Thus, all of the Northern Black Sea region went away to Russia. In addition, Turkey pledged to not interfere with the Russian-Georgian relations and not to atocle the land of Irakli II.

Another foreign policy problem remained union of the territory of Ukraine, since its right bank remained under the rule of Poland.

The political crisis and anarchy, who had a place in the Commonwealth in the late XVIII century, was given the opportunity for its neighbors - Austria, Prussia and Russia to carry out partial annexations of its territories.

As a result of the first section of Poland (1772), the eastern part of Belarus was departed to Russia, the eastern part of Belarus on the Upper Dnieper and Western Dvina.

According to the second section (1793), Russia joined the right-bank Ukraine and the central part of Belarus (with Minsk).

According to the results of the third section (1795), Lithuania, Western Belarus and Volyn were included in Russia. It was legally enshrined in the composition of the empire and Kurland, which was previously actually under the control of Russia.

With the beginning of the revolution in France (1789), Russia was in the coalition of European monarchical states opposed France. In 1792, diplomatic relations were interrupted with this country.

With opponents of France in 1793, a financial and military union was concluded, but to take part in military intervention Together with England, Austria and Prussia, Russia could not because of the events in Poland (National uprising) and War with Sweden (1788-1790).

Russia takes an active part in the Anti-Napoleon Coalition in Pavle I. Coalition, which included England, Austria, Turkey and the Neapolitan Kingdom, organized large-scale fighting in Italy, Switzerland and the Mediterranean Sea.

In the summer of 1799, the Russian fleet (commander F.F. Ushakov) entered the Adriatic Sea and began the assault on the powerful fortress Corfu. Russian landings mastered the ionic islands, and later landed on the Apnepsinsky Peninsula. The French left Naples and Rome.

The Army Suvorov carried out a successful Italian campaign, conducting a number of military operations in the districts of Northern Italy and Switzerland. In the spring - in the summer of 1799, a number of brilliant victories were obsessed, as a result of which the Russians opened in Milan and Turin.

The Swiss campaign of Suvorov in the fall of 1799 was less successful. Penetrating into Switzerland, the Russian troops were surrounded.

Military failures aggravated Russia's political relations with allies: Paul I concluded a union with Napoleon (1800) and broke the relationship with England.

After the suppression of the E. Pugachev uprising, the government of Catherine II tightened the fortress mode. The rights of landowners against fortress peasants were expanded: Public bidding of serfs was allowed, which could be sold with the destruction of family bonds; For the nobles, the right of a personal trial of serfseans on certain types of offenses with the use of corporal punishment was fixed. The landowners were given the right to link the peasants to Siberia for "their pre-spermate state", and the peasants, on the contrary, were forbidden to submit a mental name for the state with complaints to their landowners. And in the text of this order, forbidden by the "landlords and peasants, the feeding of her Majesty," said that for healing, the girls, as well as writing writers, will be punished by whip, "they will get together in eternal work in Nerchinsk, with a testing of their landowners in Recruits. "

All progressive ideas with which Ekaterina II performed on the underlying commission regarding the change in the state of fortress peasants were forgotten. Under the influence of the events of Pugachevshchina, Catherine II refused them.

The second important event, who forced Catherine to sharply change his policies, was a revolution in France (1789-1794).

The French Revolution, and especially the Jacobin dictatorship, shocked Europe. In St. Petersburg, they also understood that such events make a threat and for the fate of the throne in Russia.

In 1791-1795 Russia took part in the coalition of countries (England, Austria, Prussia) against France. Catherine could not help the coalitions, as they were busy in hostilities against the Ottoman Empire, but money providing the confrontation of revolutionary France, the Russian government allocated (two million rubles). Ekaterina II firmly believed that "the case of the French king concerns all sovereigns." She quite feared the spread of the influence of the revolutionary ideas of France in Russia. After the execution of Louis XVI, Catherine interrupts all relations with France, all French subjects living in Russia and the legality of the revolutionary government of France are expelled from Russia. All the former "flirting" with the figures of French enlightenment are stopped and, on the contrary, all sorts of chairs are collapsed on the heads of progressive Russian writers. A.N. Radishchev for the book "Traveling from St. Petersburg to Moscow was (initially) sentenced to death, writer V.S. Breasted in prison, publisher N.I. Novikov - to the Shlisselburg Fortress. Masonic lodges were closed, whose activities wore a purely educational character. The strict cesura of civil and spiritual books was introduced, all private printing houses were closed. Thus, the policy of enlightened absolutism in Russia has exhausted itself. The autocracy showed a true face. Despite some liberal trends at the beginning of the reign, Catherine II, nevertheless, did a lot in his second half to strengthen the serfdom and the absolute monarchy as the form of the Board.

It is with these phenomena in Russian political and public life that A.N. Radishchev.

A.H. Radishchev (1749-1802) Born in the noble family in the Saratov province. Got a good home education, then graduated from the Faculty of Law, Leipzig University. Successfully promoted in service, but became interested in literary activities, the result of which was the result of his famous book "Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow", which began words, which later repeated almost all participants of the December uprising (December 14, 1825): "I looked at myself and The soul, my sufferings of mankind became vulnerable. "

The work of the Radishchev was a great impression of the works of French enlighteners and utopian socialists. The works of Voltaire and the work of Zh. Rousseau "OB by a public contract" had a special effect on him. In their works, Radishchev exposed severe criticism and autocracy. Forces, he considered unlawful from a legal point of view, immoral, in moral criteria and unprofitable economically. Radishchev noted the glaring poverty of peasants and their complete displacement. They do not have any legal rights ("the peasant in the law is dead") and are entirely in the authorities of the landowners who are treated with them like "greedy beasts".

In Oda, the "liberty" of Radishchev condemned the thirant of self-containers who do not have any limits in his power and obstacles, and expressed hope for the rapid widespread overthrow of such forms of power. The people will rise and overthrow the throne "cast-iron". He called the main feature of the tyrannal rule. The ideal of the state device was for Radishcheva Novgorod Republic. In Oda, "liberty" he expresses the hope that as a result of a victorious uprising in Russia, a republic will be installed in Nizhny Novgorod, in which the class of small owners will be the predominant ("he sows himself, he wants to himself." Under the form of the board, this should be democracy in republican form, and on the state device - the Federation.

Catherine II, after reading the works of Radishchev, described it as a rowers, who even "worse than Pugacheva" and "bends to the disturbance of peasants against the landowners." The writer was arrested, judged and sentenced to the death penalty replaced by a 10-year link in Ust-Ilimsky Ostrog in Siberia. In St. Petersburg, he returned under Alexander I and was attracted to the activities of the Commission on the compilation of laws (he wrote during this period the "Civil Capture Project" and "Experience of Legislation"). However, its projects were too radical, and Chairman of the Commission Count Zavadovsky reminded him of Siberia. Having come home, Radishchev pooled, leaving a note: "The offspring will revenge for me."

In the XVIII century They said: "Peter gave the Russian to the Russians, and Ekaterina II - Soul." In this judgment, the assessment was reflected in contemporaries of those cultural processes that occurred in the country in the middle and the second half of the XVIII century. Enlightenment ideas were provided in the XVIII century. A great influence on all areas of cultural life.

Even with Elizabeth, Petrovna was opened Moscow University (1755) as part of three faculties: legal, medical and philosophical; Academy of Arts (1757) and theater in Yaroslavl (1756). Catherine II tried to widely spread enlightenment in Russia. In 1764, a smolny institute was opened in St. Petersburg to form noble girls. Subsequently, a branch for girls from the merchant and mesh schools was established there. In Catherine (according to projects I.I. Bezzky), mountainous and land surveyors were opened; two medical schools; Commercial School in St. Petersburg. But the main thing in the form of the formation was a plan of the institution in all provinces of a single system of teacher training in future schools. In his execution in St. Petersburg, the main school for teacher training was opened in 1783. At the end of the century, such colleagues were opened in 25 provincial cities. For the clergy, spiritual seminary and three spiritual academies were created in all provinces.

In the development of science in the XVIII century. M.V. played a big role Lomonosov (1711-1765). His scientific activity is diverse. He opened the law of preserving the matter (known in science as a Lomonosov-Lavoisier law), which he himself called the "Universal Law of Nature"; wrote a number of works on physics, chemistry (created the first one at the university chemical laboratory), geology, mineralogy, metallurgy. His work on astronomy led to the opening of the atmosphere on Venus. Lomonosov worked a lot on creating scientific terminology. He first began to read lectures in Russian. His peru belongs literary and historical works And, in particular, the "ancient story is Russian."

Outstanding historians of the XVIII century. V.N. Tatishchev ("Russian history from the most ancient times") and M.M. Scherbatov ("History of Russia from ancient times" and "Journey to the Earth"). Ya.P. Kozelsky wrote projects of state-transformation reforms.

Pretty actively developed and technical thought: Son of Soldier I.I. The crawl worked at Altai mountain plants created the project and built the first steam machine on it. It was enforced after his death and, despite the successful work, abandoned after the first breakdown. Kulibin I.P. - The self-taught mechanic, the son of the Nizhny Novgorod merchant, created a number of outstanding mechanisms: a scooter wagon, prostheses with disabilities for replacing hands and legs, vessel-waterfrost, a mixer, a diversity of a bicycle and much more. Of particular interest was his project of a unionic bridge through the Neva, whose model was tested, received a high assessment of Mathematics L. Euler, but was not implemented. At the end of the life of Kulibin received a place of mechanics in the Academy of Sciences, but its invention was not used.

In the literature in the XVIII century. Classicism dominated. Its supporters include such writers and poets as Kantemir, Tredyakovsky, Lomonosov, Derzhavin, Fonvizin, Sumarokov. At the end of the XVIII century. A new literary style appears - sentimentalism, whose hence is considered to be N.M. Karamzin.

