Lecture for teachers on the topic "peculiarities of psychological protection of adolescents". Psychological defense mechanisms in adolescents Psychological defense of adolescents

Throughout life, each person, faced with difficulties, uses one or another set of mechanisms for resolving them. The methods of overcoming problems available in the arsenal can change significantly throughout a person’s life path and largely depend on the attitude that has been formed in the process of his life. Setting (from French attitude) in traditional personality psychology is considered as a kind of internal affective orientation (presetting), which depends primarily on past experience. Setting, simplifying our orientation in the world, making it easy to evaluate what is happening, contributes to the self-expression of the individual, maintaining self-esteem at the proper level, manifesting itself in specific opinions and behavior.

Having a certain attitude already fixed in past experience, which has made a positive contribution and has become beneficial for the individual, a person again and again strives to actualize it. These functions are consistent with a psychological phenomenon referred to as a psychological defense mechanism. The main difference between the concept of attitude and the protection mechanism is in the order of occurrence: attitude is only a willingness to express any intentions, “presetting”. Psychological protection is already directly expressed intentions, a kind of built-up "shield" that can save the individual from "pricks" from the outside.

The attitude, based on stable social norms, stereotypes or social roles, is close in meaning to the concept of mentality. Mentality is a way of thinking, a set of mental skills and spiritual attitudes inherent in an individual or a group of people. Based on this, it can be assumed that the attitude of the victim is directly included, for example, in the mentality of the long-suffering Belarusian, Ukrainian and Russian peoples who survived not so long ago (on a historical scale) the Second World War and “only yesterday” the Chernobyl tragedy, the collapse of the Soviet Union, numerous tragedies of today.

The consequence of all this is a traumatic effect, "future shock", as I.S. Cohn (2001). The situation is further complicated by social entropy - the uncertainty of the further development of events, the uncertainty in building one's own destiny. Recent studies by N.P. Fetiskina (2007) in this area show that social entropy leads to passivity, dominance of individualism, hedonistic orientations, depression, a state of helplessness, etc. . This situation is especially dangerous for teenagers. The attitude of the victim in them is formed faster and leads to a shift in moral criteria in their minds.

Therefore, in order to build professional practical work with adolescents with a focus on the behavior of the victim, it is necessary to precede it with a theoretical analysis of the concepts of “overcoming” and “protection mechanism”, a study of the relationship between these concepts, their possible comparative analysis and differentiation, which is the main task of this article.

In psychology, there is no single point of view on the mechanisms of the course and the choice of strategies for overcoming difficult life situations by a person. These questions remain understudied. It also seems contradictory to compare the concepts of defense mechanisms with coping mechanisms. Some researchers bring these concepts together, while others, on the contrary, see fundamental differences in them. We believe that such contradictions can be partially removed by a more detailed consideration of the mechanisms of functioning of the processes of coping and psychological defenses and their conditionality by certain attitudes of the individual, in this case, the attitude of the victim.

Problem co-owning, or coping- , behavior began to be developed in the scientific literature as early as the 1940s and 1950s. The term "coping" comes from the English word "to cope" - to cope, cope, overcome. More precisely, coping is defined as "the continuously changing cognitive and behavioral attempts to cope with specific external or internal demands that are judged to be excessive or in excess of human resources" .

The concept of coping was first associated with a response to extreme situations, when the usual adaptation to the current situation was not enough and additional energy costs were required on the part of the subject. Then the phenomenon of coping extended to the description of human behavior at turning points in life. Finally, this concept began to be used when describing behavior in everyday reality, for example, in conditions of chronic troubles and in everyday stressful situations (R. Lazarus).

Despite some mosaic and blurring in research, the meaning of coping remains the same: coping is what a person does to cope with stress: he mobilizes all his cognitive, emotional and behavioral strategies.

The main task of coping is to keep a person in a state of mental balance if he finds himself in a critical situation or a situation of social entropy (uncertainty). Coping behavior is implemented through the use of various coping strategies based on the resources of the individual and the environment.

Most studies highlight external factors that influence the subject's coping behavior: the situation itself, the quality of stressors, and the support of others. Social support, according to many researchers, is one of the important resources of the environment, and the choice of social support by the subjects as a coping strategy is seen as constructive coping.

The availability of instrumental, moral and emotional help from the social environment really facilitates the adaptation of a person, but it can also do him a disservice, since excessive care and attention from the outside, an active search by the subject for support in the external environment does not always contribute to the formation of constructive coping strategies, creating fertile ground for activating the victim's attitude and even deeper immersion in the "case" of psychological defenses. Adolescents are more receptive to this role, quickly get used to such a comfortable position, becoming infantile, passive, dependent on outside help.

From our point of view, for adolescents to effectively overcome the state of the victim, it is necessary to pay attention to the internal resources of the individual. Recently, a number of studies have appeared in the scientific literature on the resource approach to coping strategies. Resource theories assume that there is some set of key resources.

B.G. also drew attention to this. Ananiev. He and his followers distinguish the concept of viability. It should be noted that vitality in itself cannot be coping, primarily because coping strategies are techniques, algorithms of action that are familiar and traditional for a person, while vitality is a personality trait, a setting for survival. In addition, coping strategies can take both productive and unproductive forms, and resilience is a personality trait that allows you to cope with distress effectively and always in the direction of personal growth.

Personal resources, according to many researchers, include an adequate self-concept, positive self-esteem, low neuroticism, internal locus of control, an optimistic worldview, empathic potential, the ability to interpersonal relationships, relationships, and others. The position “others” in recent scientific research includes creativity(Kolienko N.S., 2008). Modern research N.S. Kolienko, N.E. Rubtsova (2008) prove that creativity can rightly be considered an additional resource for coping behavior of adolescents, contributing to the search for effective solutions to problems and more productive and flexible overcoming of difficulties. The practical work of the author of this article confirms that the mechanism of creativity can be not just an additional, but a leading, key resource in overcoming difficult life situations by adolescents, especially adolescents with a victim attitude.

Let's pass to the analysis of even more debatable and ambiguous concept "psychological protection". In a large psychological dictionary psychological protection(defense mechanism) is interpreted as a system of regulatory mechanisms in the psyche, which are aimed at eliminating or minimizing negative, traumatic experiences associated with internal or external conflicts, states of anxiety and discomfort. Actualization of psychological defenses can be triggered by many factors, including: prolonged stay in a hostile social environment; experiencing states of frustration or conflict (both external and internal); unmet needs; psychological illiteracy; lack of culture and morality in dealing with people; prolonged exposure to the so-called "invisible stress", negative life experience and many others.

Of course, the action of psychological defense can be caused by external critical situations, but, in our opinion, personal factors are much more important, as a result of which typical forms of defense can be formed. After all, as experience shows, a person in different life situations uses similar behavioral constructs developed on the basis of attitudes typical for this individual. For example, a person can play the role of a helpless victim not only when experiencing a catastrophe, but also in any critical and everyday situation, since in the past it gave a certain positive experience (support, patronage, attention, care). Considering that such psychological defense strengthened the forces of the “I”, made it possible to feel personal freedom from negative experiences, brought certain benefits, it is fixed in the arsenal and becomes typical for this subject.

Studies show that the organization of protection, and its ability to withstand external harmful influences, is not the same for different people. The built-in system of defenses does not protect some from negative influence, while others are so firmly protected that a kind of “case” is formed that prevents personal development. Of course, psychological protection reduces tension, improves well-being, but sometimes it takes a lot of strength and energy to keep this barrier. All this eventually leads to chronic fatigue or an increase in general anxiety, to isolation from the outside world (hyperreflexia). This situation is especially dangerous for a weak “I”, which is a teenager! a victim, because such a subject already has a strong psychological defense that increases the inadequacy of perception of the environment (deception of oneself), a powerful barrier is formed and maintained, and, as a result, it is updated appropriate destructive behavior.

As you can see, the problem of psychological defense in psychology is controversial. On the one hand, this is the desire to maintain mental harmony, and on the other hand, the expenditure of a colossal amount of energy to keep oneself in such a state.

There are also positive aspects of psychological defense mechanisms. So, any protection, including psychological, is designed to ensure safety. “Security is very often considered as the ability of an object, phenomenon, process to retain its essence and main characteristic under the conditions of purposeful, destructive influence from the outside…” .

The constructive effect of the action of protective mechanisms is manifested in the following forms: compensation (A. Adler), replacement of the goal and means of achieving it (A.V. Petrovsky, S.L. Rubinshtein), reassessment of the situation (N. Pezeshkian). To achieve such constructive effects of psychological defense mechanisms, a number of practical psychology techniques (“positive problem analysis”, “unblocking fixed ideas”, and many others) are aimed at, which any practicing psychologist has in his arsenal and which, as experience shows, are very effective at work. with teenagers with a victim attitude.

When properly functioning, psychological protection prevents the disorganization of mental activity and behavior. The presence of protection allows, on the one hand, to avoid the state of "victim" - experiencing feelings of powerlessness, helplessness and doom. And on the other hand, it supports this setting in order to manipulate others, since it is “profitable” to be helpless and doomed, while receiving help and patronage from outside. To the general functions of psychological defense: the destruction of fear, the preservation of high self-esteem, in our opinion, one should add the receipt of "benefit". The main thing is not to allow the teenager to “hang” in this state, to push him to the next step in time: from protection to coping. This is the main task of a psychologist working with adolescents with the attitude of the victim.

Thus, the concept of psychological defense is based on the following provision. First, psychological defense is a real mental phenomenon described in the practice of psychoanalysis. Secondly, psychological defense is a set of techniques aimed at reducing or eliminating any change that has arisen as a result of psychological trauma, a stressful situation in order to maintain psychological homeostasis, integrity, and emotional stability of the individual. Thirdly, psychological protection is built into the structure of the personality. It is personal characteristics that largely determine the typical model of the subject's response in difficult situations. Fourthly, psychological protection is realized through the private or complex use of protective mechanisms (processes of intrapsychic adaptation of the personality due to the subconscious processing of incoming information). Fifthly, the emergence of psychological protection is facilitated by a situation that is a kind of test for a person. Sixth, psychological defense is largely determined by the system of attitudes, which are the internal affective orientation (pre-setting) of the individual.

Let's move on to a comparative characteristic of the features protective mechanisms and coping- strategies adolescents with an attitude towards the behavior of the victim.

When studying the psychology of victim behavior in science, attempts are made to compare the mechanisms of psychological defense and coping behavior. So, according to some authors, the mechanisms of psychological defense are not adapted to the situation and are rigid. But the attitude towards the behavior of the victim that we are considering allows a person to adapt quite plastically, flexibly, and easily to the requirements of the situation. The statement that when the defense mechanism is turned on, a person seeks to “reduce emotional stress” can also be questioned, since the position of the victim always involves imaginary suffering (and this is a certain emotional stress) in order to arouse pity, sympathy and compassion. It is also impossible to agree with the statement regarding the "myopia" of psychological defenses, since the installation of the victim not only creates the possibility of a one-time reduction in tension according to the "here and now" principle. We can meet many people with a lifelong attitude of the victim, they live like that, skillfully manipulating their environment, getting used to the role so much that they no longer know where the boundaries of the “I” and their role are. From the presented approach for attributing the victim’s attitude to the “pre-setting” of the defense mechanism, only the last statement suits us: “they lead to a distortion of the perception of reality and oneself, while coping processes are associated with realistic perception and the ability to have an objective attitude towards oneself” .

Based on the approach described above, one could conclude that the setting on the behavior of the victim includes or is a "pre-setting" of coping behavior. But, according to the similar functions of attitude and psychological defense identified in psychology: benefit, benefit, simplification of a person's orientation in the world, self-expression through the game - it can be argued that the victim's attitude is associated with a mechanism of psychological defense against injections, injuries from outside, contributing to passivity, inertia, lack of initiative and the desire for profit. Although hypothetically, movement in both directions (for example, from coping to protection and vice versa) is possible, but this may be due, first of all, to the depletion of a person’s energy resources, the inadequacy of the chosen form of behavior and the accumulation of errors. This analysis leads us to a very ambiguous conclusion. The attitude towards the behavior of the victim is an education that is quite beneficial for the individual, it is a certain pattern of behavior and activity embedded in the mentality of the individual, and even, according to some assumptions (Tesser, 1993), this is an indirect consequence of the genetic make-up, therefore, attempts to change such an attitude are far from always are successful. When such an attitude gives impetus to the formation of psychological defense, the individual falls into a trap, skillfully built by himself, and then coping may be impossible. This creates certain difficulties in building psychological and pedagogical work with adolescents.

As we can see, the definitions of coping and psychological defense highlighted in the scientific literature are excessively vague, resulting in not only terminological, but also semantic confusion.

For further analysis, we turn to the primary sources. V. Dahl interprets the great Russian word “overcoming”, “overcome”, in this way: “overcome, overpower, overcome, win, overcome, subdue, overthrow and subjugate”. In this sense, this term is broader than the concept of coping and the concept of psychological protection, it can include both phenomena. The subject can overcome the consequences of trauma using both a defense mechanism and various coping strategies. Moreover, one can turn into another, since the concept of “overcoming” is very dynamic, active, it has a lot of energy. It is aimed at a victorious resolution: “they overcome the enemy in battle, their passions in the fight against them, their laziness, disgust from something, and so on,” writes V. Dahl. He continues, giving an explanation: “having overcome yourself (your self-ness), you will overcome your first enemy.”

Regarding the generalized analysis of coping and psychological defense mechanisms, there is also no consensus in the scientific literature. To correct the situation, we turn to the proposed B.G. Ananiev's concept of energy potential, which allows a person to simultaneously develop, enrich himself and cope with the stresses encountered on his way. B.G. Ananiev singles out the power of the energy potential as the optimal level of resolving difficult and extreme situations. Denoting the essence of the named energy potential, B.G. Ananiev introduced the concept of "vitality" into scientific circulation, which, in his opinion, includes the activity of the intellect, the level of volitional effort, emotional endurance, and the stability of the setting for the realization of a specific goal.

