Tip 1: How to determine the type of hybridization

Instructions

Consider the molecule of the simplest saturated hydrocarbon, methane. Its looks like this: CH4. The spatial model of a molecule is a tetrahedron. The carbon atom forms bonds with four hydrogen atoms that are absolutely identical in length and energy. In them, according to the above example, 3 - Р of the electron and 1 S - of the electron participate, the orbital of which began to exactly correspond to the orbitals of the other three electrons as a result of what happened. This type of hybridization is called sp ^ 3 hybridization. It is inherent in all the ultimate.

But the simplest representative of unsaturated ones is ethylene. Its formula is as follows: C2H4. What type of hybridization is inherent in the carbon in the molecule of this substance? As a result, three orbitals are formed in the form of asymmetric "eights" lying in one plane at an angle of 120 ^ 0 to each other. They were formed by 1 - S and 2 - P electrons. The last 3rd P - the electron did not change its orbital, that is, it remained in the form of the correct "eight". This type of hybridization is called sp ^ 2 hybridization.

How are bonds formed in a molecule? Two hybridized orbitals of each atom entered with two hydrogen atoms. The third hybridized orbital formed a link with the same orbital of the other. Are the remaining P orbitals? They are "attracted" to each other on both sides of the plane of the molecule. A bond has formed between the carbon atoms. It is atoms with a "double" bond that sp ^ 2 is inherent in.

And what happens in the acetylene molecule or? Its formula is as follows: C2H2. In each carbon atom, only two electrons undergo hybridization: 1 - S and 1 - P. The other two retained their orbitals in the form of "regular eights" overlapping "in the plane of the molecule and on either side of it. That is why this type of hybridization is called sp - hybridization. It is inherent in atoms with a triple bond.

Everything the words existing in a particular language can be divided into several groups. This is important when defining both meaning and grammatical functions. the words... Referring it to a certain type, you can modify it according to the rules, even if you have not met it before. Element types the words lexicology deals with the composition of the language.

You will need

- text;
- dictionary.

Instructions

Select the word you want to define the type of. Its belonging to one or another part of speech does not yet play a role, as well as its form and function in a sentence. It can be absolutely any word. If it is not indicated in the assignment, write down the first one that comes across. Determine if it is naming an object, quality, action or not. For this parameter, all the words are divided into significant, pronominal, numerals, service and interjection. To the first type include nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc. They designate the names of objects, qualities and actions. The second type of words that have a naming function is the pronominal. The ability to name is absent in the interjection and service types. These are relatively small groups of words, but they are in everyone.

Determine if a given word is capable of expressing a concept. This function is available for the words units of the significant type, because it is they that form the conceptual series of any language. However, any number also belongs to the category of concepts, and, accordingly, also carries this function. Official words also have it, but pronouns and interjections do not.

Consider how the word will be if it appears in a sentence. Can it be? It can be any word of a significant type. But this opportunity is there for, as well as for the numeral. But the service the words play an auxiliary role, neither subject, nor, nor secondary members of the sentence, they can not be, as well as interjections.

For convenience, you can make a plate of four columns of six rows. On the top row, name the appropriate columns for Word Types, Title, Concept, and Can I Be a Sentence Member. In the first left column, write down the names of the types of words, there are five of them. Determine which functions a given word has and which it does not. Put pluses and in the appropriate boxes. If all three columns have pluses, then this is a significant type. The pronominal will have pluses in the first and third columns, in the second and third. Service the words can only express the concept, that is, they have one plus in the second column. Opposite interjections in all three columns will be minuses.

Hybridization: natural and artificial

The hybridization process is based on combining the genetic material of different cells from different individuals in one cell. Distinguishes between intraspecific and distant, in which the connection of different genomes occurs. In nature, natural hybridization has occurred and continues to occur without human intervention all the time. It was by crossing within a species that plants changed and improved and new varieties and breeds of animals appeared. From the point of view, there is a hybridization of DNA, nucleic acids, changes at the atomic and intra-atomic levels.

In academic chemistry, hybridization is understood as a specific interaction in the molecules of matter of atomic orbitals. But this is not a real physical process, but only a hypothetical model, a concept.

Hybrids in crop production

In 1694, the German scientist R. Camerius proposed to artificially receive. And in 1717, English T. Fairchidl crossed different types of carnations for the first time. Today, intraspecific hybridization of plants is carried out in order to obtain high-yielding or adapted, for example, frost-resistant varieties. Hybridization of forms and varieties is one of the methods of plant breeding. Thus, a huge number of modern varieties of agricultural crops have been created.

With distant hybridization, when representatives of different species are crossed and different genomes are combined, the resulting hybrids in most cases do not give offspring or produce hybrids of poor quality. That is why it makes no sense to leave the seeds of ripe cucumbers-hybrids in the garden, and every time to buy their seeds in a specialized store.

Breeding in animal husbandry

In the world, natural hybridization, both intraspecific and distant, also takes place. Mules were known to man as far back as two thousand years BC. And now the mule and hinny are used in the household as a relatively cheap working animal. True, such hybridization is interspecific, therefore male hybrids are born necessarily sterile. Females, on the other hand, can very rarely give offspring.

A mule is a hybrid of a mare and a donkey. A hybrid obtained from crossing a stallion and a donkey is called a hinny. Mules are specially bred. They are taller and stronger than a hinnie.

But crossing a domestic dog with a wolf was a very common activity among hunters. Then, the resulting offspring was subjected to further selection, as a result, new breeds of dogs were created. Today, animal breeding is an important component of the success of the livestock industry. Hybridization is carried out purposefully, with a focus on the given parameters.