In painting, a larger distribution receives a landscape, especially the views of Italy. Soft painting is represented by biblical plots. It was she who gave the beginning of the so-called academic manner of the letter. A serious place began to occupy a portrait. Among the portraitists, Master of the Parade Portrait of D.G. acquired greater fame Levitsky. His brushes belongs to the picture "Catherine-Legislator", where the Queen is captured in the form of the Goddess Minerva - the patroness of science, crafts, enlightenment, art, as well as a number of other works (portraits N.I. Novikova, D. Didro, etc.). Sheremetev's fortress artist - Argunov wrote portraits of actress Paraschochov's actress and a number of representatives of Sheremetevsky, S.F. Rockots - Portraits of Majkova, Novosillese, Surovtsevaya, etc. V.L. Borovikovsky - Portrait of Diplomat Prince Kurakina. The artist of Ugryumov worked in the historic genre, his canvas "Take Kazan" received great fame.

Sculpture monuments are acquired and popularity. Since the time of Peter I, the sculpture becomes an integral affiliation of palace-park ensembles. In the second half of the XVIII century. ATTENTION began to attract a monumental sculpture, outstanding works were created: a monument to Suvorov (in the image of the god of the war of Mars), author Falcone; Monument to Minin and Pozharsky, author I.P. Martos; SMSon Statue for Fountain Cascade in Peterhof M.I. Kozlovsky. F.I. Shubin performed sculptural portraits of Paul I and Lomonosov.

In the architecture, the Baroque style, differing in pomp, asymmetric form and rich decor, is inferior to the place of classicism, which has the severity of lines. The architectural core of such buildings was a portico or rotunda with colonnade, and their main decoration - antique orders: Corinthian, doric and ionic. Classicism style has its own characteristics in Moscow and St. Petersburg. In Russia, it is represented by such names as Rastrelli, Quince, Cameron, Cossacks, Bazhenov, etc.). Architectural classicism has had a great influence on the construction of the estates in Russia.

Activity Paul I.

In November 1796, after the death of Catherine II, the Emperor Paul I climbed to the Russian throne. It began a short, but extremely important and eventful reign of one of the most mysterious and contradictory figures of Russian history. To understand and correctly evaluate the Pavlovsky reign on the course of four and a half years, it is necessary to remember that by the time of the end of the throne, the emperor was already 42 years old, i.e. he was a mature man with the established character, established political convictions and ideas about the needs of Russia And the best ways to control it. The nature and political views of the emperor were in highly difficult and unusual conditions.

The birth of Paul in 1754 was met at the court of his grandmother Elizabeth Petrovna as a long-awaited event, since Empress is extremely disturbed about the continuation of the dynasty. Immediately after birth, the child was carried out in the rest of Elizabeth, where his parents allowed only for its special permission. In fact, until the coup of 1762, Paul was brought up without the participation of parents, not knowing the mother, no father. The latter and was even indifferent to it. It is significant that in the manifesto about the adoption of Peter III on the throne either Paul, nor Catherine was not even mentioned. From 1761, N. I. Panin was appointed the main educator of Paul.

Panin not only performed the instructions of Elizabeth, but also sincerely attached to his pupil. The supporter himself, he dreamed of raising the ideal sovereign for Russia from Paul. And indeed, according to the memories of contemporaries, the young Paul was a well-educated romantic young man who believed in the ideals of enlightened absolutism. He was preparing for the state bearing, and he grew up with the consciousness that he had to manage Russia.

In 1773, Paul married the princess Wilhelmine Hesse Darmstadt, which, when baptized in Orthodoxy, was called Natalia Alekseevna. The young man who came out of the guardianship and educators of the young man fell in love with a young wife, but happiness was short-lived - three years later Natalia Alekseevna died by childbirth. A few months later, Paul married again on the princess of Sofia Dorothey Württemberg, who received the name of Mary Fedorovna in Orthodoxy. In 1777, their firstborn was born - the future emperor Alexander I, and in 1779 - the second son of Constantine. They were taken from their parents and brought up under the supervision of grandmother. In 1781--1782 Paul and Maria Fedorovna made a trip to Europe, where they made a favorable impression on European yards. But during the trip, Paul led himself carelessly, it was openly criticizing the policy of Catherine and her favorites. Apparently, it became known to the Empress, who, at the return of his son, tried to remove him from the courtyard, giving Gatchchin's MOZU, where Paul conducted most of the time. As once Peter I in Preobrazhensky and Peter III in Oranienbaum, Paul created his own small army in Gatchina and engaged in Muster with hobby, taking a Prussian military system for a sample. Discipline, order, certain asceticism, as it were, were opposed to the luxury and random life of the St. Petersburg yard. He enjoyed the unquestionless submission of his soldiers, dreaming of time when all Russia will be obeyed. He believed that for the true self-container Catherine was too, in female, soft and liberal. The fear of such a board increased in his eyes with revolutionary danger, especially after the monarchy crash in France. Under these conditions, the salvation of Russia Paul saw only in strengthening power.

The intention of Paul is not necessary to deal with the rebels with the help of guns, however, consider only the manifestation of merciless or political myopia. This was the definite system of views, according to which, in order to avoid the revolution, followed by military discipline and police measures for a longer time to preserve the existing regime, removing all decomposing elements from it. According to Paul, this primarily concerned the various manifestations of personal and public freedom and was expressed in the lifestyle and behavior of the nobles, in disregarding the civil service, in the elements of self-government, in the excessive luxury of the yard, in the relative freedom of thought and self-expression. The causes of the decomposition of Paul saw in errors in Ekaterina's policy. As the modern English historian R. Makrhn notes, "By the time of death of Catherine, he (Paul) was completely blind to her achievements and was indifferent to its goals ... His intention was to make a revolution, in order to prevent even the worse" (McGrew R. E . Paul I of Rissia. Oxford, 1992. P. 206).

The enlightened ideals of civil liberties Paul contrasted the ideals of medieval knights with his ideas about nobility, loyalty, honor, courage, serving the sovereign. It was a "knightly conservative idea of" freedom, equality, fraternity, ... chivalry against the Jacobin ... i.e., a refined inequality against "evil equality," (Eidelman N.Ya. Frant of centuries. M., 1986. With . 71).

Finally, November 6, 1796, when the Empress died, Paul received a long-awaited crown and power. Eyewitnesses are unanimous in their description.

Already the first steps of Pavel-Emperor demonstrated his intention to act in all the Mother's policies. This desire is painted, in fact, all his reign, as a result of which "the best in the idea of \u200b\u200bthe enterprise was spoiled by the seal of personal hostility". So, of course, the liberation of Pavlov Novikova, Radishcheva, T. Koscituk, and other Polesus, and with him, and other Poles, are explained at all without liberal sympathies. The new emperor tried, as to starve the previous 34 years of Russian history, declare them with a continuous mistake.

In the internal policy of Paul, several interrelated areas are allocated - the reform of public administration, changes in the class policy and military reform. At first glance, implemented by Paul, the reform of state administration, as well as the policy of Catherine, was the goal of the further centralization of power, but this task was solved otherwise. So, in Catherine, the value of the Senate Prosecutor General was particularly intensified, which was carried out by many public affairs, including all financial policies, the prosecutor general turned into a prime minister who focused in his hands in his hands , justice and partially finance. It was not by chance that his prosecutor General A. A. Beckleshov Paul once said: "You're yes I, yes you are - we will do some things."

A further change in the functions of the Senate as a whole, which Catherine in his later projects prepared essentially the role of the organ of the highest legal supervision, is associated with the reorganization of the central and local governance. Even in the 80s, a number of colleges were liquidated and only three were left - military, admiralty and foreign affairs. This was due to the fact that, declaring freedom of entrepreneurship, Catherine believed possible to transfer the minimum necessary control over the development of the economy into the hands of local authorities. Paul restored some of the colleges, considering, however, it is necessary to transform them into the ministries, that is, replacing the principle of collegiate rule alone. So, in 1797, a completely new Ministry of the Details was created, which made the lands belonging directly to the royal surname, and in 1800 - the Ministry of Commerce.

Even more strongly destroyed Paul, the entire system of local government, created on the basis of institutions of 1775

First, the positions of the governors who used, in the opinion of the new emperor, were too big independence. Secondly, orders of public charity were closed, detention advice; Urban class management was merged with police bodies, urban dooms were eliminated. The reform was subjected and created by Catherine Judicial System: a number of courts were liquidated at all, and the chambers of civil and criminal courts are merged into one. In this regard, the role of the Senate as a judicial authority reinforced again.

Changed Paul and administrative-territorial division of the country, the principles of managing the empty of the empire. So, 50 provinces were converted to 41 provinces and the area of \u200b\u200bthe Don Troops. The Baltic provinces, Ukraine and some other incense territories returned traditional governments. All these transformations are obviously contradictory: on the one hand, they increase the centralization of power in the hands of the king, eliminate the elements of self-government, on the other, they detect a refund to the diversity of management forms on national outskirts. This contradiction occurred primarily from the weakness of a new regime, fear not to keep the whole country in her hands, as well as from the desire to gain popularity in areas where there was a threat of outbreaks of the national liberation movement. Well, of course, a desire to remake everything in a new way was manifested. It is significant that the content of the judicial reform of Paul and the elimination of the organs of the class self-government meant for Russia, in fact, step back. This reform touched not only the urban population, but also nobility.

The attack on the noble privileges, legalized by a humble diploma of 1785, began almost from the first days of Pavlovsky reign. Already in 1797, it was declared a review by everyone who was listed in the regiments of the regiments and not those who were dismissed. It is believed that this measure was related to the fact that in Catherine there was a custom to record juvenile nobility children in a regiment, so that they already had officer ranks. In fact, the number of such "officers" was negligible, and many more people were patients, in holidays, etc. In addition, many of the states of the state, along with posts in the state apparatus, had the general ranks and were listed in various, as a rule of Guards, shelves. Therefore, at first glance, Paul Maères looked quite reasonable and fair, but he followed the restriction of the privileges and unusual nobles. Requests in August 1800 lists of such nobles, Paul ordered most of them to determine in military service. Prior to this, since October 1799, the procedure was established, according to which a special permission from the Senate was required to transition from military service. Another decree of the emperor, the unusual nobles was forbidden to participate in the noble elections and the occupation of elected posts.