It has been experimentally revealed that it is the energy potential of the individual that is the basis of open and energetic opposition to stressful events. Unstable people demonstrate a lack of energy, impotence, nihilism, low self-esteem, and therefore are unable to constructively cope with crisis situations, often resorting to updating the victim's attitude. Personal potential includes cognitive, emotional, volitional, and, as noted in recent studies, creative components aimed at shaping a certain type of behavior.

Thus, we obtain the following comparative characteristics, which, for the convenience of analysis, will be presented in the form of a table (Table 1).

Tab. 1. Comparison of psychological defense mechanisms and coping behavior

overcoming
Psychological defense mechanisms and coping behavior
Goals	1. Coping with trauma
	2. Maintaining the integrity of consciousness
General	Consciousness - unawareness
	Flexibility - rigidity
	Situational - extra-situational
	Automatism - thoughtfulness
	Individual style specificity
Differences	Energy potential
	Psychological defense mechanisms	coping behavior
Activity	A low level of activity aimed at overcoming a traumatic situation, but a high level of activity aimed at maintaining protection from "pricks" from the outside and searching for resources in the outside world.	A high level of activity aimed at coping with a traumatic situation. Finding resources within yourself.
cognitive component	Processing of information in order to create a block that prevents injury, "defensiveness".	Processing information to break the block and find effective ways to overcome the trauma.
Emotional Component	Displacement of the problem from consciousness, removal from it, leaving in the form of various defenses to ensure spiritual comfort.	Solving a problem or, if a solution is impossible, changing attitudes towards it.
Volitional component	The desire to merge with the environment and turn into an "adaptant" in order to obtain a comfortable state without involving volitional efforts. Avoidance of responsibility.	Design adaptation for benefit and experience
creative component	Distortion of the meaning of the situation in various ways acceptable to the individual, the creation of "one's own world".	A real look at the situation, bricolage (bricoleurs) - a special ingenuity, the creation of the "impossible possible".
Behavioral Component	Spontaneous, automatic response. Asking for help from the outside world.	Conscious planning out of a traumatic situation. Seek help for yourself first.

Let's sum up some results.

Overcoming, being an individual, dynamic way of interacting with a traumatic situation, including coping and psychological defense mechanisms, is aimed at solving two common interrelated goals: a) eliminating the consequences of trauma; b) maintaining the integrity of consciousness.
Each person has their own specific style of overcoming, developed in the process of life, based on certain attitudes and experience, one of these styles is the behavior of the victim, which is especially convenient for adolescents.
The style of overcoming depends on the energy potential. A low level of activity aimed at overcoming a traumatic situation, but a high level of activity aimed at maintaining protection from "pricks" from the outside, and the search for resources in the outside world characterizes the behavior of adolescents with a victim attitude. A high level of activity aimed at coping with a traumatic situation, the search for resources in oneself characterizes the opposite behavior. The energy potential affects the characteristics and functioning of the cognitive, emotional, volitional, creative and behavioral components.
Overcoming can be both conscious and unconscious, it can turn on automatically, and sometimes the situation is carefully thought out. Overcoming is characterized by situationality, it can be both flexible and rigid, depending on the personal characteristics of the subject and on his attitudes.

Setting on the victim's behavior, being some indirect consequence of the individual's mentality, "switches on" the mechanism of psychological protection against trauma from the outside. Such an attitude contributes to passivity, inertia, lack of initiative and the desire to obtain benefits. Adolescents are especially resourceful in attracting outside help.

Inflicting imaginary suffering on themselves, they sometimes get used to the role so much that they lose themselves in the space of the role-victim, but receive support, attention, patronage and even love. The search for a “crutch” that you can rely on at any time when experiencing a difficult situation does not have to be dealt with for a long time, there will always be a “kind soul” who seeks to help. Using such a "cunning" mechanism, deceiving himself and the environment, the adolescent victim still overcomes a difficult situation.

The question arises: how effective? When studying the criteria developed in psychology for the effectiveness of overcoming a difficult life situation, it turns out that it is very effective.

For example, according to the situational criterion, which means that the process of overcoming can be considered completed when the situation loses its negative significance for the subject, overcoming with the help of the victim's attitude can be considered successful. According to the personal criterion, which means a noticeable decrease in depression, anxiety, irritability, such overcoming is also effective. There is also an adaptive efficiency criterion, which is considered the most reliable. With behavior that includes the installation of the victim, the level of vulnerability really decreases and the adaptive resources of the individual increase.

As you can see, the victim attitude is a very specific form of social attitude that refutes traditional views on it in psychology, is chronic, complicates and delays overcoming a difficult situation. This is a socially adaptive phenomenon, distinguished by its unique characteristics, which require more detailed study. This is a great manipulation, in which the teenager is distinguished by many faces, extreme plasticity, thanks to which he achieves his goal. Therefore, psychological work must be thought out in a special way, so as not to fall into the trap of the “great manipulator-victim”.

LITERATURE

Ananiev B.G. Selected psychological works. - M .: Pedagogy, 1980.
Bassin F.V. About the power of "I" and psychological protection // Self-consciousness and protective mechanisms of personality. Reader. - Samara: BAHRAKH-M, 2000.
Big psychological dictionary. - St. Petersburg: Prime-EUROZNAK, 2006.
Vasilyuk F.E. Psychology of experience. Analysis of overcoming critical situations. — M.: MSU, 1984.
Vasilyuk F.E. Lifeworld and Personality: A Typological Analysis of Critical Situations // Journal of Practical Psychology and Psychoanalysis, 2001, No. 4.
Volkovich A.G. The value of psychological protection in professional activity // Systemogenesis of educational and professional activities: Materials of the III All-Russian. Scientific and practical. Conf., October 9-10, 2007, Yaroslavl. - Yaroslavl: Chancellor, 2007. - S. 108-110.
Demina L.D., Ralnikova I.A. Mental health and protective mechanisms of personality. — Barnaul, 2003.
Dal V.I. Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language in 4 volumes. T. 3. - St. Petersburg, 2008.
Ilyin E.P. Psychology of individual differences. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2004.
Kolienko N.S. The role of creativity in the choice of coping! strategies in adolescents // The Seventh Wave of Psychology. Issue. 3. - Yaroslavl, Minsk: MAPN, YarSU, 2008. - S. 222-226.
Kalmykova O.I. Ensuring the personal safety of the student as an indicator of the psychological culture of the teacher // Educational Psychology: Personnel Training and Psychological Education. - M., 2007. - S. 95-97.
Magomed-Eminov M.Sh. Personality transformation. - M .: Psychoanalytic Association, 1998.
Malkina-Pykh I.G. Psychology of victim behavior. — M.: Eksmo, 2006.
Odintsova M.A. Peculiarities of manifestation of the “victim” attitude among adolescents // Humanitarian! Economic Bulletin, No. 4. - Minsk: MGEI, 2007. - S. 67-85.
Skvortsova I.B. Tsvetkov A.V. Dynamics of the development of personality defense mechanisms in adolescents aged 14-17 // Current state of theoretical and applied psychological research in social and pedagogical psychology: Materials of the All-Russian. Scientific and practical. Conf., Ivanovo, November 29-30, 2007 - Ivanovo: IvGU, 2007. - S. 298-302.
Fetiskin N.P. On the influence of social uncertainty on the basic parameters of the life of an individual and social groups // The current state of theoretical and applied psychological research in social and pedagogical psychology: materials of the All-Russian. Scientific and practical. Conf., Ivanovo, November 29-30, 2007 - Ivanovo: IvGU, 2007. - P. 80-83.
Lazarus R.S. Cognitive and copying processes in emotion. In: B. Weiner (ED). Cognitive views of human motivation. - New York: Academic Press, 1974. - PP. 21-31.

1. Theoretical aspects of the study of the problem of the formation of psychological defenses and coping behavior in adolescent children from dysfunctional families

1.1 Psychological defense mechanisms as a psychological phenomenon

1.2 Coping behavior and its relation to defense mechanisms

1.3 Influence of the family on the formation of defense mechanisms and coping behavior in adolescents

1.4 Psychological and pedagogical means of developing protective mechanisms and coping behavior in adolescents

2. An empirical study of psychological defense mechanisms and coping strategies in adolescents from dysfunctional families

2.1 Organization of the study

2.2 Analysis of the results of the study according to the method of Plutchik-Kellerman-Comte "Lifestyle Index"

2.3 Analysis of the results of the study according to the methods of coping by R. Lazarus and S. Folkman

2.4 Analysis of the results of the study according to the methodology "Coping behavior in stressful situations"

Conclusion

Bibliography

Applications

Introduction

Relevance. Psychological protection is an unconscious mental mechanism aimed at minimizing the negative experiences of a person, regulating a person's behavior, increasing his adaptability and balancing the psyche. On the other hand, it often acts as an obstacle to personal development.

Most defense mechanisms are formed in early childhood, allowing the child to close, hide from external difficulties and dangers. The fundamental determinant of the child's mental development is family relations, the violation of which often leads to disharmony in the emotional development of the personality, pathopsychology, and hypertrophy of the child's psychological defenses. It is undeniable that the family conditions of upbringing, the social status of the family, the occupation of its members, the material support and the level of education of the parents to a large extent determine the level of the child's mental health.

The relevance and significance of the study of the problem of the formation of psychological defenses and coping mechanisms is also associated with the current socio-economic, cultural, political changes in society that affect the process of personality development and its socialization. This influence is especially important in the transitional period of development. Social changes in the state and the family lead to an increase in emotional discomfort, internal tension in adolescents who experience both their own difficulties and, reflected, the difficulties of close adults. In connection with this, there is an increasing interest in studying the formation of psychological defense mechanisms that contribute to maintaining stability and emotional acceptance by adolescents of themselves and their environment.

Psychological defenses and coping mechanisms (coping behavior) are considered as the most important forms of adaptive processes of individuals' response to stressful situations. The weakening of mental discomfort is carried out within the framework of the unconscious activity of the psyche with the help of the mechanism of psychological defenses. Coping behavior is used as a strategy of personality actions aimed at eliminating the situation of psychological threat.

Works by Z. Freud, K. Horney, A. Freud, A. Maslow, F. Perls and others are devoted to the study of the problem of the formation and determination of the role of defense mechanisms in personality development. D.N. Uznadze, V.N. Myasishchev, F.V. Bassin, E.L. Dotsenko, E.I. Kirshbaum, I.M. Nikolskaya, P.M. Granovskaya and others. E.R. Isaeva, R. Lazarus, V.N. Myasishchev, N.A. Sirota, E. Khaima, T.L. Kryukova, M.V. Saporovskaya, E.V. Kuftyak.

Problem. Determining the characteristics of psychological defenses and coping strategies in adolescents from dysfunctional families will expand the understanding of the reasons underlying their destructive behavior and describe ways to overcome their negative consequences.

The indicated relevance and problem became the basis for choosing the research topic: "Peculiarities of psychological defense mechanisms and coping strategies in adolescents from dysfunctional families"

The object of the study is the psychological defense mechanisms and coping strategies of adolescents.

The subject of the study is the features of psychological defense mechanisms and coping strategies in adolescents from dysfunctional families.

The purpose of the study is to substantiate the problem of studying the psychological defense mechanisms and coping mechanisms of adolescents from dysfunctional families, to develop recommendations for the formation of effective defense mechanisms and strategies for coping behavior in adolescents from dysfunctional families.

Research objectives:

1. Consider the problem of studying the mechanisms of psychological defense and coping behavior in science;

2. To study the main mechanisms of psychological defense and coping strategies in adolescents from dysfunctional families.

3. Describe the influence of the family on the formation of defense mechanisms and coping behavior in adolescents.

- adolescents from dysfunctional families tend to relieve the tension that has arisen with the help of non-constructive psychological defense mechanisms, in contrast to adolescents from well-off families;

- Adolescents from dysfunctional families are more likely to use ineffective coping strategies in difficult situations compared to adolescents from well-to-do families.

The practical significance of the study is determined by the possibility of using the results obtained by psychologists and social educators in determining ways to optimize the mental development of adolescents from dysfunctional families in order to form more effective psychological defense mechanisms and coping strategies in them.

Research methods: analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature, synthesis, generalization - theoretical methods; testing, questioning, qualitative analysis of research results - practical research methods.

Research base: MOU secondary school No. 73 of Vladivostok.

The structure of the work: The thesis consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, a list of references (49 titles), an application.

teenage defense mechanism coping

psychological defenses and coping behavior in adolescent children

age from disadvantaged families

1.1 Psychological defense mechanisms as a psychological

The term “psychological defense” owes its origin to 3. Freud and was the very first expression of a dynamic position in psychoanalytic theory. For the first time this term appeared in 1894 in Freud's work "Defensive neuro-psychoses" and was used to describe the struggle of the "I" against painful or intolerable thoughts and affects.

The purpose of psychological protection is to reduce emotional tension and prevent disorganization of behavior, consciousness and the psyche as a whole. Psychological defense mechanisms provide regulation, orientation of behavior, reduce anxiety and emotional stress.

As noted by I.M. Nikolskaya, R.M. Granovskaya, the problem of psychological defense contains a central contradiction between a person's desire to maintain mental balance and the losses that an excessive invasion of defenses leads to.

There is no single classification of psychological defense mechanisms, although there are many attempts to group them on various grounds. According to B.D. Karvasarsky, all defenses can be divided into several groups.