In 1799, the provincial noble meetings were abolished, the rights of county and, on the contrary, enhanced the right of the governors to interfere in the noble election. In 1797, the nobles were obliged to pay a special tax on the content of the provincial administration, and in 1799 the charge was increased. Historians are also known and cases of applications in Pavlovskaya Time canceled Catherine for the nobility (as well as for some other populations) of corporal punishments. But in general, it would be a mistake to consider the policies of Paul Anti-Davranic. Rather, it traces a clear desire to turn the nobility to the knightly estate - a disciplined, organized, pollibino, and a dedicated sovereign. It was not by chance that Paul made an attempt to limit both the inflow of the nobility of the nobility, forbid them to produce them into non-officers. From these positions, the policy of the emperor in relation to the peasantry becomes clearer.

Pavlovskaya reign, as well as the previous one, noted by mass distribution of peasants as a reward for the service, and in four years Paul managed to distribute almost the same peasants as his mother for 34 (about 600 thousand). However, the difference was not only in quantity. If Catherine gave his favorites or the estates left without a host, or the estates in the newly conquered territories, then Paul distributed primarily the state peasants, thereby significantly worsening their position. Announces at the beginning of the reign that each subject has the right to file a complaint personally to him, Paul brutally stopped such attempts from the peasants. In December 1796, a decree was issued on the fastening of peasants for the private owners in the field of Don Troops and in Novorossia, in March 1798 - on the resolution of breeders from merchants to buy peasants to their enterprises with land and without land. On the other hand, a number of legislative acts appeared, objectively contributing to the weakening of the fastened oppression. So, in February 1797, the sale of courtyard and landless peasants from the hammer was banned, in October 1798 - Ukrainian peasants without land. For the first time in many years, at the entry of Paul to the throne, the fastep peasants should have taken the oath to the new emperor on a par with free; In December 1797, arrears in the pillow, the recruit set was removed from the peasants and the messenger. The most famous so-called manifesto about the three-day barbecue, published by Paul, along with other important documents on his coronation day, April 5, 1797, Manifesta read:

"We are delicious, Pavel is the first, emperor and autocrat of the All-Russian and other, and other, and so on.

We declare all our loyal.

The law of God, in the tenthilacies we are taught, teach us a dayd day to devote to him why the day is real, the celebration of the Faith of Christian famous, and in which we honored to perceive the sacred world anointing and royal on the health prestrol of our wedding, we read our debt to our creator and all the best The subder is confirmed in the entire empire of our exactly and indispensable law of execution, who heard to everyone and to observe everyone, so that no one and under some kind of kind jerked on the Sundays to force the peasants to work, especially since the remaining week for the rural travelers In general, it is generally divided into the peasants, both for the peasants, and for their works, in favor of the landowners of the following, with a good order will be sufficient to satisfy all economic challenges. Dan in Moscow on the day of Easter Easter 5th April 1797. " Cyt. By: Russian legislation of the X - XX centuries. M., 1987. T. 5. P. 62.

It is noteworthy that the main meaning of the manifesta is associated with the prohibition of work on Sundays, i.e., confirms the legal standard that existed in the Cathedral Music of 1649. On the restriction of the Barestone three days in Manifesto, it is about how desirable, more rational distribution The working time of the farmers. The ambiguity of manifesto led to himself and the ambiguous interpretation of him as contemporaries and historians. The peasants were perceived by Manifesto as a relief of their position and tried to complain about the landowners who did not fulfill him. There are cases when the landowners were indeed subjected to recovery and punishments.

However, the fact of the failure of the manifest is not to discount still. Moreover, in some parts of the country, for example, in Ukraine, where barbells were limited to two days a week, Manifesto, on the contrary, worsened the position of the peasants. The vagueness of the manifesto, most likely was deliberate. First, Paul, fearing the peasant uprisings, tried to prevent them from populist measures, secondly, acquired another tool for pressure on the nobles. Thirdly, it also could not openly loosen the fortress oppression, because the addiction of the throne from the nobility was great, and his intentions, most likely, was not.

The policy of Paul in relation to the army, which he decided to transfer Prussian military orders, so successfully used by him in Gatchina. The reform began with the introduction of a new form, fully copying Prussian: long uniform, stockings and black lacquer shoes, powdered head with an oblique defined length; The officers handed sticks with bone propelients to punish the soldiers who guessed. In December 1796, a new charter was published, in which the main attention was paid to the training of soldiers pigrate. Since the Prussian Charter was served as the basis of it, then no new achievements of Russian military thought, tested on the battlefields during the period of Catherine's reign, were not found in it. Soon, a few more challenges were published for individual generics of troops, based on the submission of the army as a car, the main thing in which is the mechanical coherence of troops, the extension. The initiative and independence is harmful and unacceptable.

Endless parades, Mushtra, combined with tough measures towards officers - dismissal, references and even arrests - caused great discontent in the army, not only in the capital, but also in the province. So, already in 1796-1798. In the Smolensk province, there was an anti-government circle, which included officers of several regiments houses, officials of local institutions, as well as a number of retired military.

Speaking about the internal policy of Paul I, it should be mentioned on some of its innovations related to the status of the sovereign and the royal family. On the day of Coronation, Paul published a decree on the throne, setting the transfer of the throne to inherited strictly on the male line. The decree continued to operate in Russia until 1917 and the creation of the Ministry mentioned the Ministry of Runs was new, which meant the actual inclusion of the personal economy of the royal family in the sphere of government. Being convinced of the divine origin of the royal power, Paul did a lot to organize the external manifestations of the monarchist idea. He was a big amateur of various ceremonies and rites, which were held scrupulously, with the observance of the smallest details, was distinguished by an extraordinary pomp and lasted in many hours. The entire life of the courtyard was granted strictly regulated ritual, even more enhancing with the proclamation of Paul in 1798 the Grand Master of the Maltese Order. It is necessary, however, to note that all this Europeanized rituit was alien for Russia, and in Europe itself, it was already perceived as an archaic, and because most contemporaries caused only smiles, in no way contributing to the goals of the glorification of the monarchy, which was the emperor. "All this involuntarily accepted the character of theatrical masquerade, caused smiles and among the public, and among the actors themselves, excluding only the emperor who had enjoyed in their role" (quot. By: Perminov P. Under the Senya of the eight-pointed cross: Maltese Order and his relationship with Russia. M., 1991. P. 111).

The petrol regulation has spread to the daily life of subjects. In particular, certain stances were prescribed by certain styles and the size of the clothing, it was forbidden to wear round hats, shoes with ribbons instead of buckles, etc. Some prohibitions concerned appearance (you can't wear bundlebards and broad books) and behavior on the ball (you can't dance waltz). It is characteristic that all these restrictions concerned not only Russian subjects, but also foreigners. So, the attorney in the affairs of Sardinia in Russia was expelled from St. Petersburg for wearing a round hat.

In Politics, Paul is clearly traced by the desire for the unification of all spheres of life, to the exception of the diversity of opinions, judgments, the possibility of choosing a lifestyle, behavior style, clothing, etc. In this way, Paul saw a revolutionary danger. The introduction of censorship was sent to the fight against the penetration of revolutionary ideas, and the ban on the import of books from abroad.

It is possible that if the transformation of Paul concerned only the spheres of administrative and police department and were carried out carefully and consistently, his fate would have formed otherwise. But the society that has already tasted the fruit of "enlightened absolutism", did not want to part with the minimum, freedom, which it gained in the Catherine reign. In addition, the impetuous, hot-tempered, non-permanent and unpredictable character of the emperor created the situation of uncertainty in tomorrow, when the fate of the Russian nobleman turned out to be dependent on the accidental whim or change of the mood of the mood in whom saw only a self-director on the throne. And if in the preparation of the preceding coups of the XVIII century. The crucial role belonged to the guard, now the discontent covered in fact the entire army. To find a support in any social layer Paul failed.

The fate of Paul was thus predetermined. Conspiracy matured from the very beginning of his reign, and was involved in it (or at least aware of him) were many dignitaries, courtesy, top officers and even the heir to the throne Grand Prince Alexander Pavlovich. The fatal for Paul became the night of March 11, 1801, when several dozen conspirators broke into the emperor's recently built by Mikhailovsky Castle and killed him. The Emperor All-Russian was proclaimed Alexander I.

Historians, as already mentioned, evaluate the Pavlovsk reign in different ways. Some call him "unenmended absolutism" (N. Ya. Eidelman), other "military police dictatorship" (M. M. Safonov), equally, concerned that the continuation of the existence of Pavlovsky regime would delay the socio-political development of Russia. There is also a point of view (Yu. A. Sorokin), according to which Paul's policy corresponded to the interests of the absolute monarchy, and the funds elected to them - the goal. The newest biographer Paul I American historian Roderick Mc Grew writes:

"Although many Russians, especially at the courtyard and in the army, had every reason to forget about Pavel, in fact that Paul made four years and three months of his reign, it turned out to be fundamental to Russia in the first half of the XIX century. His reforms created a strictly centralized management system focused on the king, challenged the emerging bureaucracy, changed the army and military administration, settled the problem of the Preconsession, formally legalized the status of the royal family and caused death blow Ekaterininsky innovations in the local management system. "

The justice of such an assessment is largely confirmed by the events of the beginning of the XIX century, the reign of Alexander I, who became a new epoch in the history of Russia. For with the murder of Paul ended national history XVIII century.

Public system - 4 estates.

1. Nobility

2. Peasants

3. Citizens

4. clergy

And state system -

1. Organization of state unity

2. Form of Board

3. State mechanism

Legal position of the population.

In the period under review, there are 4 estates. This is a legal category involving legal consolidation of estates. The estate implies a closure and transfer of status by inheritance, the difficulty of transition from one class to another, and the consolidation of fundamental rights and obligations.

The Cathedral definition on the abolition of locality served as the basis for the creation of the nobility - serving people. Firstly, the state undertakes to provide these people to land with peasants if the lands were not - there were local land with peasants and salary. During this period, the privilege of these people has lands, inhabited by peasants. The number of servant people in the Fatherland increases, the number of lands is reduced. In 1714, Peter First publishes decree on the heritage of the estates (ignion decree). It translates local land in the status of its own lands. So, the state is exempt from the obligation to pay the salary of serving people in Fatherland. Peter found that the estate (that is, the estate) should be inherited by one of the children or the older. 2/3 of sons must serve in the army, others in the civil service. In 1730, Anna Joanovna, having come with the help of the nobility to power, accepts decrees that cancel the union and permits to transfer the estate to all children. Those lands that were privatized was determined by the head of "about the estate", wobble - according to the cathedral deposition. Now all such lands have become fixed. Under this position, women could not inherit victobs; Also, the estates could not share.

In 1785, the pledged diploma of Catherine is the second - only nobles have the right to have owned land inhabited by peasants, the rest of the estate - no. She also expanded the amount of property rights - nobles received the right to dispose of the forest, subsoil and even exporting subsoil products. The grades also introduced the principle according to which the state could not withdraw property from the nobles, and even in the most negative case, the property was transferred to heirs inherited.

From the point of view of the status of the service - nobles were obliged to serve, while this period in which the technique develops, the status of the nobles became more complicated. The 18th century put other tasks - artillery, fleet appeared, the staff becomes more difficult. The nobles were to have a serious education. To Peter, a 15-year-old nobleman was illiterate, then since Peter - they had to arrive at the service competent. Peter introduced the examination of fools in the Senate. Further legislation continued to Petrovskaya tradition - and Anna Joanovna, and Elizabeth made decrees that the nobles were to be trained. Began to study at 7 years old, by 20 years - possess a wide range of knowledge. We regularly arranged the looks - the children who lagged on the program, were recorded in state Institution. Could send to the army, to the soldiers - fools there is nothing to hold places in educational institutions.

The service of the nobleman began at the time of arrival and during Peter was to continue until death. If he sick or was embankled, the service was facilitated. Commissions in St. Petersburg conducted a thorough check.

In the time of Peter, the state apparatus has increased dramatically. The number of people having estimates is limited. Russia's finance was upset, but Anna Joanovna corrected the state of the budget. Starting from Catherine, it takes a vacation at its own expense - for a year or 2, depending on the kind of service. Nobles, the remaining of the affairs - the category of "people who feed on deeds" - the state refuses to pay salary and offers to be fed from affairs - medium personnel of judicial institutions.

In 1785, Catherine introduced incentives for the nobility for service. Entering the noble county societies, she announced that unsalted noblemen could participate in these societies, but they do not have the right to sit in them, only stand. These clubs discredited standing.

Procedure for passing service

Another Golitsyn was going to introduce the charter of the service, but in 1722, the Tabel about ranks was signed by Peter, and operated until November 1917.

The Tabel introduced ranks and determined the kind of service - 3 kinds:

1. Military

2. Stat (civilian, or civil)

3. Courtnaya

Military service was, by Peter, the first: army, guard, fleet, artillery. Some kind were not identified, had to regularly enter the clarifications. Stat and military was about equalized - only 14 ranks (the highest - first), in court - the highest - the second. Ranks were assigned not immediately. Initially, the person passed the service outside the ranks - the nobles came to the service of soldiers, and Peter believed that the real officer could not be such, without serving ordinary. In the memoirs, there is a story, as he, together with the men, ran, stood on guard, etc. Further, the service went faster - a non-commissioned officer, then an Ober officer, headquarters officer, brigadier, then General. Before the 14th rank received an offacarious nobility. However, for a simple person, it was unrealistic - only in the rank of a soldier's man was supposed to serve 20 years, then - Unter-officers.

The civil service - first came to the office, in the board (Juncher) - served outside the ranks. Those young people who did not have the nobility received the nobility personal at the same time at the same time with the 14th rank, and from the 8th - received a hereditary nobility. The status of the nobleman was determined regardless of whether it serves or not. The nobility could not be deprived otherwise as a sentence of the court approved by the monarch; liberated from corporal punishment; They had corporate rights - could unite into the county noble, provincial nobility societies. The nobles elected judges, the head of the county police and a number of other officials. The nobility was actively involved in the management of the state.

Peasants

You can divide the peasants into several categories:

1. Owned - the most numerous category - belonged to secular (not spiritual) feudal. The position gradually worsened. Improve this provision could not even the kings. In essence, the peasants cease to be a subject of legal relations. The property was the property of their feudalists. In the 18th century, the development of bourgeois relations leads to the fact that in some cases the owned peasants still achieved certain success, sometimes they earned a state.

The defendant police, justice and landowners were abused by rights: peasants drank without the responsibility of their owners.

2. Peasants belonging to the bishops' houses, churches, etc. Their position is also pretty heavy - revenues are practically not taken into account by the church, but it was interesting to the state. Peasant uprisings begin, in 1762 Peter 2 issues a decree in the secularization of church estates and created a body that made the income of churches. Catherine repeats this decree, and the church is deprived of the peasants.

3. State and palace peasants - had a freer regime. They were managed by special institutions - office offices and home economics.

4. Possensions - appeared during Peter, were attributed to the factories. In the 18th century, the merchants were forbidden, they were allowed to own land with peasants. The most stable form is attributed to the factories.

5. Submailing - chops and one-bedrooms (former servisks) - acquired the status of the peasants. On the situation they were closer to the status of state, but rather they were peasants, they sold out.

Urban population

Russia remained the peasant country. Under Peter, the urban population was legally divided into 2 groups - citizens regular (taxpayers) and irregular (servants, chernocutra, feeders, etc., which are not paying taxes). Regularly shared during Peter 2 Guilds - the 1st Guild (the most prosperous - large merchants, bankers, urban intelligentsia - teachers, painters, pharmacists, etc.). And the second guild (small entrepreneurs, artisans, foreign merchants - no more than 50% of the places in the magistrate)

The following change - with Catherine the second. In the period under review, the position of urban people has gradually deteriorated - in terms of taxation. For Russia, the desire of citizens is characterized by the privileges of the nobility, in special cases they received this status. In 1785, Catherine accepted the city situation, known as a patched diploma to the cities. In accordance with it, the urban population was divided into 6 discharges - she wanted to unite citizens on the principle of residence in the city. Discharges:

1. This is primarily nobles themselves who did not want to participate in urban self-government.

2. The merchant guilds 1st, 2nd and 3rd (the smallest). Belonging to merchandise was determined by the presence of the declared capital (no one was checked). Tax - 1% of the claimed capital.

The 1st Guild is the only merchants that have the right to conduct export-import operations (nobles - only those goods that are produced on the territory of their estates). They were released in the cities from th, the right to a luxurious crew.

1st Guild - Wholesale trade in the state. The 1st and 2nd Guild participated in the states - it was quite profitable.

The 3rd guild is retail traders. Any people who wanted to conduct trading operations could be recorded in the merchants. Until 90s (Franz roar), nobles could also participate in trade, in 92 they were banned.

3. Letters - shared on the shops. The shop served as a fiscal body. Craftsmen shared on masters, students and apprentices. A special charter in the cities regulated various aspects of activities.

4. Foreign and non-resident merchants and merchants.

5. Eminent citizens - bankers, etc. Eminent people in the 3rd generation had the right to scornish.

6. Promenban - they were engaged in craft and were not in the goals, they lived on their income.

Each of the discharges had a meeting, at which representatives were elected to the city duma.

Clergy.

In the 18th century, Russia became a polisheligiosis state.

The Orthodox clergy in the 18th century is gradually deprived of independence in the management of the church - the clergy was transferred to the board, subsequently renamed Synod. In addition, the secularization of church lands occurred. Catherine establishes the states of churches and monasteries, establishing the norms of their content. From the remaining funds, the salary of academies and universities was paid.

The joining of Western Ukraine and Belarus led to the fact that people involved in the Russian lands involved mostly in Catholicism.

In case of Catherine, the merger of the Muslim Church is also. After the joining the Crimea, the Crimean Tatars received their mufti, the muftis prescribed the empress.

Jews - from the former Poland - Jews chased from Russia (Anna Joanovna, Elizabeth).

Russia was a unitary in nature, but various regions had a different status and management system. First, it is due to administrative-territorial division; Secondly, the status of national regions.

1. The status of administrative and territorial units. 1708 Peter held the provincial reform. Even before the province, he used the term "governor" - to manage Arkhangelsk. 8 provinces were installed. First, the boundaries were not clearly outlined; Centers are named; Half of the distance between these centers on the main roads and was the boundaries of the province. Ginger D.B. Share on the county. To help the governors of Peter installed the Tips of Land Landrs, this system worked badly; She showed itself unable to carry out police functions. When the Pugachev's uprising originated, the system did not suppress him. Empress Ekaterina accepts other institutions - to manage authorities in the Russian province. His tasks were managed from an administrative and police point of view. Therefore, not economic and non-governmental indicators were based on the basis, but only the population of the province. It lasts until the 20s of 20 centuries. After this reform, such Pugachev, mass performances were practically impossible.

1.1. In the province of D.B. be 200 - 300 thousand people;

1.2. The number of provinces increased, in the county - 20-30 thousand people

1.3. The province was combined into a governor-general, headed by the emperor.

1.4. Head of the Governor and the Vice-Governor.

1.5. To manage, the provincial board was created, no - special chambers, commissions that dealt with local issues, such as the State Chamber. The value of this device is very large. In the jurisdiction of the governor were troops (combined civil and military function).

In the course of the reform, Catherine tried to divide the administrative and judicial power. Her orders were largely predetermined by the works of European enlighteners. However, undertakings could not be brought to a logical end, because The state was an absolute monarchy. And despite foreign independence, the judiciary depended on the executive in the face of the governor.

Also, Peter was attempting to branch the court from administrations. When Peter selected power from magistrates and gave it to newly created ships, they existed for a long time, and his widow by decree gave power back to the Boards, Senate, and the court of emperor.

In the event that there is no need for adopting a new law, Catherine could not be filed with the complaint - the Senate was the highest judiciary.

2 types of ships are created:

Costs - operate at the level of the provinces and counties (acts for citizens, state peasants and

Noble Court: At the district level - a county court. Its composition and the chairman were elected from the noble.

At the level of the provinces - the Upper Zemsky Court. There were also chosen judges and aspects.

At the level of county cities there were city magistrates or town halls, and the county magistrate. Magistrates were formed from the judges and assessors chosen by citizens. There were upper and lower violence for state peasants.