The first group includes defenses that do not process information, but either displace it, or suppress it, or block or deny it. Repression is a mechanism described by Freud in 1895 and means the transfer of traumatic content from consciousness to the unconscious. Like other defense mechanisms, repression begins to create problems, firstly, if it does not cope with its function - keeping thoughts out of consciousness; secondly, if it stands in the way of the positive aspects of life; thirdly, if it acts with the exclusion of other, more successful ways of overcoming difficulties. From an economic point of view, this mechanism is expensive, because the repressed material must be kept in the unconscious. Perceptual defense mechanisms (distortion of information, increase in sensitivity thresholds), suppression as more conscious than during repression, avoidance of disturbing information are considered close to repression; unlike repression, which is aimed at representations, suppression is directed at affects, blocking - inhibition of thoughts, emotions, actions, denial - rejection of situations, conflicts, ignoring unpleasant information.

The second group includes defenses aimed at distorting the content of thoughts, feelings, and behavior of the individual. This is rationalization, with the help of which the subject seeks to give a logically coherent and morally acceptable explanation of a particular attitude, act, idea, feeling, the true motives of which remain in the shadows. This term was introduced by E. Jones in the article "Rationalization in everyday life." A traditional example of defense is rationalization along the lines of "sweet lemon" and "sour grapes." In other words, if trouble happens to a person, he can “sweeten” it by making it less traumatic (for example, consider his failure as an important component of life experience), or vice versa, if he does not get something pleasant, he can make it less significant, “sour” (for example, a desirable but inaccessible job is assessed as uninteresting and underpaid).

The concept of "intellectualization" is close to the concept of rationalization, but they should be distinguished.

Intellectualization is the process by which the subject seeks to discursively express his conflicts and emotions in order to master them. One of the clearest interpretations of the mechanism belongs to Anna Freud, which is understood as the desire to express one's inclinations, wrapping them in mental structures, logically building them. Experience is replaced by reasoning. A characteristic feature of intellectualization is the rational way of presenting and attempting to resolve conflict topics without feeling the affects associated with the situation.

Isolation is a mechanism similar to intellectualization and means a break of a thought or act with other thoughts or aspects of the subject's life. Manifestations of isolation can be stops in the process of thinking, the use of formulas and rituals. It acts as an unwillingness to speak on a particular topic, a ban on its discussion. Often, isolation is seen as separating affect from content and attaching it to a less significant representation. Isolation, according to J. Bergeret, occurs in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorders.

The formation of a reaction (reactive formation) is characterized by coping with unacceptable impulses, emotions, personal properties by replacing them with opposite ones. Thus, a patient with repressed hostility towards others unconsciously accepts the attitude and behavior of an obedient person, and, for example, indifference can be hidden behind the demonstrated attention and participation.

The shift is manifested in the fact that the real object, which could be directed to feelings of negative content, is replaced by a less safe one. The example of little Hans remains a classic example of displacement: aggressive actions against the father cause castration fear, as a result of which the father figure is replaced by another object - a horse. The shift is observed in phobic patients.

Projection is the operation of isolating and localizing in another person or thing those qualities, feelings, desires that the subject does not recognize and rejects in himself. This mechanism is found in paranoia. Projection has several meanings. In the first sense, projection means the likening of the surrounding world to oneself, i.e. willingness to respond to excitations in accordance with their thoughts, feelings, moods and abilities. Projection in this sense is called attributive. It is the basis for the work of projective tests (Rorschach Test and Thematic Apperceptive Test). In the second meaning, projection means likening one person to another, for example, in the figure of his boss, a person sees his father. It is believed that this is not a very good illustration of projection, since it is closer to the concept of transfer. The third meaning of the projection is to identify oneself with other people, heroes, characters, real-life personalities. And in the fourth meaning, the projection is used as often as in the first, and practically coincides with what S. Freud understood by the projection. This is the attribution to other people of motives, desires, thoughts that a person does not notice in himself. Many psychoanalysts, primarily Freud himself, believed that projection and introjection play an important role in the emergence of opposition between the subject and the external world. Introjection means taking into oneself, absorbing everything that causes pleasure, and projection means taking it outward, rejecting the unpleasant and frightening.

Identification - attributing to oneself the feelings, thoughts, moods characteristic of another person. There is primary and secondary identification. Primary is associated with the absorption of the object in order to establish a basic identity. The secondary occurs at the phallic stage and is associated with the establishment of sexual identity. One type of this mechanism is identification with the aggressor. It means that in order to get rid of the feeling of fear that a hostile figure arouses, the subject establishes contact with it, either by assuming a role or by absorbing the object itself. Another type of mechanism under consideration is projective identification as a projection of oneself onto some object in order to establish control over it.

The third group consists of psychological defenses that lead to the release of emotional stress. One of these mechanisms is implementation in action, in which affective discharge is carried out through the activation of expressive behavior. Realization in action can serve as the basis for the development of various addictions - alcohol, drugs and other variants of personality fixation.

Somatization of anxiety manifests itself in vegetative and conversion syndromes by transforming psycho-emotional stress into somatic, motor and sensory symptoms. It is the bodily expression of repressed ideas.

Sublimation is the directing of sexual energy to non-sexual activities, such as artistic creation, intellectual research, and other socially significant objects.

Manipulative type mechanisms can be assigned to the fourth group. With regression, there is a return to earlier stages of personal development, manifested in a demonstration of helplessness, dependence, infantile feelings, thoughts and actions. This is a kind of escape from reality, from problems that cause anxiety.

Departure into fantasy - satisfaction of a frustrated need in the field of imagination, embellishment, reassessment of one's capabilities in order to give significance to one's own self.

Care in the disease - the desire to refuse responsibility and independence in solving problems; mechanism is associated with the phenomenon of "secondary benefit". Taking on the role of the patient frees the person from the need to act, allows him to be dependent and in need of sympathy and support.

G. Kellerman, R. Plutchik distinguish eight mechanisms: denial, repression, projection, rationalization, substitution, regression, reactive formations, compensation.

There are other defenses - omnipotent control, idealization and devaluation, splitting and dissociation, etc., which are distinguished in other classifications.

Modern research in this area is aimed at distinguishing between the "mechanisms for protecting the Self", which are quite well developed, and the mechanisms of the "Self". In the first case, we are dealing with an organization that is part of a subject directed at an object. In the second case, the subject acts as an object for itself (J. Bergeret).

There are great difficulties in distinguishing between protection mechanisms and coping behavior. The most common point of view is that psychological defense is characterized by the individual's refusal to constructively solve the problem, and coping methods imply the need to be productive, striving to cope with difficulties. We can say that the subject of coping psychology is the study of the mechanisms of emotional and rational regulation by a person of his behavior in order to optimally interact with life circumstances or transform them in accordance with their intentions.

Many authors turn their attention to the peculiarities of the manifestation of protective mechanisms in children. For example, A. Freud believed that each protective mechanism is first formed to master a specific instinctive behavior and is thus associated with a specific stage of child development. She links the developmental phases of defense mechanisms with the development of the ego.

E.S. Romanova, L.R. Grebennikov note that with the help of psychological protection, the so-called “positive “I”-concept” is stabilized in children and the emotional conflict that threatens its stability is weakened. The authors assign the decisive role in the formation of protective mechanisms to the family.

THEM. Nikolskaya and R.M. Granovskaya believe that in a child, each protective mechanism is first formed to master specific, instinctive urges and is thus associated with a certain phase of individual development. According to the authors, the stimulus for the formation of defenses is various types of anxiety arising in ontogeny, which are typical for children. The formation of a full-fledged system of psychological protection occurs as the child grows up, in the process of individual learning and development. An individual set of defense mechanisms depends on the specific circumstances of life, on many factors of the intra-family situation, on the relationship of the child to his parents, on the patterns of protective response they demonstrate.

The aggravation of socio-economic problems, first of all, affected the most vulnerable layers and groups of the population, primarily children. They turned out to be the least protected and the most affected group of the population. The level of physical, mental and psychological health of children has fallen. Their intellectual and educational potential is significantly reduced, cultural and moral values have changed. The deterioration in the health of children can be traced from the beginning of school to its end, that is, the process of learning at school is a risk factor for the health of students.

These problems are most acute in adolescence, in which there are fundamental changes in the sphere of self-awareness, a refinement of the construction of the self-concept. The content of the latter is one of the most important results of education and training, i.e. what constitutes the content and forms of the child's socialization. It also contributes to the further, conscious or unconscious, construction of behavior, determines the social adaptation of the personality of a teenager, is the regulator of his behavior and activities. The presence of a positive self-concept at this age, self-esteem are a necessary condition for positive development and social adaptation. An unfavorable self-concept (weak self-confidence, fear of rejection, low self-esteem), having arisen, leads in the future to behavioral disorders.

A teenager who has lost self-esteem is in constant conflict with himself, rejects himself and disagrees with himself, which very quickly leads to either disorganized behavior or depression, which makes any behavior impossible. These problems can not but affect the health of a teenager.

I - the concept contributes to the achievement of internal consistency of the individual, is an active principle, an important factor in the interpretation of experience, and a source of expectations - ideas about what should happen. Self-concept - a set of a person's ideas about himself - is a regulator of behavior.

Adolescent self-concept changes and develops. It is obvious that a change in ideas about oneself can be a painful process, since in adolescence it proceeds most intensively and dynamically. The development of the self-concept in adolescence begins with an understanding of the qualities of one's "cash" self, an assessment of one's body, appearance, behavior, name, and abilities. For example, a teenager's acceptance of his body determines his acceptance of himself. Attitude towards oneself in terms of contentment or dissatisfaction with one's body, its various parts and individual characteristics is an essential component of the complex structure of self-esteem and has a huge impact on the self-realization of the individual in all spheres of life.

In addition, a certain type of psychological defenses is formed around the image of the Self, aimed at preserving this image, so the style of behavior is a set of actions aimed at stabilizing and developing the accepted ideas about oneself.

A teenager has a tendency to extrapolate even the external defectiveness of his own I to his personality as a whole: if a teenager has some shortcomings (sometimes only apparent), then he begins to feel (or invent) the negative reactions of others that accompany him in any interaction with the environment.

Adequate self-concept and self-esteem are important in the formation of interpersonal skills and social adaptation. A large discrepancy between I-real and I-ideal or I-real and I-mirror puts a teenager in such conditions that he is forced to either realize and accept the source of the discrepancy in assessments, thus making a choice in the direction of his development and preserving the core of his personality, or accumulate stress, and then look for "easy" ways to relieve it. A large discrepancy between the I-real and I-ideal is considered an alarming symptom, because. often leads to behavioral disorders and socio-psychological adaptation of the child.

Thus, poor social adaptation associated with a divergence in the self-concept, its negative orientation and low self-esteem lead to psychological health disorders. In this case, the only preserving factor is psychological protection, which distorts the negative impact, allowing the individual to adapt and not conflict with himself and others.

Protective mechanisms perform the function of preserving the integrity of the I-concept, excluding or distorting information that is regarded by the subject as unfavorable and destroying the initial self-image. Defense mechanisms are activated at the moment when the achievement of the goal in a constructive and direct way cannot be carried out. Thus, they are a way of organizing partial or temporary mental balance necessary to develop real ways to overcome frustration.

Now let's move on to considering the features of psychological protection in adolescence using examples.

Examples of youthful regression are their tendency to idealize celebrities; ambivalence of behavior, its fluctuations from one extreme to another.

Transfer. One type of transference is withdrawal, the most common variant of which is fantasy. Protective fantasy symbolically satisfies the blocked desire: “It can be said that the happy never fantasizes, only the unsatisfied do it. Unsatisfied desires are the driving forces of fantasies, each fantasy is a manifestation of desire, a proofreading of reality that somehow does not satisfy the individual.

In a teenager who was offended, as it seems to him, undeservedly, the offense reinterprets the situation where he was, as it were, offended by others. And then in his "day dreams" he imagines how he dies, they bury him and mourn. With his death, everyone understands who they offended. Thus, in fantasy, an act of self-affirmation takes place and the desired relationship is built, where the object is the adolescent himself.

The next type of transfer can be conditionally called “second-hand experience”: if a person, due to objective and subjective reasons, does not have the opportunity to realize his desires and interests “here and now”.

A teenager dreams of the sea, wants to become a sailor, a sea captain. But there are no opportunities for the fulfillment of a dream: the sea is far away, there is no money, one is young, one has to study a lot, but one does not want to. Then this desire is realized on substitute objects: books about the sea, films about adventures at sea. Although there is no complete satisfaction, it persists, maybe even for a long time, because. the situation thus controlled and safer.

Transference can also be carried out in a dream, if it is impossible in the waking state. A teenager dreams of erotic scenes, often they end with involuntary ejaculation.

The transfer that occurs as a result of an erroneous generalization of similar situations is called transfer. It is based on a tendency to repeat previously entrenched behavior in situations of inequality of positions.

The student transfers to the new, in no way guilty teacher, hostile relations with previous teachers. The new teacher gets from the student, he pays for the sins of his colleagues. Hostile attitudes are transferred by students due to the accumulated general negative attitude towards the school - and this is the fallacy of generalization in transference - all teachers.

Rationalization is manifested in reflection on the questions "Why live if sooner or later you die?". Then they come up with and bring meaning to life, and some, on the contrary, refuse to think about this issue.

The next type of psychological defense is irony. A teenager, as a result of his dual position: not a child, but not yet an adult, ironically treats both childhood and adults. The teenager is ironic about the roles that adults impose on him, and to themselves with their old-fashioned ideas about life. Thus, he overcomes the imperialism of adults.

If we take the protection used in school lessons, then R. Plutchik, G. Kellerman, H.R. Conte believe that these mechanisms have their own characteristics and verbal expression. They cited as an example the characteristics of defense mechanisms in a situation where a teenager insulted the teacher for an unfulfilled task (the work of defense comes with the emotion of anger). In our work, we present only a few defense mechanisms.

Substitution - "attack anything that represents it." Reaction: "Our teacher has an extremely nasty daughter."

Projection - "blame it." Reaction: "My teacher just hates me", "We are all not happy with our teacher."

Rationalization - "justify yourself." Reaction: "He's so angry because he's in a bad mood."

There is no doubt that defense mechanisms usually develop in a person "feeling insecure in life." A self-sufficient person is most successfully freed from the negative influence of psychological defenses and is less "sensitive" to their occurrence. The most important way of liberation from the pathological action of protective mechanisms is the integral development of the personality, its self-awareness, as well as the formation of a life perspective adequate to the possibilities.

Thus, about 20 types of psychological defense mechanisms have been described. The main ones are:

repression - elimination of unacceptable desires and experiences from consciousness;

Reactive formation (inversion) - transformation in the mind of the emotional attitude to the object to the exact opposite;

regression - a return to more primitive forms of behavior and thinking;

Identification - unconscious assimilation of a threatening object;

rationalization - a rational explanation by a person of his desires and actions, the true causes of which are rooted in irrational socially or personally unacceptable inclinations;

sublimation - the transformation of the energy of sexual desire into socially acceptable forms of activity;

projection - attributing to other people their own repressed motives, experiences and character traits;

Isolation - blocking negative emotions, ousting from consciousness the connections between emotional experiences and their source

Throughout life, almost every person is faced with situations that are subjectively experienced by him as difficult, “violating” the usual course of life.

The experience of such situations often changes both the perception of the surrounding world and the perception of one's place in it. The study of behavior aimed at overcoming difficulties in foreign psychology is carried out within the framework of studies devoted to the analysis of "coping" - mechanisms or "coping behavior".

"Coping" is an individual way of interacting with a situation in accordance with its own logic, significance in a person's life and his psychological capabilities.

"Coping" refers to constantly changing cognitive, emotional and behavioral attempts to cope with specific external and internal requirements that are assessed as stress or exceed the person's resources to cope with them.

The problem of “coping” (coping) of a person with difficult life situations arose in psychology in the second half of the 20th century. The author of the term was A. Maslow. The concept of "coping" comes from the English "cope" (to overcome).

In Russian psychology, it is translated as adaptive, coinciding behavior, or psychological overcoming. Initially, the concept of "coping behavior" was used in the psychology of stress and was defined as the sum of cognitive and behavioral efforts expended by an individual to reduce the impact of stress. Currently, being freely used in various works, the concept of "coping" covers a wide range of human activity - from unconscious psychological defenses to purposeful overcoming of crisis situations. The psychological purpose of coping is to adapt the person as best as possible to the requirements of the situation.

The concept of "coping" is interpreted differently in different psychological schools.

The first approach is neopsychoanalytic. Coping processes are considered as ego processes aimed at productive adaptation of a person in difficult situations. The functioning of coping processes involves the inclusion of cognitive, moral, social and motivational structures of the individual in the process of coping with the problem. In the event of a person's inability to adequately overcome the problem, protective mechanisms are activated that promote passive adaptation. Such mechanisms are defined as rigid, maladaptive ways of coping with a problem that prevent an individual from adequately orienting himself in reality. In other words, coping and defense function on the basis of the same ego processes, but they are opposite mechanisms in overcoming problems.

The second approach defines coping as personality traits that allow the use of relatively constant response options to stressful situations. A. Billings and R. Moos identify three ways to cope with a stressful situation.

1. Evaluative coping - coping with stress, which includes an attempt to determine the meaning of the situation and put into action certain strategies: logical analysis, cognitive reappraisal.

2. Problem-focused coping - coping with stress, aimed at modifying, reducing or eliminating the source of stress.

3. Emotional coping - coping with stress, which includes cognitive, behavioral efforts with which a person tries to reduce emotional stress and maintain affective balance.

In the third approach, coping acts as a dynamic process, which is determined by the subjectivity of experiencing the situation and many other factors. R. Lazarus and S. Volkman defined psychological overcoming as cognitive and behavioral efforts of the individual aimed at reducing the impact of stress. An active form of coping behavior, active overcoming, is a purposeful elimination or weakening of the influence of a stressful situation. Passive coping behavior, or passive overcoming, involves the use of a different arsenal of psychological defense mechanisms that are aimed at reducing emotional stress, and not at changing the stressful situation.

R. Lazarus identified three types of strategies for coping with a threatening situation: Ego defense mechanisms; direct action - attack or flight, which is accompanied by anger or fear; coping without affect, when there is no real threat, but potentially exists.

Coping behavior occurs when a person is in a crisis situation. Any crisis situation presupposes the presence of some objective circumstance and a certain attitude of a person towards it, depending on the degree of its significance, which is accompanied by emotional and behavioral reactions of a different nature and degree of intensity. The leading characteristics of a crisis situation are mental tension, significant experiences as a special internal work to overcome life events or traumas, changes in self-esteem and motivation, as well as a pronounced need for their correction and psychological support from the outside.

Psychological coping (coping) is a variable that depends on at least two factors - the personality of the subject and the real situation. An event can have a different degree of traumatic impact on the same person in different periods of time.

There are various classifications of coping strategies.

In some theories of coping behavior, the following basic strategies are distinguished:

1. Problem solving;

2. Seeking social support;

3. Avoidance.

Conflictologists distinguish three planes in which the implementation of coping strategies of behavior takes place: the behavioral sphere; cognitive sphere; emotional realm. Types of coping strategies of behavior are also divided according to the degree of their adaptive capabilities: adaptive, relatively adaptive, non-adaptive.

A.V. Libin, within the framework of differential psychology, considers psychological defenses and coping as two different styles of response. The response style is understood as a parameter of individual behavior that characterizes the ways a person interacts with various difficult situations, manifesting either in the form of psychological protection from unpleasant experiences, or in the form of a constructive activity of the individual aimed at resolving the problem. Response styles are an intermediate link between stressful events that have occurred and their consequences in the form of, for example, anxiety, psychological discomfort, somatic disorders associated with protective behavior, or emotional uplift and joy from successful problem solving characteristic of coping behavior.

L.I. Antsyferova explores the dynamics of consciousness and actions of a person in difficult circumstances of life, which are the result of an individual's mental processing of life's adversities from the standpoint of his own, only partially realized "theory" of the world. At the same time, considering life's difficulties, it is necessary to take into account the main thing - the value, which under certain conditions can be lost or destroyed. This circumstance makes the situation stressful.

In order to preserve, protect, affirm this value, the subject resorts to various methods of changing the situation. So, the more significant place in the semantic sphere of the personality is occupied by the object in danger and the more intense the “threat” is perceived by the personality, the higher the motivational potential of coping with the difficulty that has arisen.

At present, according to S.K. Nartova-Bochaver, there are three approaches to the interpretation of the concept of "coping". The first, developed in the works of N. Haan, interprets it in terms of ego dynamics as one of the methods of psychological protection used to relieve tension. This approach cannot be called widespread, primarily because its supporters tend to identify coping with its result. The second approach, reflected in the works of A.G. Billings and R.N. Moose, defines "coping" in terms of personality traits - as a relatively constant predisposition to respond to stressful events in a certain way. However, since the stability of the considered methods is very rarely supported by empirical data, this understanding has also not gained much support among researchers.

And, finally, according to the third approach, recognized by the authors R.S. Lazarus and S. Folkman, "coping" should be understood as a dynamic process, the specificity of which is determined not only by the situation, but also by the stage of development of the conflict, the collision of the subject with the outside world.

In the theory of overcoming (coping, coping behavior), Lazarus distinguishes two processes: temporary relief and direct motor reactions. The process of temporary relief is expressed in the form of mitigation of suffering associated with the experience of stress, and in the reduction of psychophysiological effects in two ways.

The first is symptomatic: the use of alcohol, tranquilizers, sedatives, muscle relaxation training, and other methods aimed at improving physical condition. And the second - intrapsychic, considering this method from the point of view of A. Freud, but at the same time calling it "cognitive defense mechanisms": identification, displacement, suppression, denial, reaction formation and intellectualization. Direct motor reactions refer to real behavior aimed at changing the relationship of a person with the environment, and can be expressed in actions aimed at actually reducing the existing danger and reducing its threat. At the same time, Lazarus does not separate "protective" processes from "coping" processes, believing that "these are the means by which a person exercises control over situations that threaten, upset or give her pleasure."

Discussions on the problem of the relationship between coping behavior and psychological defense continue to the present.

The distinction between defense and coping mechanisms is a significant methodological and theoretical difficulty. Protection is considered an intrapersonal process, and coping is seen as interaction with the environment. Some authors consider these two theories to be absolutely independent of each other, but in most works they are considered as interconnected. It is assumed that the desire of the individual always affects both mechanisms in order to overcome the conflict. Therefore, coping behavior is based on reflection distortion. These authors, adhering to the theory of the unity of coping and protection, found that some coping strategies and defense mechanisms are positively interconnected: attention and care from others is achieved through regression and non-verbal expression of pain.

Among domestic researchers, the concepts of "mechanisms of psychological defense" and "mechanisms of coping" (coping behavior) are considered as the most important forms of adaptation processes and individual responses to stressful situations that complement each other. The weakening of mental discomfort is carried out within the framework of the unconscious activity of the psyche with the help of psychological defense mechanisms. Coping behavior is used as a strategy of personality actions aimed at eliminating the situation of psychological threat.

Behavioral strategies, including psychological defenses and coping, are different variants of the adaptation process and, like the internal picture of the life path, are divided into somatic, personal and socially oriented, depending on the predominant participation in the adaptation process of one or another level of life activity. The use of a systematic approach in maintaining health involves taking into account the mental and actual effects of the environment, personality traits that mediate these effects, biological mechanisms of stress regulation, mechanisms of stress regulation, mechanisms that determine nosological specificity.

Thus, coping behavior is a form of behavior that reflects the readiness of an individual to solve life problems. This is behavior aimed at adapting to circumstances and involving the formed ability to use certain means to overcome emotional stress. When choosing active actions, the likelihood of eliminating the impact of stressors on a person increases. The features of this skill are associated with the "I-concept", locus of control, empathy, environmental conditions. Coping behavior is implemented through the use of various coping strategies based on the resources of the individual and the environment. One of the most important resources of the environment is social support. Personal resources include an adequate "I-concept", positive self-esteem, low neuroticism, internal locus of control, optimistic worldview, empathic potential, affiliative tendency (ability to interpersonal relationships) and other psychological constructs.

1.3 The influence of the family on the formation of protective mechanisms and coping

behavior in adolescents

To interact with a difficult, crisis situation, one needs the skills of coinciding behavior - a special social behavior, the meaning of which is to master, resolve or mitigate, get used to or evade the requirements of a crisis situation, and also, possibly, prevent it by recognizing its insolubility or danger in a timely manner. Coping behavior, or coping, is conscious purposeful behavior as opposed to defensive behavior. It creates a family foundation for resilience, high vitality, adaptability and is presented differently in the family as a whole and among family members.

Coping is a stabilizing factor that helps the family to make psychological adjustment during the stress experienced. Coping behavior is a purposeful social behavior that allows the subject to cope with a difficult life situation (or stress) in ways that are adequate to personal characteristics and the situation - through conscious action strategies. This conscious behavior is aimed at actively changing, transforming the situation that is controllable, or adapting to it if the situation is not controllable. With this understanding, coping behavior is important for the social adaptation of healthy people. Coping styles and strategies are considered as separate elements of conscious social behavior, with the help of which a person copes with life's difficulties. In other words, coping, or coping, is how a person endures, endures, gets used to, avoids and / or resolves a stressful, that is, tense situation.

Researchers have found that the adaptive capacity of coping behavior increases under the influence of more severe stressors. This means that the stronger the stressor, the more pronounced coping behavior in highly adaptable individuals and families. Russian families generally have an average level of coping.

However, in some cases, the severity of coping increases significantly: in people who have experienced an unexpected divorce; in male husbands who returned after participating in hostilities to peaceful life, including family life.

So, it is clear that families can react differently to stress.

Ways (strategies and styles) of functional, or productive, family coping in a stressful situation usually include:

1) search for information, understanding of a stressful situation, event;

2) seeking social support from close associates, relatives, friends, neighbors, other people in similar situations, and professionals;

3) flexibility of family roles;

4) optimism, faith in the best;

5) improving family communication, improved communication;

6) the involvement of all family members in solving problems, difficulties.

Productive coping usually has positive consequences for family functioning: resolution of a problem, a difficult situation, reduction of tension, anxiety, discomfort, elation and joy of overcoming. If the situation cannot be resolved directly and in a short time, a new assessment of the situation and a new assessment of oneself in the situation arise, which are based on a change in the attitude of family members to the problem, a positive interpretation of what is happening (“it could be worse”, “this is a lesson for everyone us, henceforth we will be smarter). It is important to note that this does not reduce the motivation for achievement, while maintaining a realistic approach to assessing the event and the ability of the family to mobilize forces.

Unproductive coping is associated with the predominance of emotional reactions to the situation, a kind of "stuck" on them and manifests itself in the form of immersion in experiences, self-accusation, blaming each other, involving one family member of others in their unproductive state. So sometimes some family members constantly complain, regret, take offense at the "injustice" of life towards them, instead of acting. Avoidance as a coping style can also be counterproductive. It manifests itself in the form of avoiding the problem, attempts not to think about solving it at all, the desire to forget oneself in a dream, “dissolve” one’s hardships in alcohol or compensate for negative emotions with food, hide behind the backs of competent people who guarantee social support and solve the problem instead of the family itself. Often this behavior is characterized by a naive, infantile assessment of what is happening.