Thus, there were 3-class vessels, but a stubborn court was created - the Chamber of the Civil Court and the Chamber of the Criminal Court. When appealing the advantage over operating appeal. A cassation appeal is more difficult for unreasonable appeal - one can finish. Some cases were considered in 40 years.

Peter introduced the Burmister huts, then - magistrates and town halls, Catherine abolishes them, they are reborn when they are reborn, but they begin to work as judicial instances. Catherine 2 is trying to introduce: the common city duma from all 6 discharges. In practice, urban dooms practically did not convene.

Board by national regions of the state.

Another 17 B, when Russia became multinational, the principles of the country's relations and its regions began to develop. However, they did not solve all questions. When the region joined Russia, the imperial power retained that class division that existed there. The dominant class was transferred by all the rights of the Russian dominant class. Ukraine, Georgia - received the status of the noble. Tatar Murza and Princes also had the status of Russian nobles.

Russian authorities have always relied on those power structures that have already existed.

Russian authorities did not seek to break institutes, but tried to adapt them to Russian statehood. If the rules of law that were used by the people who are part of the state did not correspond to all-Russian, they were still canceled.

The principle of freedom of religion is established. Exceptions - under faith is not understood by paganism, you need a monotheistic religion. Only the Russian Orthodox clergy could deal with missionary activities. They punished for this Bashkirs and Tatars who tried to instill their faith Kalmyks. The Ost-Zeyd provinces were as such for Sweden, they began to be called them in Russia as well. In these provinces, if the norms of Swedish law did not apply, then Roman was used, and only then Russian.

Malororsia - became part of Russia, but then the period "Ruins" began. Under the contract with the Poles to Russia, only Left Bank Ukraine passed, then Russia bought Kiev from Polyakov. Russia did not consider Ukraine, Malorossia as foreign states. The fortest dependence of the peasants in the municipality was the most terrible. The differences in the management system between Russia and Ukraine are gradually abolished. Catherine The second abolished hetmanism in Ukraine. In 1793 and 1975, we finished it - completed compolutely talk. Lithuania lands and Kurland Duchy are departed to Russia.

South - Crimean Khanate, is under the patronage of the Turkish Ottoman Empire. It is impossible to live in rather fertile lands because of raids, robbery, etc. Golinzina's campaign failed; The same - Petrovsky-Azov campaigns. The second half of 18 V, Catherine decided to put on the throne of the Crimean Khanty of his man. However, this did not lead to positive results - had to dismantle the Crimea. He did not receive status autonomous Education. Crimean Tatars was allowed to join the Russian army.

At the beginning of the 18th century. Kalmyk moved to the territory of Russia from China. Cossacks and Bashkirs regularly robbed each other. In the first third of the 18th century. In order to guide the world in this region, the city-fortress of Orenburg, who was supposed to become a form of Russia. Orenburg was transferred to a special position about this city. There were courts and national, and all-Russian.

In 18 V. The Kabardians, Ossetians, Ossetian, in 1883, are coming to Russia, Ossetians, in 1883, a treaty between the king of Cortley and Kohetia and Russia is concluded in Georgievsky. The people who stood under the threat of the loss of Orthodox faith due to the raids from the Turks and Osman. Russia took this territory under protection. Georgian princes received the status of Russian nobles.

In Peter, a document "On the direction of capital-commercial band of Bering" was signed to explore the coast of the Pacific Ocean, but sent during the reign of Anna Joanovna. Alaska and the Aleutian islands were opened, which began to master Russian.

Form of government.

In to. 17th century In Russia, an absolute monarchy is established. In Russia, this stage is not connected with the development of bourgeois relations (when monarch is tested over the equality), but with the decomposition of feudal relations. To do this, you need a strong power to suppress the resistance of the repressed class.

The power of the monarch becomes relatively independent of other classes, including from the nobles. Other sources of income appear - the sale of the fur, the sales of rhubarb Europe, the tax system changes. At the same time, the monarchy involves the development of the official apparatus. The election principle is removed, only the appointment. There is no responsibility to the population. There is a lot of features of the police state.

PRACTICE

There is no community court in the lawyer, unlike the Russian truth. Church theft, newly repeated theft, theft of people - qualified crimes. Art. 11 - the interests of society are priority before the reimbursement of private harm.

Cathedral crown

The cheese of runaway peasants becomes indefinite.

Posad and chopers; Forms of land tenure (real law and types of real rights).

1. Modernization of the country under Peter 1. Education points Russian Empire.

2. Time of palace coups.

2. Attempts to create a noble monarchy.

3. The policy of the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II.

1. The heavy consequences of the vague time affected Russia within the course of the 17th century. The country cut off from the seas was deprived of the opportunity to develop economic and political relations with European countries. Under these conditions, Russia's socio-economic lag was noticeable from advanced European states. The use of European experience gave Russia the opportunity to return to a number of highly developed countries. For the implementation of these plans, Peter I (1762-1725) began (1762-1725), if she, at the time of his youth, aware of the need to cut the window to Europe. To implement the task, it was necessary to modernize all parties of life. All Peter I activities were aimed at transformation of Russia. In the economic region, his events were reduced to submission of all and all. In the village, it was given an indication to increase the crops of flax to highlight the cloth, to encourage the development of sheepship, expand the area under the grain crops. All this was done to satisfy first of all the increased needs of fast-growing army and fleet. Private serve nobles translated into monetary salary. Earth has already been given for service, but for special merit. Decree of 1714 "On the Union of Solesleted" issued a mergering of two forms of land tenure in one, which was declared incomprehensible property. It was forbidden to sell and lay, as well as divide between the heirs. The whole land was conveyed only to one of the sons. This decree most clearly shows the desire of the king to force the nobles to go to the state service, and not to live on its lands, while remaining from the Power transformation. The industry traces the same trend. Its essence consisted in the determining role of an autocratic state in the economy, his deep penetration into all areas of economic life. In industrial policy, the country's leadership is traced 2 stages: 1) 1700-1717. This is the transfer of merchants on the affordable conditions of the factories, when the main founder of the manufactory was treated by Thaw 1) from 1717, when the manufactory began to establish individuals. At the same time, their owners were freed from the sovereign service. The priority at the first stage was given to the production of products for military needs: weapons, clothing of sailing fabric, which contributed to the rapid development of metallurgy, sub-elenel, sailing and linen production. At the second stage, when a military threat moved to the West and in the successful completion of the war, no one doubted the industry began to produce products and for the population: paints, smoking tubes, silk ribbons, playing cards, etc. Decree of 1722, artisans were combined into the workshop. But in contrast to Western Europe, they created a state, and not the artisans themselves. Unlike the cycles of Western Europe, the size of the production was not regulated in Russia, the size of the production was allowed to keep any amount of apprentices and students, competition with undecessing production was allowed. Peter I made decrees aimed at the development and promotion of private entrepreneurship. In 1719, Berg-leengia appeared, which was allowed to look for useful fossils and build plants to all residents of the country. As a result of transformations in the industry, new industries arose: Shipbuilding (Voronezh, St. Petersburg, Arkhangelsk) Silkworm, glass case, paper production. Two new washed center formed: Urals and St. Petersburg. The peculiarity of the development of trade was to attempt mercantilism, the essence of which was the accumulation of money to counted the active balance of trade. This was achieved by carrying out the policy of protectionism and the active state intervention in the development of trade, which was as follows: 1) the introduction of a monopoly on the workpiece and sale of certain goods: salt, flax, oil, tobacco, bread, wax, etc. Its raised prices for goods inside Countries and limited the mortality of Russian merchants. This led to a frustration of a free-based trade entrepreneurship based on the market culture. 2) often selling a certain product, on which the state monopoly was introduced was transferred to a concrete deposit about paying a large amount of money. 3) Direct taxes, customs, foundry fees. 4) the forced relocation of merchants in St. Petersburg practiced. At that time, it was an uncompraised city. And the most wealthy merchants moved to it, they often ruined, which caused damage to business. 5) The practice of administrative regulation of freight traffic was taken. The gross state interference in the sphere of trade led to the destruction of the basis of the foundation, on which the well-being of merchants ended. The policy of active intervention in the country's economy under Peter I passed in 2 stages: 1) until 1710, a system of prohibitions, monopolies, duties, taxes were carried out, that is, through open forms of coercion. This required an extreme military situation. 2) From the mid-1710, the strength of gravity was transferred to the creation and operation of the administrative control bureaucratic machine. The allocation of the feudal state in the economy led to the deformation of the born capitalist structures. First of all, this is due to the use of sub-minced fastener labor, which gradually pushed out Wolnonamen, which determined the economic lag of Russia since the beginning of the 19th century. The following large reform of Peter I was a change in social. Politicians. How the first stage made a change in the class. There was a decay of a single class of serving people. Services: boyars, nobles. We broke up on your own nobles, which have become a separate estate since that time. The seruners in the device (Sagittarius, Pushkari), along with the single-handle, constituted the state of the state. Peasants. For former serving people, a new service criterion was introduced - instead of the principle of origin, the principle of personal service was introduced. On it, the service staircase consisted of 14 steps divided into: military (land and sea), civilian, courtiers. The nobility under Peter 1 was considered, above all, as a bureaucratic and liberal estate, attached to the state. The following in social reforms was the transformation of urban classes, the goal to unify the structure of the city, moved to the Western European institutions and increase the number of supported people, Peter 1 gave the electoral administration. The landux population was divided into regular and irregular citizens, in turn, regular citizens shared for two guilds: 1: First-standing citizens - the tops of the Posada, the merchants are rich in, artisans, citizens of integer professions. The 2nd Guild is small shopkeepers and artisans who have merged also in a professional sign chain. Irregular citizens "Elevative people" included in their mooring. The property of the city was elected to the cities of the Magistrate, who were elected by all regular citizens. In their jurisdiction, there were proceedings, tax collection, monitoring order in the city. The reform touched the most numerous class - peasants. Peter 1st is formed a category of state peasants for the unification of a variety of categories of not the serfs of Russia. It was formed from Odnodvords, former serving, black-made peasants from the north and foreigners. They all became heavy. Private owner peasants were merged into a single class with holopas. This is due to the fact that the slaves did not float cravings, and after merging them with serfs, they were introduced into the first salary. In the period from 1718-1724, they conducted a census of the population and introduced a submail (with a male soul), in addition, a passport system was introduced for the peasants. The peasant was leaving for earnings, a mark was put in the passport about the return time, this measure slowed down the formation of the labor market. Thus, it can be said that the life of the estates under Peter 1 was determined by the aunt, and not right, was completely subordinated to the state and his interests. As a result of the claim reform, three main types of restrictions appeared: 1. Movement around the country. 2. Library in choosing classes. 3. Transition from one class to another. All this has adversely affected the socio-economic development of the country.