The effectiveness of coping is manifested in the duration of positive consequences. They can be either short-term: they are usually measured by psycho-physiological and affective indicators, by how quickly people return to the level of pre-stress activity; or long-term, affecting the psychological well-being of the family, improving its social functioning (usually they are difficult to take into account).

The question of the effectiveness of any coping style is open. The fact is that those behaviors that help in some situations may not work in others. For example, it is known that restoring emotional balance through passive strategies (not through problem solving) is used more intensively if the source of stress is unclear and the person does not have the knowledge, skills, or real ability to reduce it. The use of problem-oriented coping in a completely uncontrollable situation also turns out to be unproductive and depletes resources.

The level and quality of overcoming life's difficulties depend on how successfully the family functions, that is, on how it performs its main functions. The functions of the family are the activities of the family aimed at meeting the needs of its members and society as a whole. A normally functioning family is a family that provides the necessary minimum of welfare, social protection and development of its members. A dysfunctional family is one in which the performance of functions is impaired, as a result of which prerequisites arise for the manifestations of horizontal and vertical stressors.

The concept of "dysfunctional family" does not have a clear definition in the scientific literature. Synonyms of this concept are used: destructive family; dysfunctional family; families at risk; discordant family.

Distinguish the following types of dysfunctional families: pedagogically incompetent; conflict; immoral; asocial.

Consider coping with stress behavior in families with normal and impaired functioning.

Table 1 - Coinciding behavior in families with normal and impaired functioning

Family Options	functional family	dysfunctional family
Stressor identification	clear, acceptance	Fuzzy, negation
Locus of the problem	It's a common thing	It's one man's business
Approach to the problem	Solution	Blaming others
tolerance for each other	High	Low
Participation and care	Direct, explicit	Indirect, implicit
Communication	openness	withdrawal, closeness
Cohesion	High	Low
family roles	Flexible	Rigid
Resource usage	Complete	incomplete
Violence	Not	There is
Use of alcohol, drugs	Rarely	Often
Having a leader	One leader or equality	Lack of leadership, "decision paralysis"

A family that is not always under stress resorts to coping behavior, preferring defensive behavior. Psychological protection is understood as a subconscious system of behavior patterns formed on the basis of a person’s life experience and protecting him from negative emotions of fear, anxiety arising from traumatic information from the outside world or due to potentially stressful circumstances. Famous psychotherapists A.Ya. Varga, A.I. Zakharov, A.S. Spivakovskaya, E.G. Eidemiller and V. Justickis describe the conditions under which a family in difficult life situations tends to use psychological defense mechanisms rather than conscious coping. This is the presence of a strongly mythologized family history, poorly understood chronic conflicts, emotional dependence, unclear boundaries. Often the family has mainly dysfunctional balance stabilizers of the family system. According to A.Ya. Vargas, they can be children, illnesses, behavioral disorders (for example, the cyclical nature of adultery and physical violence). In some families, the only time the parents don't fight is when the child is sick. An asthma attack can occur in a child who has unconsciously learned this pattern at the slightest sign of a quarrel. If he is the stabilizer of the family system for a long time, separation from parents in adolescence is very difficult and painful.

There are generally significant factors that stabilize the family system and reduce the family's vulnerability to stress. According to foreign and domestic authors (D. Bright, F. Jones, D. Myers, A.S. Spivakovskaya, E.G. Eidemiller, V. Yustitskis), these include: social and professional status, problem solving through co-ownership, mutual support in the family and support of those people with whom they are associated with any activity (married couples without children). In families with preschool and schoolchildren, religiosity (faith), support from the environment, and adaptation to the larger social group of which they feel they are important are important. Families with teenagers use other factors: status and income, mutual support of the family and spouse, internal cohesion of the family, support of a wider social group. Finally, families in the "empty nest" stage emphasize the protective value of matching skills, family cohesion, and the support of the environment to which they are associated.

The factors of family resistance to stress are: common tasks for raising children, availability of work, satisfaction of family members with their activities, common interests and deeds, sharing of values, including spiritual ones, love and loyalty to each other, responsibility for the family, sexual harmony. In addition, of great importance are: the ability of family members to solve problems; improved communication; satisfaction with relationships and role structure in the family (having a leader is better than role balance in our culture); social support (most often going "from top to bottom", mainly from parents to children); good health; relying on oneself and close relatives.

One study examined families in situations of coping with difficult life events. It turned out that for the family it does not matter whether they are really difficult, or only perceived as difficult. In any case, they act as stressors and affect the adaptability of the functioning of each person and the family as a whole. To normative stressors, or ordinary daily difficulties, the studied families attributed difficulties in the following areas (in terms of significance and frequency of mention): material support; health, education of children; moved change of housing; interpersonal relationships.

The success of family coping with difficulties is related to the degree of satisfaction with family relationships and the consistency of the value orientations of the spouses. This was tested in a study of 50 families (aged 22 to 39 years, with family life from 3 to 17 years). All of them rated their interpersonal relationships as more or less favorable, with pronounced satisfaction with their marriage. Coping was measured using the questionnaire "Coping behavior in a stressful situation" (N. Endlery, D. Parker, adapted by T.L. Kryukova). A significant predominance of problem-oriented coping was recorded in comparison with emotionally-oriented and avoidance coping in all areas of perceived difficulties by the family. It turned out that the higher the satisfaction with family relationships, the more pronounced active or problem-solving coping. However, spouses with a significant similarity of value orientations showed only a tendency to choose similar problem-oriented coping strategies. With the age of the spouses and the length of family life, the severity of emotionally oriented coping increases, and spouses under the age of 30 are much more likely to cope with difficulties with the help of avoidance (social distraction, in particular). It seemed interesting that two bright groups stood out in the families of the subjects - these are husbands, either extremely successfully coinciding with difficulties, or not coping with stress at all. At the same time, their wives will cope with life's difficulties in all areas without exception at an average level. Thus, sex and gender differences affect the effectiveness of coping and socio-psychological adaptation.

It is not easy to summarize the impact of all possible risk factors, vulnerability to stress and coping, to find out how they contribute or hinder good adaptation and well-being of the family.

Let's name some demographic, social and socio-psychological all-Russian trends that ambiguously affect the success / failure of family behavior coping with stress:

Decrease in the number of children, especially among city dwellers;

Long-term and strong connection with the parental family, increased dependence of parents on children at a later age due to insufficiently developed social programs in society;

Full employment of both parents, high employment of women mothers (a working mother spends an average of 1 hour 24 minutes a day with her child);

· changing the priorities of the family and work: in a socialist society it was assumed that the main thing is not in the family (the priority of work), now the importance of the family is increasing;

· family dual power: problems with leadership in the family (formal leadership of the husband and informal wife);

· distribution of "conscious" parenthood in young families;

• stronger involvement of young fathers in the life of the family;

· the revival of interest in family history, the family tree, not just as a genealogical hobby, but as a need to restore family culture, traditions, as an appeal to a resource.

Adolescence is characterized by a particular surge of conflicts between parents and children. At the same time, the causes of conflicts between adolescents and their parents have a certain age dynamics: in younger adolescents, conflicts related to study predominate; in older adolescents, the most common cause of conflicts with parents is "a mismatch of views on life."

The difficulty may be the adolescent's growing need for independence, which usually leads to some kind of conflict within the family, as well as the need to reconsider the parental attitude and style of educational influences towards the grown-up child, the growing feeling of anxiety and anxiety for him.

Thus, under conditions of stress, the psychological adaptation of a person occurs through psychological protection and coping mechanisms. Coping behavior, or coping, is conscious purposeful behavior as opposed to defensive behavior. It creates a family foundation of resilience, high vitality, and adaptability. Coping is a stabilizing factor that helps the family to make psychological adjustment during the stress experienced.

mechanisms and strategies of coping behavior in adolescents

Taking into account that the adolescence period in most scientific sources is considered as the most stressful and conflict period in the ontogenetic development of a person, certain criteria have been identified that can contribute to the emergence of difficult situations and which need to be paid special attention when building work on the psychological and pedagogical support of coping behavior: anatomical and physiological features; mental states of adolescents; features of the emotional-volitional sphere; motives of activity and behavior; a sense of adulthood (the need for independence, self-affirmation); character formation of a teenager (deviations); temperamental features; personal reflection. The main indicators of age are also taken into account (the social situation of development; the leading type of activity; the main mental neoplasms.

Based on the fact that the modern humanistic concept of a person involves considering him as an existential (independent, independent, free) being and the main characteristic of the existential dimension is freedom, the main goal of building a special activity for psychological and pedagogical support is seen in the gradual transfer of a teenager from a passive position " victims" and "consumer" into an active one - a subject of activity to resolve problems, to an autonomous existence, independent, creative construction of one's destiny and relations with the world. This is the semantic and activity dynamics of psychological and pedagogical support.

Psychological and pedagogical support is a special education technology that differs from traditional methods of education and upbringing in that it is carried out precisely in the process of dialogue and interaction between a child and an adult and involves the child’s self-determination in a situation of choice, followed by an independent, creative solution to his problem. The psychological and pedagogical significance of coping is to help a teenager more effectively adapt to the requirements of the situation, allowing him to master it, extinguish the stressful effect of the situation, creatively process and become an active creator of his own life story.

Thus, psychological and pedagogical support, being one of the main resources of the educational environment, makes it possible to realize the need of society to build such an education in which students can master and master the mechanisms of self-creation of themselves. That is, the educational psychologist is called upon to support adolescents in their desire to become creative authors of their own lives, using the situation and the resources in which they are at every moment of their existence. Under certain conditions, in psychological and pedagogical activity, this talent is certainly revealed. Moreover, this talent can contribute to self-creation of oneself and one's life.

The development of constructive coping strategies is possible only on the basis of the developing resources of the educational environment. One of them is psychological and pedagogical support, designed to carry out the task on the basis of developing, shaping and educating strategies.

The developmental strategy of psychological and pedagogical support is designed to create conditions that stimulate the development of constructive coping of adolescents with difficult life situations. The formative strategy of psychological and pedagogical support should assist in the formation of constructive social skills in adolescents to overcome the difficulties of life. An educational strategy is a directed influence on the part of educational psychologists with the aim of educating readiness for life-creation.

All the work of a teacher-psychologist involves interaction with adults (teachers, educators, parents) through education, counseling, training activities and the joint development of programs aimed at developing adolescents' abilities to constructively cope with life's difficulties. All the work of a teacher-psychologist with adults and adolescents involves the development of motivational-personal and cognitive-behavioral components, the core of which is the mechanism of creativity (talent). All components of the “built-in” mechanism of creativity (talent, according to V.V. Klimenko) of a teenager: (energy potential, emotional-volitional sphere, cognitive, behavioral components) are consistent with these components. We can say that the mechanism of creativity, talent (mechanism of ingenuity I) is the internal trigger mechanism of the personality). Only the "mechanism of talent" in its conventional designation can contribute to the "talented" overcoming of difficulties, the "talented" alignment of one's life, the "talented" interaction with one's wards.

Only such an orientation of pedagogical support activities can contribute to the life creativity of adolescents.

With psychological and pedagogical support of coping behavior of adolescents, the main groups of tasks are implemented:

Educational. They include conversations on existential-semantic issues and conversations on the motivational-cognitive development of adolescents.

Developing, shaping. Aimed at the development of reflection, the actualization of the mechanism of creativity, the development of life-creating strategies for overcoming difficulties.

Nurturing. Aimed at optimizing interpersonal interaction due to the actualization of the strengths of the personality of adolescents. Education of perseverance and perseverance and activity in achieving goals.

When organizing psychological work with adolescents, it is necessary to pay attention to teaching them strategies for coping behavior.

All adolescents, regardless of family well-being, should be taught how to use productive cognitive and behavioral coping strategies.

When teaching effective coping behavior to adolescents, emphasis should be placed on developing their ability to seek social support, as well as effective problem solving and emotional self-regulation techniques.

Thus, in the course of work on psychological and pedagogical support of coping behavior of adolescents, conditions were identified that ensure the effectiveness of psychological and pedagogical support:

a) organizational and pedagogical (enrichment of the developing resources of the educational environment);

b) psychological and pedagogical (formation of the desire for life creativity on the basis of the development of socially significant personal qualities).

Pedagogical support should ensure the development of constructive strategies for adolescents to overcome difficult school situations. The overcoming behavior of adolescents is considered as a conscious, rational behavior aimed at transforming a difficult situation with its subsequent positive resolution. The psychological and pedagogical significance of overcoming is to help the teenager adapt more effectively to the requirements of the situation, allowing him to master it, try to transform, subdue it, and thus extinguish the stressful impact of the situation. The main task of constructive coping is to ensure and maintain the adolescent's well-being, physical and mental health and satisfaction with social relationships.

and coping strategies in adolescents from dysfunctional families

2.1 Organization of the study

The purpose of this study was to identify the mechanisms of psychological defenses and coping behavior strategies in adolescents from families with varying degrees of well-being.

The research hypothesis is the assumption that:

Adolescents from prosperous families tend to relieve the tension that has arisen with the help of constructive psychological defense mechanisms, in contrast to adolescents from dysfunctional families;

Adolescents from well-to-do families are more likely to use effective coping strategies in relation to difficult situations than adolescents from disadvantaged families.

Tasks of empirical research:

1) select methods for studying psychological defense mechanisms and coping strategies in adolescents;

2) to study the psychological defense mechanisms and coping strategies of adolescents from families with different well-being.

3) to analyze the obtained results;

The empirical study took place in March-April 2011. The study took place in two stages:

Stage 1 - testing and primary processing of the results. The form of testing is individual and group.

Stage 2 - quantitative and qualitative analysis of the obtained data, which included data processing using methods of mathematical statistics.

The object of the empirical study was 30 high school students aged 13-14 years. The control group - adolescents from well-to-do families, the experimental group - adolescents from disadvantaged families (n1=n2=15), the groups are similar in terms of gender and age. The study was conducted on the basis of secondary school No. 73 in Vladivostok.

We classified as unfavorable families such families where:

full-fledged education is not provided, the necessary supervision is not carried out;

family members abuse alcohol, drugs;

lead an antisocial lifestyle.

In accordance with the goal, hypothesis and objectives, the following methods were chosen:

1. Plutchik-Kellerman-Comte questionnaire "Life Style Index" (Life Style Index, LSI).

2. Methods of coping methods R. Lazarus and S. Folkman.

3. Methodology for diagnosing stress-coping behavior (coping behavior in stressful situations).

Let us describe the chosen methods in more detail.

1. Plutchik-Kellerman-Comte questionnaire "Lifestyle Index" (Appendix A). This technique is aimed at studying the level of tension of the main psychological defense mechanisms, the hierarchy of the psychological defense system and assessing the overall tension of all measured defenses. Content characteristics of the main psychological defenses (life style index):

Negation. A psychological defense mechanism by which a person either denies some frustrating, anxiety-producing circumstance, or some internal impulse or side denies himself. As a rule, the action of this mechanism is manifested in the denial of those aspects of external reality, which, being obvious to others, are nevertheless not accepted, not recognized by the person himself.

Crowding out. Z. Freud considered this mechanism (suppression serves as its analogue) as the main way to protect the infantile "I", unable to resist the temptation. This is a defense mechanism through which impulses that are unacceptable to the individual: desires, thoughts, feelings that cause anxiety become unconscious. In the questionnaire, the authors included in this scale questions related to a lesser known mechanism of psychological defense - isolation. In isolation, the psycho-traumatic and emotionally reinforced experience of the individual can be realized, but at a cognitive level, isolated from the affect of anxiety.

Regression. In classical concepts, regression is seen as a psychological defense mechanism, through which a person in his behavioral reactions seeks to avoid anxiety by moving to earlier stages of libido development. With this form of defensive reaction, a person exposed to frustrating factors replaces the solution of subjectively more complex tasks with relatively simpler and more accessible ones in the current situations.

Compensation. This psychological defense mechanism is often combined with identification. It manifests itself in attempts to find a suitable replacement for a real or imaginary shortcoming, a defect of an unbearable feeling with another quality, most often with the help of fantasizing or appropriating the properties, virtues, values, behavioral characteristics of another person.

Projection. The projection is based on the process by which feelings and thoughts that are unconscious and unacceptable to the individual are localized outside, attributed to other people and thus become, as it were, secondary. Another type of projection is less common, in which significant persons (more often from the microsocial environment) are assigned positive, socially approved feelings, thoughts or actions that can uplift.

Substitution. A common form of psychological defense, which in the literature is often referred to as "displacement". The action of this defense mechanism is manifested in the discharge of repressed emotions (usually hostility, anger), which are directed to objects that are less dangerous or more accessible than those that caused negative emotions and feelings.

Intellectualization. This defense mechanism is often referred to as rationalization. The action of intellectualization manifests itself in a fact-based overly "mental" way of overcoming a conflict or frustrating situation without experiencing. In other words, a person stops experiences caused by an unpleasant or subjectively unacceptable situation with the help of logical attitudes and manipulations, even in the presence of convincing evidence in favor of the opposite.

Reactive formations. This type of psychological defense is often identified with hypercompensation. The personality prevents the expression of thoughts, feelings or actions that are unpleasant or unacceptable to it by exaggerating the development of opposite aspirations. In other words, there is, as it were, a transformation of internal impulses into their subjectively understood opposite.

Compensation and rationalization are considered the most constructive psychological defenses, and projection and repression are considered the most destructive. The use of constructive defenses reduces the risk of internal conflicts, helps to reduce anxiety and fears associated with a situation of frustration.

2. R. Lazarus and S. Folkman's Coping Questionnaire (Ways of Coping Questionnaire; Folkman & Lazarus, (WCQ) 1988) (Appendix B).

The technique is designed to determine the coping mechanisms, i.e. ways to overcome difficulties in various areas of mental activity (coping strategies). The technique was developed by R. Lazarus and S. Folkman in 1988, adapted by T.L. Kryukova, E.V. Kuftyak, M.S. Zamyshlyaeva in 2004.

Subjects are offered 50 statements regarding behavior in a difficult life situation, it is necessary to evaluate how often these behaviors manifest themselves in him.

R. Lazarus and S. Folkman describe the following situation-specific coping strategies:

Confrontational coping (K) - characterized by aggressive efforts to change the situation, involves a certain degree of hostility and willingness to take risks.

Distancing (D) is a cognitive effort to separate from the situation and reduce its significance.

Self-control (C) - efforts to regulate one's feelings and actions.

Seeking social support (SSP) is an effort to gain emotional comfort and information from others.

Acceptance of responsibility (PO) - the recognition of one's role in the problem with the accompanying theme of trying to solve it.

Escape-Avoidance (F-Avoidance) is the mental drive and behavioral effort to escape or avoid a problem (rather than distancing from it).

Problem solving planning (PRP) is an arbitrary problem-focused effort to change the situation, including an analytical approach to the problem.

Positive Reappraisal (PP) - Effort to create positive meaning with a focus on self-growth, also includes a religious dimension.

These scales are divided into three groups according to the following criteria: problem solving planning, search and use of social support, regulation of emotions.

3. Methodology for diagnosing stress-coping behavior (coping behavior in stressful situations) (Appendix B).

Methodology for the study of basic coping strategies - "Indicator of Stress Coping Strategies" was created by D. Amirkhan in 1990. The methodology is a short self-assessment questionnaire consisting of 33 statements that determines the basic coping strategies, their severity in the structure of coping with stress behavior. A three-stage factor analysis of various situation-specific coping responses to stress allowed D. Amirkhan to determine three basic coping strategies: problem solving, seeking social support, avoidance (avoidance).

The technique is carried out frontally - with a whole class or group of students. After distributing the forms, the students are invited to read the instructions, then the psychologist must answer all the questions they ask. After that, the students work independently, and the psychologist does not answer any questions. To assess the statistical significance of differences, a mathematical criterion was used - Fisher's angular test.

Fisher's test is designed to compare two series of sample values according to the frequency of occurrence of a feature. This test can be used to evaluate differences in any two dependent or independent samples. With it, you can compare the performance of the same sample, measured in different conditions.

φ* = (φ1 – φ2) √ n1 n2 / (n1 + n2),

where φ1 is the angle corresponding to the larger % share; φ2 is the angle corresponding to the smaller % share; n1 is the number of observations in sample 1; n2 is the number of observations in sample 2.

2.2 Analysis of the results of the study according to the method of Plutchik-

Kellerman-Comte Lifestyle Index

To determine the prevailing styles of psychological defenses in adolescents, we used the Life Style Index questionnaire. Table 1 shows the levels of psychological defenses in adolescents from prosperous and dysfunctional families.

Table 1 - The results of the average values of the tension index according to the method "Lifestyle Index" (%)

Rice. 1 - Diagram reflecting the data of the study of psychological defense mechanisms in adolescents

After conducting a survey and analyzing the results, we can say that a characteristic feature of the group from dysfunctional families is the pronounced expression in the majority of the surveyed of such defense mechanisms as “denial” (79.3%), “reactive formations” (68.7%) and substitution (68, 7%).

To a lesser extent, they manifest regression (60.8%), repression (44.3%) and projection (41.1%), intellectualization (36.2%) and compensation (33.1%) are the least common.

Thus, adolescents from dysfunctional families use the mechanism of denial to relieve psychological stress, with the help of which unwanted, internally unacceptable traits, properties or negative feelings towards the subject of experience are denied from the social environment. As experience shows, denial as a psychological defense mechanism is realized in conflicts of any kind and is characterized by an outwardly distinct distortion of the perception of reality.

It is understandable that adolescents from dysfunctional families use the mechanism of substitution, which manifests itself in the discharge of repressed emotions (hostility, anger), which are directed to objects that are less dangerous or more accessible than those that caused negative emotions and feelings. For example, an open manifestation of hatred for a person (often a parent) can cause an undesirable conflict with him, transferred to another, more accessible and harmless. In this situation, a teenager can perform unexpected, sometimes meaningless actions that resolve internal tension.

Hypercompensation (reactive formations) can also be considered as one of the forms of protection against an inferiority complex in adolescents from dysfunctional families who use antisocial behavior, aggressive actions directed against a person to relieve tension.

An analysis of the results of a study of adolescents from prosperous families showed that the predominant defense mechanisms are "compensation" and "intellectualization", which are found in 74.2% and 67.5% of the respondents, respectively. Compensation is manifested in attempts to find a suitable replacement for a real or imagined defect, a defect of an unbearable feeling with another quality.

Intellectualization is manifested in the “mental” way of overcoming a conflict or frustrating situation without experiencing. The teenager stops the experiences caused by an unpleasant or subjectively unacceptable situation with the help of logical attitudes and manipulations, even in the presence of convincing evidence in favor of the opposite.

Somewhat less often, the majority of adolescents from prosperous families have both “regression” (64.4%) and “reactive formations” (54.4%).

To the least extent, in the group of adolescents from prosperous families, such mechanisms as “substitution” (44.8%), “projection” (44.3%), “repression” (40.5%) and “denial” (32.1%) are presented. %).

Given the fact that psychological defense mechanisms, seeking to quickly relieve emotional stress, are rigid and distort reality, it can be added that adolescents from dysfunctional families also more often use destructive types of psychological defense, such as denial and projection. At the same time, adolescents from prosperous families have more constructive types of psychological defense, for example, compensation, and to a lesser extent, intellectualization.

Thus, adolescents from dysfunctional families tend to relieve tension through less constructive defense mechanisms, such as denial and substitution, while adolescents from well-to-do families are more likely to use constructive mechanisms, such as compensation and intellectualization.

2.3 Analysis of the results of the study according to the methods of methods coping

R. Lazarus and S. Folkman

The results obtained using the R. Lazarus and S. Folkman coping methods questionnaire, designed to determine coping mechanisms, ways to overcome difficulties in various areas of mental activity, and coping strategies, are shown in Table 2.

Table 2 - The results of the study of coping methods according to the method of R. Lazarus and S. Folkman (in percentiles)

Figure 2 - Diagram depicting the indicators of the average values of the level of tension of the coping strategies of adolescents from different families (method of R. Lazarus and S. Folkman):

where D - distancing; C - self-control; PSP - search for social support; ON - acceptance of responsibility; B-I - flight-avoidance; PRP - problem solving planning; PP - positive revaluation.

Analyzing the results of the study of coping methods according to the method of R. Lazarus and S. Folkman in a group of adolescents from dysfunctional families, we can conclude that the following dominant strategies for coping with a difficult life situation prevail in the behavior of the subjects: flight-avoidance (11.4 points), planning problem solving (9.6 points), distancing (9.4 points), flight-avoidance (8.9 points), that is, most ineffective strategies are predominant for this group.

Whereas in the group of adolescents from prosperous families, constructive and effective coping strategies prevail, such as problem solving planning (13.1 points), self-control (11.2 points), and the search for social support (10.6 points). At the same time, distancing is also present in this group (8.1 points), which may be associated with the characteristics of adolescence. This trend indicates that adolescents from prosperous families prefer to make more active arbitrary, specially undertaken problem-focused efforts to change the situation, including an analytical approach to solving the problem, in difficult life situations. While avoidance (transfer) of responsibility, distancing from the problem (postponing its solution) are predominant for a group of adolescents from dysfunctional families, although they can also use effective strategies, such as, for example, planning a solution to the problem.

Thus, we can say that with a high level of family well-being, adolescents more often tend to use more constructive ways of adapting to difficult situations associated with changing it and gaining positive experience. Conversely, disadvantaged adolescents are more likely to use ineffective coping strategies.

in stressful situations"

The methodology "Coping behavior in stressful situations" made it possible to determine the strategies for coping behavior of adolescents and compare it in the studied groups.

Table 3 - Results of the methodology "Coping behavior in stressful situations" in %

Rice. 1- Diagram depicting the indicators of coping behavior strategies in adolescents according to the method of "Coping behavior in stressful situations"

When analyzing the indicators of this method in the group of adolescents from dysfunctional families, it was found that the majority of the subjects try to solve their problems on their own (40.0%), 46.7% of adolescents avoid problems and stressful situations, while 13.3% of adolescents from disadvantaged families with difficulties in solving problems may seek help or social support.

Adolescents from well-to-do families had coping behavior strategies distributed as follows: 46.7% try to solve their problems on their own, 33.3% seek social support, 20.0% of adolescents from well-to-do families tend to avoid problems.

Therefore, regardless of the level of well-being of the family, most adolescents tend to solve their problems and deal with stress on their own. However, adolescents from disadvantaged backgrounds are more likely to avoid problems and are less likely to seek help and seek social support than adolescents from advantaged families. Nevertheless, based on the data of our study, 13.3% of adolescents from dysfunctional families tend to seek help, listen to the opinions of others, which suggests the need for social support.

To check the reliability of differences in the coping behavior strategies of adolescents in the study groups, we use Fisher's multifunctional statistical test (Fisher's angular transformation), which allows us to compare percentages. The essence of the criterion is to determine what proportion of subjects in a given sample is characterized by the effect of interest to the researcher, and what proportion is not characterized by this effect.