23.11.12

At the beginning of the twentieth years, the Soviet state was fundamentally different from the image of the "Half Half" - without the army and the police, without a bureaucracy, which was seeing Lenin. Practice hid the entire Soviet political regime more acquires an authoritarian, bureaucratic nature at that time. The nature of the Bolshevik Party is changing. Looking more and more from the masses, widely using repressive measures to suppress the dissent, its top is transformed from the revolutionary structure into management, becoming the party of power The Russian Communist Party Bolsheviks is increasingly recruited due to the elite layer of Soviet employees. At the same time, according to Trotsky, the party itself is increasingly divided into a secretarial hierarchy and a measure, that is, professional party functionaries, and other party mass, not participating in decision-making. However, the social and political crisis of 1920-1921 and the introduction of NEP did not pass without a trace for the Bolsheviks: among them there were discussions on the role and place of trade unions in the state, about the essence and political meaning of the NEP, the parties appeared fractions with their platforms opposing the position of Lenin. Some insisted on democratization of the management system and providing trade unions of broad business rights. Operating opposition, others offered to centralize control even more and actually eliminate trade unions. Moreover, many communists came out of the RCPB, believing that the introduction of NEPA means the restoration of capitalism and betraying the socialist principles. The ruling party threatened the split, which was with current views of Lenin, completely unacceptable. The idea of \u200b\u200bfighting dissent, he put forward on the tenth congress of the party. Resolutions "On the Unity of the Party" were prohibited organized factions. The highest party instances, the Central Committee and the Central Control Commission were empowered to exclude elected heads of managers in cases of violation of this ban. The innovation further became the source of hazardous consequences, it served as the basis for the final cleansing of the RCPB of VKPB from the features characteristic of a political organization. Internartian struggle in the 20s with its incorrect methods made it possible to disavow old frames of the party, which in the 30s were destroyed. No less resolutely stood up Lenin and to protect the one-party dictatorship. He opposed the proposal of a number of Bolsheviks on the legal possibilities of their participation in the publishing officer, elections to the advice to create opposition in them, rejection of repression in relation to political opponents. On a memorandum of one of the party publicists of the Central Committee of the Central Committee of the Central Committee of the Central Committee of the Central Committee, Lenin wrote: "In my opinion, the author is not right, it is formalistic, he is not an inner in the case, as follows, even a clearer conclusion, Lenin formulated in another brochure:" We will keep Menshevik and Essers are still both open and repainted in non-partisan in prison. In February 1921, the leaders of the Mensheviks were arrested, and in a year the process against the 47-leaders of Essays, which ended with the death sentences. After the end of the civil war, the authorities took action against the church, in February 1922 the state confiscated the jewel in the church to fight hunger. When the believers in the city of Shue prevented the Red Army and Chekistam to remove the property from the city cathedral, Lenin in the letter to members of the Politburo proposed to present this incident, as the refusal of the church to help the starving Volga region and under the pretext of fighting hunger to confiscate church values, after the public process, the Petrograd Metropolitan Viniha was shot after the public process, Arrested Patriarch Tihan. In June 1923, Patriarch was released, but soon he died. The repression of the recreation of the church continued, only in 1922 the number of spiritual persons who died in clashes during the seizure of values \u200b\u200bor ribbed by the court amounted to more than 8 thousand people. At the beginning of the NEP, the goal was to move from emergency methods to the normal system of legality, in fact, the secret police of the GPU-OGPU retained all its powers and very actively used them, both in the fight against gangs and against the possible revival of other parties. And it was one of the few functioning institutions. In the consequence of GPU, the NKVD division was. The transition to the NEPA reflected on the communist party itself. Initially, it was repeatedly rejected that the party functions should not be mixed. But practically to distinguish them from the very top made very little. The most significant decisions on all political economic issues were admitted to the highest governing bodies of the party. A genuine leading center of the country - Politburo, where major political issues were dealing. Something similar happened in the scale of the province. The strengthening state, totalitarian trends sought to control all media resources. Back in 1918, the socialist newspapers were closed. Opposition. And in the 20th years they introduced censorship for any periodicals. Censorship became particularly tight in the 30s and persisted almost consistently until the end of 80s. Without censorship permission, even candy candy candy was not printed. In the early 20s, intensive legislative activities were introduced, criminal and civilian codes were introduced and adopted, their adoption was accompanied by the reform of the courts who united into a slim three-bonded system: the People's Court - the provinces - the Supreme Court of the Republic. Revolutionary tribunals and administrative proceedings were abolished. The state of the prosecutor's office was established, and the tasks of supervision over the execution of laws were entrusted and at the same time support the states. He received a recognition of a lawyer system. However, the statement of legality pushed serious difficulties. The main obstacle is a sharpness of the political struggle as internal and international. Lenin himself acting in the process of developing new codes demanded "to expand the use of execution with replacing the expulsion abroad, distributing it on persons participating in the activities of other parties" Lenin also stated that it would be a deception to promise the elimination of terror and expressed a wish to appropriately political crimes were legally formulated As widely as possible, providing revolutionary legal awareness to address the question in what purpose to apply established measures. At the end of August 1922, a number of cultural science figures called "especially active counter-revolutionary elements" were sent from. Assm or sent to Siberia, among them were philosophers Berdyaev N.A. and N.O. Lotsky, sociologist P.A. Sorokin, economist S.N. Prokopovich and others. To send them to special. The vessel obtained the name "Philosophical Steamhouse" controlled the GPU bodies. In the early 20s, the Soviet Russia has made a significant step forward in the formation of an administrative team system with a transition to tough one-party and repressive policies against other parties and social groups.
Russia on the eve
After the end of the civil war, the Soviet republic turned out to be deeply crisis - the country had almost nothing to distribute nothing. Attempting to rebuild the economic and political system of the largest powers of the world and the political system of the largest powers of the world and continuously proceed to communism ended with collapse. By winning the civil war, the Bolsheviks were on the verge of political bankruptcy and loss of power. Brotherly, the murderer caused Russia an earliest damage. By the beginning of the 20s, the words of Lenin "Of course we failed, we thought to implement a new communist Society By whining omen, in the meantime, this is a matter of decades and generations. We should clearly see that the attempt failed to change the psychology of other people as cool, the skills and age-old life can not be tried to try to disperse the population into a new system by force. But the question will still keep power ... "The crisis at the beginning of 1921 was total. But the most obvious it appeared in economy. sphere. Over the years of World and Civil War, Russia has lost more than a quarter of the national bogs, military communism ruined significantly. National income has decreased. The volume of gross production of small industries decreased to 43% of the pre-war level. By the beginning of 1921, the products of the metalworking industry were 7% of the 1913 level of the production of pig iron no more than 2%. The railway was performed no more than 12%. Practically did not work mail and communication. Human losses amounted to a civil war on different estimates from 4 to 9 million people. About 2 million were forced to immigrate. According to the calculations of specials. The population of the country by 1921 did not exceed 135 million people. The male population was particularly significant damage, the number decreased by a third. More than 4 million people have become disabled. A significant part of an inthylege and entrepreneurs died or was thrown abroad. By the end of the Civil War, the level of the population declined. There was not enough needed consumption items (kerosene soap ...) exhaustion and hunger contributed to the spread of epidemics. The exversman in the village inexorably contributed to the reduction of the sowing areas. The peasants did not want to endure the violently the selection of bread. Workers were even more injured, Many went out from hunger in the village. Moscow population decreased by almost 2 times, Peter is two-thirds. The number of workers industrial. Centers decreased by 6-7 times. Large peasant uprisings in the Tambov province of Siberia and other localities began. The peasants demanded the abolition of the exversmanship, the convening of the Constituent Assembly of Freedom of Trade and Denationalization, .. Military actions against the peasants were led by the largest commander of the Red Army: Tukhachevki, Frunze, Re-election of tips for these advice does not express the will of workers and peasants. The Delegation of Kronstadskiy Sailors sent to Petrojrad to familiarize the works of the city was arrested. Kronstad answered this by creating a temporary revolution. Committee, on his side, passed a part of the organization's burial system. The government introduced the siege in Petrograd, declared the rebel rebels and refused to negotiate. The shelves of the Red Army reinforced by the T-shutdowns of the Asturm took the KRANSHDAT.