Let's compare the significance of differences in the studied groups using Fisher's angular test.

a) When comparing the studied groups according to the coping strategy "Problem Resolution", we get:

We determine the critical value φ* corresponding to the percentages in each of the groups, φ*cr (p≤0.05)= 1.369 and φ*cr (p≤0.01)=1.505, in our case φ*emp = 1.029. The obtained empirical value φ* is in the zone of insignificance. On the basis of the result obtained, it can be statistically reliably stated that the proportion of adolescents who try to solve their problems on their own from disadvantaged families does not exceed the proportion of adolescents who try to solve their problems on their own from prosperous families.

b) When comparing the studied groups according to the coping strategy "Search for social support", we get:

We determine the critical value φ* corresponding to the percentages in each of the groups, φ*cr (p≤0.05)=0.365 and φ*cr (p≤0.01)= 1.23, in our case φ*emp = 2, 36. The obtained empirical value φ* is in the zone of significance. Therefore, there are significant significant differences between the groups.

Based on the result obtained, it can be statistically reliably stated that adolescents from well-to-do families are more likely to seek social support than adolescents from disadvantaged families.

c) When comparing the studied groups according to the coping strategy "Avoidance", we get:

We determine the critical value φ* corresponding to the percentages in each of the groups, φ*cr (p≤0.05)=0.927 and φ*cr (p≤0.01)= 1.51, in our case φ*emp = 1, 58. The obtained empirical value φ* is in the zone of significance. Based on the result obtained, it can be statistically reliably stated that adolescents from dysfunctional families tend to avoid problems more often than adolescents from well-to-do families.

mechanisms and strategies of coping behavior in adolescents from

dysfunctional families

Based on the analysis of the literature, we have developed recommendations for psychologists and social educators on the formation of constructive strategies for coping behavior and psychological defense mechanisms in adolescents from dysfunctional families:

1. Systematically and purposefully provide supportive psychological and pedagogical support for adolescents.

2. Use active learning methods aimed at increasing the adolescent's adaptation to difficult situations (for example, discussions, business games, analysis of problem situations, etc.).

3. Purposefully develop effective strategies for coping behavior: compromise, open dialogue, coping without affect, etc.

4. Work to strengthen the personal resource of a teenager, i.e. on the formation of a positive adequate self-esteem, the development of creativity, responsibility, an optimistic worldview.

5. Regularly carry out information education of parents on the upbringing of adolescents, taking into account their age and gender characteristics.

6. Provision of social support to adolescents from dysfunctional families.

Conclusions on the second chapter

There are features of coping strategies and psychological defense mechanisms in adolescents from families of different well-being:

1. Adolescents from dysfunctional families tend to relieve tension through less constructive defense mechanisms, such as denial and substitution, while adolescents from well-to-do families are more likely to use constructive mechanisms, such as compensation and intellectualization.

2. With a high level of family well-being, adolescents more often tend to use more constructive ways of adapting to difficult situations associated with changing it and gaining positive experience. Conversely, adolescents from disadvantaged backgrounds are more likely to use ineffective coping strategies.

3. Regardless of the level of well-being of the family, most adolescents tend to solve their problems and deal with stress on their own. However, there were significant differences (using the Fisher Angular Transform) in that adolescents from dysfunctional families were more likely to avoid problems and less likely to seek help and seek social support than adolescents from well-to-do families.

Thus, the conducted empirical study showed that a high level of family well-being contributes to the choice by a teenager of more effective behavior strategies in a problem-stressful situation. At the same time, trouble in the family leads to the fact that a teenager more often chooses ineffective strategies of behavior, more often avoids problem situations, deviates from the intended goals, and less often seeks help.

Conclusion

The purpose of the thesis was "to study the psychological defense mechanisms and strategies of coping behavior in adolescents from dysfunctional families."

To achieve this goal, we performed the following tasks:

1. The problems of studying the mechanisms of psychological defense and coping behavior in psychological science are considered;

2. The main mechanisms of psychological defense and strategies of coping behavior in adolescents from dysfunctional families have been studied.

3. The influence of the family on the defense mechanisms and coping behavior of adolescent children is described.

In this study, we examined the views of various scientists on the problem of the formation of psychological defense mechanisms and strategies for coping behavior in adolescents from dysfunctional families.

Under stress, the psychological adaptation of a person occurs mainly through two mechanisms: psychological defense and coping mechanisms.

Psychological protection is a form of emotional and informational interactions with the world and other people, which allows you to keep your self-esteem and peace of mind unchanged. The most common types of defenses are: rationalization - the desire for self-justification, finding false justifications for one's actions; projections - attributing one's negative or positive qualities and repressed desires to another; suppression and repression - the transfer of problems to the level of the subconscious, substitutions - the redirection of reactions from one person to another.

Coping behavior is the use of various strategies for coping with reality instead of trying to distort or hide from reality. These are characteristic patterns of defense mechanisms that healthy people resort to.

As a result of an empirical study, we found that adolescents from families with different well-being have specific coping strategies and psychological defense mechanisms.

Adolescents from dysfunctional families tend to relieve the tension that has arisen with the help of non-constructive defense mechanisms: denial and substitution. Adolescents from prosperous families are more characterized by constructive mechanisms, such as sublimation and intellectualization.

With a high level of family well-being, adolescents more often seek to use more constructive ways of adapting to difficult situations associated with changing it and gaining positive experience. Conversely, adolescents from disadvantaged backgrounds are more likely to use ineffective coping strategies.

Regardless of the level of well-being of the family, most teenagers tend to solve their problems and deal with stress on their own. Using the Fisher Angular Transform, significant differences were revealed in that adolescents from dysfunctional families are more likely to avoid problems and less likely to seek help and seek social support than adolescents from well-to-do families.

An empirical study has shown that a high level of family well-being contributes to the choice by a teenager of more effective behavior strategies in a problem-stressful situation. At the same time, trouble in the family leads to the fact that a teenager more often chooses ineffective strategies of behavior, more often avoids problem situations, deviates from the intended goals, and less often seeks help.

An analysis of the theoretical literature, the empirical data obtained and the developed recommendations can be used by teachers, psychologists, and social pedagogues in determining ways to optimize the mental development of adolescents from dysfunctional families in order to form more effective psychological defense mechanisms and coping strategies in them.

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Annex A

Plutchik-Kellerman-Comte Questionnaire, Life Style Index (LSI)

Instructions: Carefully read the statements below that describe the feelings, behavior and reactions of people in certain life situations, and if they are relevant to you, then mark the corresponding numbers with a “+” sign.

1. I am very easy to get along with.

2. I sleep more than most people I know.

3. There has always been a person in my life that I wanted to be like.

4. If I am being treated, I try to find out what the purpose of each action is.

5. If I want something, I can't wait until my wish comes true.

6. I blush easily

7. One of my greatest virtues is my ability to control myself.

8. Sometimes I have a persistent urge to punch a wall.

9. I lose my temper easily.

10. If someone pushes me in the crowd, then I am ready to kill him.

11. I rarely remember my dreams.

12. People who command others annoy me.

13. Often I'm out of my element

14. I consider myself an exceptionally fair person.

15. The more things I buy, the happier I become.

16. In my dreams, I am always the center of attention of others.

17. Even the thought that my household members can walk around the house without clothes upsets me.

18. They tell me that I am a braggart

19. If someone rejects me, then I may have thoughts of suicide.

20. Almost everyone admires me

21. It happens that I break or beat something in anger

22. I am very annoyed by people who gossip.

23. I always pay attention to the better side of life.

24. I put a lot of effort and effort into changing my appearance.

25. Sometimes I wish the atomic bomb would destroy the world.

26. I am a person who has no prejudices

27. They tell me that I am overly impulsive.

28. I am annoyed by people who act like manners in front of others.

29. I really dislike unfriendly people

30. I always try not to offend anyone by accident

31. I am one of those who rarely cry

32. Perhaps I smoke a lot

33. It is very difficult for me to part with what belongs to me.

34. I don't remember faces well

35. I sometimes masturbate

36. I have difficulty remembering new surnames

37. If someone interferes with me, then I do not inform him, but complain about him to another

38. Even if I know I'm right, I'm willing to listen to other people's opinions.

39. People never bother me

40. I can hardly sit still even for a short time.

41. I can't remember much from my childhood

42. I do not notice the negative traits of other people for a long time.

43. I think that you should not be angry in vain, but it’s better to think things over calmly

44. Others think I'm overly trusting

45. People who achieve their goals by scandal make me feel bad.

46. I try to put the bad things out of my head

47. I never lose optimism

48. When leaving to travel, I try to plan everything to the smallest detail.

49. Sometimes I know that I am angry with another beyond measure.

50. When things don't go my way, I get gloomy.

51. When I argue, it gives me pleasure to point out to another the errors in his reasoning.

52. I easily accept the challenge thrown by others.

53. Obscene films throw me off balance.

54. I get upset when no one pays attention to me.

55. Others think that I am an indifferent person

56. Having decided something, I often, however, doubt the decision

57. If someone doubts my abilities, then out of the spirit of contradiction I will show my capabilities

58. When I drive a car, I often have a desire to crash someone else's car.

59. Many people piss me off with their selfishness

60. When I go on vacation, I often take some work with me.

61. Some foods make me sick

62. I bite my nails

63. Others say that I avoid problems.

64. I like to drink

65. Dirty jokes confuse me.

66. I sometimes have dreams with unpleasant events and things.

67. I don't like careerists

68. I tell a lot of lies

69. Pornography disgusts me.

70. Troubles in my life are often due to my bad temper.

71. Most of all I dislike hypocritical insincere people

72. When I am disappointed, I often become discouraged.

73. News of tragic events does not cause me excitement

74. Touching something sticky and slippery, I feel disgust

75. When I'm in a good mood, I can act like a child

76. I think that I often argue with people in vain over trifles.

77. The dead don't "touch" me

78. I don't like people who always try to be the center of attention.

79. Many people annoy me.

80. Washing in a bath that is not my own is a big torture for me.

81. I have difficulty pronouncing obscene words

82. I get irritated if I can't trust others.

83. I want to be considered sexually attractive.

84. I have the impression that I never finish what I started.

85. I always try to dress well to look more attractive.

86. My moral rules are better than most of my friends.

87. In a dispute, I have a better command of logic than my interlocutors.

88. People devoid of morality repel me

89. I get furious if someone hurts me

90. I often fall in love

91. Others think that I am too objective

92. I remain calm when I see a bloody person

Results processing

Using the Plutchik-Kellerman-Comte questionnaire, one can examine the level of tension of 8 main psychological defenses, study the hierarchy of the psychological defense system and evaluate the overall tension of all measured defenses (ONZ), i.e. arithmetic average of all measurements of 8 protective mechanisms. The key is used to determine the strength of protection, which is equal to n / N x 100%, where n is the number of positive answers on the scale of this protection, N is the number of all statements related to the scale. Then the OHZ as a whole is equal to Sn / 92 x 100%, where Sn is the sum of all positive answers on the questionnaire. Using this technique, it is possible to calculate the highest intensity index of each of the defenses among the respondents of a homogeneous group, to determine the presence or absence of a correlation between the tension of individual defenses and the ONZ, and also to compare these indicators with those of another independent group.

According to some scientists (V.G. Kamenskaya, R.M. Granovskaya, etc.), the most constructive psychological defenses are compensation and rationalization, and the most destructive ones are projection and repression. The use of constructive defenses reduces the risk of conflict or its escalation.

Table Key

№	Name of scales	Claim numbers	N
1	crowding out	6, 11, 31, 34, 36, 41, 55, 73, 77, 92	10
2	Regression	2, 5, 9, 13, 27, 32, 35, 40, 50, 54, 62, 64, 68, 70, 72, 75, 84	17
3	substitution	8, 10, 19, 21, 25, 37, 49, 58, 76, 89	10
4	Negation	1, 20, 23, 26, 39, 42, 44, 46, 47, 63, 90	11
5	Projection	12, 22, 28, 29, 45, 59, 67, 71, 78, 79, 82, 88	12
6	Compensation	3, 15, 16, 18, 24, 33, 52, 57, 83, 85	10
7	Hyper compensation	17, 53, 61, 65, 66, 69, 74, 80, 81, 86	10
8	Rationalization	4, 7, 14, 30, 38, 43, 48, 51, 56, 60, 87, 9	11

Coping Methods Questionnaire by R. Lazarus and S. Folkman (WaysofCopingQuestionnaire; Folkman & Lazarus, (WCQ) 1988)

IN A DIFFICULT SITUATION, I...	never	rarely	sometimes	often
1	... focused on what I needed to do next - the next step	0	1	2	3
2	... started to do something, knowing that it would not work anyway, the main thing is to do at least something	0	1	2	3
3	... tried to persuade superiors to change their minds	0	1	2	3
4	... talked to others to learn more about the situation	0	1	2	3
5	... criticized and reproached himself	0	1	2	3
6	... tried not to burn bridges behind him, leaving everything as it is	0	1	2	3
7	...hoped for a miracle	0	1	2	3
8	... resigned to fate: it happens that I'm unlucky	0	1	2	3
9	...behaved as if nothing had happened	0	1	2	3
10	... tried not to show his feelings	0	1	2	3
11	... tried to see something positive in the situation	0	1	2	3
12	... slept more than usual	0	1	2	3
13	... took out my annoyance on those who got me into trouble	0	1	2	3
14	... was looking for sympathy and understanding from someone	0	1	2	3
15	... a need arose in me to express myself creatively	0	1	2	3
16	... tried to forget it all	0	1	2	3
17	... turned to specialists for help	0	1	2	3
18	... changed or grew as a person in a positive way	0	1	2	3
19	... apologized or tried to make amends	0	1	2	3
20	… made a plan of action	0	1	2	3
21	... tried to give some outlet to my feelings	0	1	2	3
22	... realized that he himself caused this problem	0	1	2	3
23	... gained experience in this situation	0	1	2	3
24	... talked to someone who could specifically help in this situation	0	1	2	3
25	... tried to make himself feel better by eating, drinking, smoking, or taking medication	0	1	2	3
26	... risked recklessly	0	1	2	3
27	... tried to act not too hastily, trusting the first impulse	0	1	2	3
28	... found a new faith in something	0	1	2	3
29	... rediscovered something important	0	1	2	3
30	... changed something so that everything was settled	0	1	2	3
31	...generally avoided interacting with people	0	1	2	3
32	... did not allow it to himself, trying not to think about it especially	0	1	2	3
33	... asked for advice from a relative or friend whom he respected	0	1	2	3
34	... tried to keep others from finding out how bad things were	0	1	2	3
35	... refused to take it too seriously	0	1	2	3
36	... talked about how I feel	0	1	2	3
37	... stood his ground and fought for what he wanted	0	1	2	3
38	... took it out on other people	0	1	2	3
39	... used past experience - I already had to get into such situations	0	1	2	3
40	... knew what to do and redoubled his efforts to get things right	0	1	2	3
41	… refused to believe that it really happened	0	1	2	3
42	... I made a promise that next time everything would be different	0	1	2	3
43	... found a couple of other ways to solve the problem	0	1	2	3
44	... tried not to let my emotions get in the way too much in other matters	0	1	2	3
45	... changed something in myself	0	1	2	3
46	... wanted all this to somehow form or end	0	1	2	3
47	... imagined, fantasized how it could all turn out	0	1	2	3
48	... prayed	0	1	2	3
49	.. scrolled through my mind what to say or do	0	1	2	3
50	... thought about how the person I admire would act in this situation and tried to imitate him	0	1	2	3

Interpretation of results.