The Bolshevik leadership led by Lenin, who confessed the left-radical doctrine about the possibility of a direct transition to a battle society, until the last moment defended the communist course. Only the threat of loss of power forced to realize the need to turn policies. The crisis of the spring of 1921, with all the sharpness raised the question of the ability of the Bolsheviks in the new conditions to solve the problem of the relationship between the government in the person of the ruling party and the basic classes of Russian society. For this purpose, Ned. The transition to the nonup is a cycle of consecutive activities to exit the crisis. Gradually, they made an attempt to outline the program for constructing socialism by economic methods. The most consistently this program is set out in the articles and speeches of Lenin, as well as in the writings of Bukharin. The new policy replaced the old and advanced economic methods of government to the fore. The political goal of the NAP is to relieve social tensions, strengthen the base of the Soviet power in the form of the Union of Workers and Peasants. Economic goal is to prevent further deepening devastation, get out of the crisis and restore the farm. Social goal is to ensure favorable conditions for the construction of a socialist society, without waiting for the revolution. In addition, Ned was configured to restore normal foreign economic and political relations. Soon the natural tax, which was about twice the exertion, was still reduced and replaced with monetary. Freedom of trade was restored, which gave peasants the opportunity to sell surplus products. Fastened work and land rental. Small industrial enterprises partially returned to the ownership of previous owners or leased to individuals and cooperatives. Foreign capital was allowed in small amounts. Created 2 dozen joint ventures with foreign companies. 1922-24 monetary reform was carried out. Secured gold and convertible Chervonets (10 rubles) replaced the impaired Soviet signs. These reforms created a mixed economy in the country, but the state sector played the leading role. In the hands of the states were - political power, finance, heavy industry, transport and monopoly of foreign trade, i.e. So-called team heights. More than 90% of the slave was occupied by the state-oh, mainly in the heavy, industry. Private capital prevailed in small industries and trade. The agrarian sector was 24 million. Individual rural hosts, united, for the most part, in independent rural communities. During the implementation of economic policies in a fairly short period, the national economy has been restored to the pre-war level. The village was raised faster - the sowing squares, which had shown by the 21st year to the 23rd, increased to 65 million. Ha, in the 27th reached almost 90 MLN, ha. Collection of grains from 18mln. Tonn increased to 37 million. In the 24th year, and by the 26th year it increased by another twice and the harvest exceeded 74 million. Ton. The livestock has gradually increased to 27 million. Horses, and 55 million. cattle in the 1926th year. And yet, with all the difficulties of the NEP period, the restoration of the national hoz-wa was generally successful, already in 1921, the implementation of the Golro Plan began, in 1924-1926. Nizhny Novgorod, Yaroslavskaya, Shaturskaya and Volkovskaya HPP are linked. By the 1926th electricity production by one and a half times exceeded the pre-war level. By the end of 1926, the railway transport began to go out of the ruin, the movement of trains was restored throughout the country. From the 1924th Putilovsky Plant in Petrograd, and then Kharkov and Kolomna engineering plants began to produce tractors, and the Moscow plant AMO trucks. The restoration of the industry led to the revival of the working class, in August 1921 his number barely exceeded a million people. By the end of the 1927, the number of workers employed in the large industry reached 2,5 million. human. But despite the successes of Nope, many were displeased to her. The position of the class, on behalf of which the Bolshevit dictatorship was peaked, that is, the workers, compared with the pre-revolutionary, improved somewhat, however, the changes could be assessed far from unambiguously. The discontent of the workers in their position was expressed in mass performances in defense of their own economic interests - at 22g, empty 200 jobs. Reducing the strikes was associated not only with improved material situation, but also with administrative prohibitions and still in 1925, the large industry has almost reached the level of 1913, and in 1926 surpassed it. Although, in some industries, success was modest. The NEP was carried out not without shocks and the economies as a whole, during it, there are three crisis - the first occurred in 1923. Year and got the name "Sales Crisis" or "Price Scissors", as a result of too high prices for industrial products and the understatement of state, procurement prices for agricultural products, the peasants were unable to buy them and refused to sell grain and meat to the state, realizing them in the market . The warehouses were overwhelmed with factory products intended for the village. The state to overcome the crisis had to slightly reduce the prices of industrial goods and raise purchasing prices for agricultural products. In 1925-1926), due to a relatively low crop, there were also boring interruptions, the crisis was overcome with a decrease in the sale of breads of foreign bread and a decrease in the purchase of imported equipment. In the same period, the state faced serious difficulties in the development of the economy. After recovery, the rates of its growth slow down. It was necessary to radically update the factory equipment, creating new industrial capacities, however, all this required huge investments and skilled workers, but neither the first nor second in the state was available. The political leadership of the USSR should have taken a decision: or to continue working in the conditions of NEP and gradually, without revolutionary shocks, to build a new economy, or to implement economic jerks in a short time, but for this NEP policy was no longer suitable, such a breakthrough could be made not economic, but only Administrative voluntar methods, all this began to affect the second half of the 20s.

Education of the USSR.

Before the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks put forward the following requirements on the national issue: the right of nation and peoples to self-determination to the state branch; their equality; Regional territorial autonomy for ethnic groups not wished separated; Proletarian internationalism. All these slogans, of course, seriously facilitated the Bolsheviks the seizure of power and victory in the Civil War, however, many former territories of the empire, proclaiming their independence, were no longer going to be part of the Soviet state and support the Bolsheviks. Under these conditions, Lenin decided to abandon the principle of national self-determination until the department and replace it with the principle of federalism, explaining that the emergence of the proletarian republics is an objective factor to combine them to the federation against the bourgeoisie of all nations. By the beginning of the 20th anniversary of the former Russian Empire, there were several independent state formations - These are created on the basis of the national-territorial sign of the RSFSR, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Azeirbajan, Armenian and Georgian Soviet Socialist Republics, as well as the Bukhara and Hareresmic People's Republic of Soviet republics and the Far Eastern Republic. In the years of the Civil War, a military union was concluded for more efficient removal by anti-Sovetsky forces between the RSFSR, Ukraine and Belarus. The armed forces were united and a single military command introduced, representatives of the republics were included in the senior authorities of the state and management. The established form of union received the name of the contractual Federation, its originality was that Russian management structures played in it and the role of national authorities, Republican Communist Parties were included in the RCNB for the rights of regional party organizations, due to the unity of the republics in solving military and economic issues. But the same simultaneously restricted their sovereignty, that is, it was necessary to look for a more mutually beneficial form. The growth of unifying aspirations contributed to the economic assistance of the RCSR, she helped Ukraine in restoring its industry, in particular in the restoration of Dunbas, provided 20malliard rubles for the restoration of the Belarusian industry. With its help, the oil pipeline of Baku-Tbilisi was opened, hydroelectric power plants were built in Georgia. In March 1922, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan united in the Transcaucasian Council of the Federal Socialist Republic, the Association process entered the final base, the Commission of the Politburo TsKPKPB was formed by the Autonomization Plan developed by Stalin, submitted on September 10, a document known as the autonomization project on actually meant the absorption of the Republic of RSFR, the government of which became at the head of the federation. Armenia, Azerbaijan and Belarus accepted, but Ukrainians and Georgians fully criticized this plan. Lenin sick and found out about the project and disputes caused by him only at the end of September. Condequently too hasty actions of Stalin, he rejected the idea of \u200b\u200bautonomization and proposed a completely different option, according to which the equal republics were united into the federation, and not subordinate RSFSR. In order for this equality to become a real federation authorities, it was necessary to put on republican, Stalin had to remake his plan according to Lenin instructions. On October 6, 1922, the new text approved the CCRKPB - equal rights within the USSR were guaranteed to all republics,

In the scale of application of forced labor in the 30s, historians lead the following numbers. As of May 1, 1930, the introduction of the NKVD of the RSFSR was 279 corrective and labor institutions with 171. 251 prisoners and in the Camps of the OGPU about a hundred thousand people. The whole army reserve included 1.6 million prisoners. In order to increase the labor activity of the Komsomolov Party, trade unions organized social. Competition. The most important construction sites of the first five-year plan were Magnitogorsk and Kuznetsky metallurgical plants, Stalingrad and Kharkov factories, automotive plants in Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod. During this time, 1,500 large industrial enterprises were built. But many of them did not reach the design capacity due to low qualities. In January 1933, in the plenum of Central Committee, Stalin stated that the first five-year plan was performed ahead of time in 4 years and three months. In fact, many of its tasks were not fulfilled due to the unrealistic growth rates of the economy.

The Petrovskaya Epoch was the completion of the process of folding absolutism, but it was the most complete expression. It was under Peter "that the unlimited power of the monarch reached the maximum limit. The subsequent period was the stage of development albeit not obvious, but still limiters of the powers of emperors. It is in this, and not in a simple transition of power "from one bunch of nobles or feudal ... Other" (V. I. Lenin), consisted of those events that were held in history under the name "The Epoch of Palace Dobor". Coups XVIII century. There were, in essence, a reflection of the claims of Russian society to participate in power. "The logic of the process put the guard to the place that remained vacant after the abolition of the Zemsky Cathedrals and any kind of representative institutions, one way or another limiting the autocratic arbitration, when he clearly walked around the interests of the country. This" Guards Parliament ", who made decisions and the same , perhaps, the only one of its kind in European political history "(Ya Gordin).

Thanks to the persistence of the "Guards Parliament" in the second half of the XVIII, there was a stabilization of the political system, new forms of relationships between the monarchy and society were developed. These were not any written mutual obligations in the form of a constitutional law, rather the imperial authorities were recognized by the limits of its possibilities, which she tried not to overtake. Perhaps such a monarchy could be defined as "self-limited". It is this need for self-restraint that determines the success of the reign of Catherine II (1762 - 1796) and, on the contrary, the failure of Paul I (1796 - 1801), and, finally, inconsistency and contradictory policy of Alexander I.

The need to reckon with public opinion has become an integral line of the state system and formed the basis of policies called "enlightened absolutism". The main difference of it from traditional absolutism was the duality of the events held. On the one hand, governments actively counteracted any attempts to change the existing system, but on the other, they were forced to make partial concessions from the requirements of society from time to time.

So, almost all the monarchs began their board with the promotion of liberalism. If Catherine II in the first years after joining the authorities, the convening and work of the commissioned commission (1767-1769), which restricted, is true, only reading the punishment, then Alexander I has to create a unklassy committee M. M. Speransky, who created a number of quite Liberal laws. Moreover, Alexander even thought out the plan of constitutional reforms, although not carried out, but clearly showing the direction in which the Russian monarchy was reluctant. The same tendency is also visible in the efforts of the state to disseminate education in the country, since education significantly increased the number of those who sought to conduct the ideas of liberalism in Russian reality. It is not surprising that therefore, in these years, fretsiness (free economic society, N. I. Novikov, A. I. Radishchev, Decembrists, etc.) was widely distributed in Russia.

At the same time, there was not a single monarch that would be consistent in his liberal aspirations. All of them, as a rule, in the second half of the reign entered into an active struggle with liberalism. First of all, it was expressed in strengthening centralism in the system of public administration, which has a goal to put a society for tight control. Examples of this kind are, for example, the provincial reform of Catherine II or the creation of the Council of Ministers by Alexander I. The government did not refuse to use repressive methods in the fight against liberals. Among them, it is possible to call quite rigid, like Arrest N. I. Novikov or reference A. I. Radishchev, and very temperate, in the form of traditional opals, such as M. M. Speransky. In contrast to the policy of attracting reformers for the beginning of the reign in the Favor, it includes very conservative figures, such as A. A. Arakcheev.
No less dual character also wore the social policy of this era. If the expansion of the privileges of the nobility, the most fully expressed in the "humble diploma" (1785), and the organization of local noble governments looked, in general, naturally, the patronage policy towards the entrepreneurial layers and the creation of urban self-government (" Cities "1785) and, moreover, attempts to resolve the peasant question (decrees about the three-day barbecue and free blades, the elimination of serfdom in the Baltic States, etc.) clearly indicate a state understanding of the need for at least partial changes in the social system.

However, the main direction in social policy remained the desire to maintain the established relationships unchanged. Therefore, in the second half of the XVIII - the first quarter of the XIX centuries. Freight addiction acquires complete forms of slavery, turning peasants in an absolutely irrelevant estate. The fixative trends are clearly visible in the practice of creating military settlements, in the final elimination of Cossack autonomy.

The consequence of this policy has become an increase in the second half of the XVIII century. social conflicts. A particularly prominent role was played by the Cossack-peasant war under the leadership of E. Pugacheva. If such truly large social performances of the previous centuries (rebellion under the leadership of S. Razin, or Bulavinsky performance), often defined in Soviet historical science as peasant wars, were not in fact, the performance of Pugachevs, perhaps, we have the right to characterize exactly how the peasant war . And for reasons (the growth of serfdom and the offensive of the government on the rights of Cossacks)), and on the social composition of participants (peasants, "labor-carrying people", Cossacks, national minorities, etc.), and for purposes (struggle for the elimination of serfdom) The speech was really peasant. Therefore, despite the defeat of the rebels, the importance of the uprising is extremely large: it was it that found the power of discontent accumulated in the peasantry, which stimulated the future searches for the decision of the peasant question and, ultimately, became the fact that the memory of which was forced by the Russian state in the next century to cancel the serfdom . Less wide, but no less significant were many other social speeches (the Chuguev's uprising of the military inhabited, the uprising of the Semenovsky regiment, etc.), which found an increasing increase in the threat of social instability.

In fact, the same picture is observed in the economy. Economic development of Russia in the 2nd half of the XVIII century. It is characterized by very noticeable innovations. First of all, it concerns the growth of free labor on manufactory. The limited market of free working hands in the city led to the emergence of a special form of use of the village's labor resources in the form of departure. The way out of the situation was found, however, waste led to the relative high cost of labor (since the wage had to lay an amount of the delay in the peasant) and instability in ensuring the production of it, which clearly slowed down the development of manufactory manufacturing. Another characteristic phenomenon of the second half of the XVIII century. It was the formation of the All-Russian market, which really connected the country together.

The market, however, very peculiarly affected the development of agriculture. Without creating any qualitatively new phenomena in the agrarian sector, it caused a change in the quantitative characteristics of existing relationships. The desire to increase the production of bread for sale noticeably increased the Barskar, which, in turn, demanded an increase in the working time required for its processing. The market, thereby turned around for the peasants with a growing barbecue, and sometimes (let's say, in the case of transfer to the "month"), their full separation from the Earth. The same consequences also led the translation of peasants to monetary marks, which, just, forced them to go to the city's earnings. The loss of the association of the peasant with its land undermined the foundations of the existing system, created the prerequisites for the emergence of new relations (albeit outside the agricultural sector).

Thus, for the period of "enlightened absolutism", the interconnection, interaction and mutual confrontation of the old and new in all spheres of life are characteristic: liberalism and despotism in politics; The expansion of the rights of one classes and the narrowing of others in the social sphere, an increase in the freedom of entrepreneurship and limiting the possibilities of economic entities - in the economy - everywhere there is a dual nature of Russia's development in this era.

The development of statehood in Russia was stimulated not only by internal factors; The foreign policy activity of the Russian state was of great importance. The main lines of Russia's foreign policy in the 2nd half of the XVII - early XIX centuries. It was dictated by its Western orientation, laid back at Peter I. The forces of the Russian state for this time increased so much that it had already had the opportunity to act almost simultaneously at once in three directions: the struggle for entering black (and in perspective - and the Mediterranean) sea, the satisfaction of territorial Claims on the Western border and, finally, resistance to the growth of French influence in Europe. Russian-Turkish Wars (1768 - 1774, 1787 - 1791, 1806 - 1812), participation in the sections of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795) and the struggle on the side of the Antifrangesz Coalition (Russian-French Wars of the late XVIII - early XIX centuries .) Not only increased the international authority of the Russian state, but also created prerequisites for the completion of the process of its transformation into a "great European power".

However, the decisive phase of this process refers only to the second decade of the XIX century. and is associated with the events of the Patriotic War of 1812. Being an episode in a long history of the struggle for hegemony on the European continent between the United Kingdom and France, this war was to become a means of strengthening Napoleon's positions on the continent (and in case of success, and the involvement of Russia to the Antianglian Coalition). However, the latter clearly overestimated his own and underestimated the forces of Russia. In the course of hostilities, despite the initial success of the invasion, the French army suffered a crushing defeat, which were the reasons for the skilled strategy of warfare M. B. Barclay de Tolly and M. I. Kutuzov (and, on the contrary, unsuccessful - Napoleon), the patriotism of the Russian The people, distinctly expressed, in particular, in a wide partisan movement, and, finally, the natural and climatic conditions of Russia, talented by Russian commander.

Victory over Napoleon in the Patriotic War, along with a successful campaign as part of the Anti-Manzu coalition of 1813-1814, not only changed the ratio of forces on the continent in favor of Russia and strengthened its international prestige. Not less, but, perhaps, she had more importance for the development of an internal situation in Russia. The victory strengthened the position of the autocratic power in the country, allowing it to be more independent of social pressure from the bottom, which was noticeably weakened by the reform dust of state power.

Such an inconsistency and lethargy of power in creating a promising political strategy, along with increasingly apparent depressive phenomena in all areas of the country's life, became one of the first signs of increasing the universal crisis in Russia. Actually, it is opposing the crisis trends in the development of Russian society and was the main task of the system of "enlightened absolutism". The failure in the proposal of an effective policy on the exit from the crisis situation "from above" was the cause of the intensive activity of the Company itself in search of means of resolving the crisis below.

It is such an attempt to find a widespread movement of the Decembrists who decent to Russia. The movement was the result of the development of several very contradictory processes of political life of Russia. First, the real contradictions of Russian society demanded their permission, secondly, there was a fairly significant social layer, applying to complicity in state activities, thirdly, the Patriotic War, on the one hand, was well shown by the previous opportunities of Russia, which clearly did not The existing socio-economic and political system corresponded to the country, and on the other hand, it helped see it seemed to how they could use more effectively (as was done, for example, in Western Europe). That is what played a decisive role in the emergence and development of the Decembrist organizations.

By putting its task to prevent the country's slip to the estimated, and, as you know, not without reason, the disaster, the Decembrists were proposed to hold a number of very significant changes in the intrabagne and political stroit of the country: the elimination of serfdom, the destruction of autocracy (but not necessarily the monarchy), the introduction of the Constitution and Dr. An attempt to achieve these goals and was the uprising on December 14, 1825. However, it ended, and quite naturally, defeat. The undeveloped contradictions, the weakness of the social support and the power of state power did not allow to solve the task in those conditions. Decembrists were ripe before, rather than there were a clear need for them. This led to the fact that after their defeat in society, there were almost no politically active forces that could continue the pressure on the Government below in order to conduct an anti-crisis policy. Thus, the conservatism of the Peckibristian era rose sharply, which caused Russia's unhindered movement to the Universal and Deepest Crisis



The eighteenth century includes the Board of Peter I, the era of palace coups and the golden age of Catherine II. Such peripetia in domestic policy led to the unevenness of its social and foreign policy development, but its general direction remained consonant reforms of Peter the Great.

Internal and foreign policy of this period is difficult to divide. Peter I conceived to establish trade with European countries, for this it was necessary to enter the sea. So in 1700 the war began with Sweden. She ended only in 1721, after the signing of the world in the city Nesteadte Russia received an exit to the Baltic Sea. But during the war it became clear that the industrial development of the country does not allow for large-scale European wars. For this you need guns, guns, ships and educated frames. War required buildings of factories, ships and opening educational institutions. By the middle of the century, 75 metallurgical plants were earned in Russia, which provided the country with the necessary cast iron and sent metal to export. There was a combat and commercial navy and, due to the number of opened technical universities, their own military personnel.

Ekaterina II continued the same line of development of the state. After the bloody war, 1768-1774. Russia pushed out the Ottoman Empire from the Black Sea region and received a way out to the Black Sea. After the partition of Poland, the Russian Earth entered the land of the Right Bank of Ukraine and Belarus. As a result, the turnover increased several times, the number of manuffs increased, new industries appeared. Thus, by the end of the XVIII century, Russia from a distant insignificant state in the north became an empire playing one of the leading roles in the international policy of that time.

Large-scale reforms of Peter the Great and Catherine II supported a little old to know the country. To strengthen the throne and the imperial authority, Peter I began to actively rely on the military estate, distributing the land for the service. So it appeared and the nobility began to strengthen. In the first quarter of the eighteenth century, the nobility was divided into personal and hereditary. All the faces of this class were obliged to serve. Over time, the rights of the nobility are increasingly expanded. Earth and titles began to move by inheritance, and at the end of the century the service ceased to be mandatory. The empowerment of the nobility led to the reassurance of peasants, and to several large-scale riots of the people.

Another feature of this century was the secularization of public life. Peter I abolished the patriarchy and established the sacred synod, and Catherine II decided to confiscate church lands. Church reform has become the beginning of the absolutist period of Russian history. By the end of the XVIII century, under the influence of Volter's ideas and Didro, the enlightened absolutism was established in the country. In Russia, secular culture begins to develop, the theater appeared, Fonvizin writes his comedies, a sculpture and a parade portrait appear in the visual arts.

In this age, the country chose the path, catching up European countries, taking from them what they like. This development line influenced the consciousness of society, the development of culture, sciences and social thought.