When processing the received data, certain points are awarded for each answer option: the “never” option - 0 points; option "rarely" - 1 point; option "sometimes" - 2 points; option "often" - 3 points.

After scoring, the total score for each scale is calculated. The test norms given in Table 1 below are used to interpret the results.

Low values of the strategy indicate an adaptive variant of coping. Average values say that the adaptive potential of the individual is in a borderline state. High values of coping indicate a pronounced disadaptation.

Table 2 - Test norms of the WCQ questionnaire in points

№	Coping strategies	Low values	values	Values
1	Confrontational coping	1 to 6	7 to 11	12 to 17
2	distancing	1 to 6	7 to 11	12 to 17
3	self control	4 to 11	12 to 16	from 17 to 21
4	Seeking social support	0 to 7	8 to 13	from 14 to 18
5	Taking responsibility	0 to 5	6 to 9	10 to 12
6	escape-avoidance	3 to 7	8 to 13	14 to 23
7	Planning for problem solving	from 2 to 10	11 to 15	16 to 18
8	Positive revaluation	3 to 9	10 to 15	From 16 to 21

To determine the preferred (dominant) coping strategy, you need to convert the raw scores of each strategy into percentiles using the formula: X = sum of points / max score*100. The dominant coping strategy(s) will have the highest score relative to other coping strategy scores.

Scoring key:

Confrontational coping (K) - points: 2,3,13,21,26,37.

Distance (D) - points: 8,9,11,16,32,35.

Self-control (C) - points: 6,10,27,34,44,49,50.

Seeking social support (SSP) - items: 4,14,17,24,33,36.

Acceptance of responsibility (PO) - points: 5,19,22,42.

Escape-avoidance (B-I) - points: 7,12,25,31,38,41,46,47.

Problem Solving Planning (PRP) - items: 1,20,30,39,40,43.

Positive revaluation (PP) - points: 15,18,23,28,29,45,48.

Annex B

Method for diagnosing stress-coping behavior (coping behavior in stressful situations)

The form of the methodology containing instructions and the text of the questionnaire

Surname, name _______________________________________

Age___________________________________________________

Class_____________________________________________________

Instruction: We are interested in how people deal with problems, difficulties and annoyances in their lives. The form presents several possible options for overcoming troubles. By reviewing the statements, you can determine which of the suggested options are commonly used by you. All your answers will remain unknown to outsiders. Try to think of one of the major problems you have experienced in the last 6 months that has made you quite anxious, and describe that problem in as many words as you can. Now, as you read the statements below, choose one of the three most acceptable answers for each.

Results processing

The answers of the subject are compared with the key:

To obtain a total score for the relevant strategy, the sum of scores for all 11 items related to this strategy is calculated. The minimum score for each scale is 11 points, the maximum score is 33 points.

If 1 item out of 11 is missing, you can do the following: calculate the average score for those 10 items that the subject answered, then multiply this number by 11; the total score on the scale will be expressed by the integer following this result. (For example, the average score on a scale of 2.12, times 11 = 23.32, the total score is 24.)

If two or more items are missed, the data of the subject is not processed.

A strategy is considered to be predominant if the sum of points for which is higher than the rest by more than three points.

Annex D

The results of the R. Lazarus and S. Folkman coping methods questionnaire (in points) group 1

No. \ coping	D	FROM	PSP	ON	B-I	PDP	PP
1	7	4	10	12	7	10	16
2	10	13	16	17	7	13	16
3	7	0	4	11	4	16	11
4	6	7	11	4	6	18	10
5	10	9	15	8	4	11	16
6	4	10	12	8	6	9	10
7	5	6	11	12	7	14	9
8	7	7	13	12	8	8	13
9	9	9	12	13	8	13	16
10	13	9	7	10	8	13	13
11	6	9	13	7	8	9	16
12	8	8	12	8	6	16	8
13	10	11	12	10	6	13	15
14	7	9	9	15	5	16	12
15	10	10	11	12	5	18	8

The results of the R. Lazarus and S. Folkman coping methods questionnaire (in points) group 2

No. \ coping	D	FROM	PSP	ON	B-I	PDP	PP
1	12	20	14	6	10	7	19
2	9	12	8	12	12	7	11
3	13	12	11	6	3	4	4
4	9	13	12	10	3	6	12
5	7	11	9	9	13	4	17
6	5	10	12	6	7	6	12
7	10	12	14	11	10	7	13
8	8	13	7	6	13	8	10
9	6	13	11	8	12	8	14
10	9	12	15	7	15	8	12
11	10	14	13	9	5	8	13
12	12	20	14	17	13	6	19
13	9	12	8	11	12	6	11
14	13	12	11	6	10	5	4
15	9	13	12	10	6	5	12

> Parents' Corner > Parents to parents > Psychological protection in adolescence: a review of current research

In adolescence, a wide variety of defense mechanisms take place, the set of which since the time of A. Freud (asceticism and intellectualism) has expanded significantly. Undoubtedly, this conclusion is of great importance for clarifying the characteristics of development in adolescence, since in cases where a person has a sufficiently large repertoire of defense mechanisms, in each case she can “pick up” one that will effectively protect her from experiences without interfering with normal development. However, the available data do not remove the question of what causes psychological defense mechanisms in adolescents.

A. Solovieva

1. Typical defenses of adolescents in the works of A. Freud

So, the teenage crisis is one of the most difficult in ontogeny. The child is in a situation of constant adaptation to physical and physiological changes, experiencing a "hormonal storm". In the most general form, it can be said that a teenager seems to be in a state of stress all the time, and the restoration of personal balance should be considered the leading characteristic of adolescence. Of course, the moments of the generation of the new are necessarily characterized by a state of non-equilibrium, instability. “My body seemed to be furious,” teenagers say about themselves. As a result, today there is a sharp increase in interest in the study of methods for resolving conditions of this kind. Existing studies show ambiguous views on this issue. In particular, the authors argue about the importance for adolescents of coping and protective methods of restoring personal balance. Despite the fact that the prospects for the development of both directions in relation to adolescents are unanimously recognized by researchers. We proceed from the assumption that adolescents do not have enough experience for coping strategies, which means that “those that ensure the successful functioning of the main life trend” in adolescence are defenses.

A. Freud was the first to propose typical teenage defenses as a subject of consideration. The researcher noted that such defenses as asceticism and intellectualism are most appropriate for the teenage development program. According to one of them - intellectualism - a teenager finds sensuality "uninteresting". As a result, the hypertrophy of the requirements of moral purity and self-discipline, which are quite positive in themselves, entails artificial self-isolation from others, arrogance and intolerance, behind which lies the fear of life. The ideal of the adolescent “ascetic” is not just control over his feelings, but their complete suppression and active emphasis on his contemptuous and hostile attitude towards any sensuality. Dissatisfaction with one's appearance and the desire to change it is the most striking example of asceticism in adolescence. In theoretical terms, A. Freud called asceticism the suppression of all instinctive impulses.

Suppression is the distraction of attention from conscious affectogenic impulses and conflicts; more conscious than during repression, avoidance of disturbing information. Meanwhile, fundamental differences between these mechanisms most often do not stand out.

In its most general form, suppression is a conscious mechanism at the level of "second censorship". With its help, the manifestation of a consciously unacceptable desire or impulse is restrained. In this case, we are talking about the exclusion of some mental content from the field of consciousness, and not about the transfer from one system to another. From a dynamic point of view, ethical motives play a leading role in suppression.

Also, the work of F. Kramer on the development of a method for studying defense mechanisms in children had a significant impact on the study of typical adolescent defenses. The result of this work was the creation of a "guide on defense mechanisms" and confirmation of the assumptions about the appearance of various defenses at certain stages of development in a child's life. In particular, analyzing the age range from 7 to 17 years, F. Kramer found that up to the older adolescence, the frequency of using projection is high, with a simultaneous decrease in the frequency of using denial. Thus, the most frequently mentioned by F. Kramer is the projection.

Projection is the process by which what is inside is mistakenly perceived as coming from outside. The term was introduced into use by 3. Freud. He saw a projection in prejudices, myths, animism and some other familiar phenomena of everyday life, and therefore repeatedly emphasized its normality.

The term "projection" comes from the English word "projection" and is translated into Russian as "ejection". In this way, the unconscious, breaking through the control of consciousness, throws out the true information, according to which one can judge certain hidden, but global mental characteristics and tendencies of the individual. A person who uses projection often, as a rule, has a lack of psychological differentiation between his own personality and the world around him, an implicit assimilation of the people around him, his inner world.

There are two types of projection. On the one hand, they distinguish the primary projection, which does not resort to displacement. It contributes to the establishment of a distinction between I-myself and not-I-myself, attributing to the external world the causes of sensations that I do not want to localize in myself. This is a normal process that strengthens the Self and refines the body schema. On the other hand, a secondary projection stands out, requiring the activity of inhibition or repression; the external object is filled with projected hatred and becomes the persecutor.

In general, through projection, a person throws a rejected part of himself onto another. Thus, there is a contraction of the boundaries of the Self, as a result of which all unattractive personal actions and qualities remain outside. In this regard, a necessary condition for projection is the search for a suitable target - another person, and even a social institution, onto which personally unacceptable aspirations or qualities can be transferred. Therefore, in its pernicious forms, it brings dangerous misunderstanding and great damage to interpersonal relationships. The projection is the basis of excessive moralization, hypocrisy, pedantry in relation to others and entails the formation of contempt and distrust of other people, as well as fear of them. Thus, the individual provokes a hostile perception of others and the formation of defensive strategies aimed at imaginary enemies, while the objects of the projection do not even have a hint of the presence of the vices of which they are accused. However, in its benign and mature forms, projection is the basis of empathy. And besides, it simplifies behavior, eliminating the need to evaluate your actions every time in everyday life.

Today, the projection mechanism seems to be an important function of the Self, a tool for its formation. P. Heimann calls it the primary process, necessary "not only to maintain the life of the organism (as in the case of metabolism), but in general for any differentiation and modification in any particular organism" .

The value of the extensive experience of A. Freud and F. Kramer in working with adolescents is recognized today by many researchers not only abroad, but also in our country.

In the last decade, in Russian psychology, interest in studying the psychological defense of adolescents has increased significantly. The most famous are the works of A.B. Karpova, R.M. Granovskaya, E.S. Romanova, A.V. Libina, T.V. Tulupyeva,

V.G. Kamenskaya, S.V. Zvereva, E.N. Andreeva and others. At the same time, the data obtained by Russian psychologists are in good agreement with the studies of their foreign colleagues.

So, in the studies of E.N. Andreeva, conclusions were obtained about the presence of both age and gender differences in the use of protection by adolescents. It has been shown that the most common psychological defense mechanisms in adolescents are the mechanisms of projection, hypercompensation, repression and regression. At the same time, girls, in order to eliminate external or internal “defects” that provoke the emergence of a negative self-attitude, try to realize themselves in the area where these “defects” are more often manifested. As a result, a teenage girl who considers herself unattractive in front of her peers and dreams of becoming more beautiful will spend a lot of time at the mirror, trying on fashionable clothes, using an extensive palette of cosmetics, or reading a lot of youth magazines and adopting the necessary information from them. Such cases, when a person completely goes into a certain activity or occupation, which as a result becomes the main one to the detriment of others, are called compensation, and in cases where this withdrawal makes other activities absolutely impossible, the “hypercompensation” mechanism is diagnosed. . Usually mechanisms such as compensation are a substitute for unrequited feelings, self-doubt, and ultimately lead to the fact that a person can find outstanding results in the chosen activity. Thus, a child with poor eyesight can later become an outstanding artist, just as Demosthenes became an excellent orator. But since other aspects of his personality do not receive development, then, despite the social value of these results, the person himself may suffer. As a defense mechanism, compensation is ontologically the latest and cognitively complex mechanism.

In order to maintain their self-relationship at the same level, the boys try to “forget” the true and unpleasant reasons for the events that happened to them, replacing them with false, but “painless” ones. This is how the defense mechanism of repression manifests itself. Repression is a mechanism that most often manifests itself in people with immature self, hysterical character traits, dominance of passive behavior, as well as in children and adolescents. The concept was introduced by 3. Freud in 1895 to define an active process aimed at keeping unacceptable representations out of consciousness. Normally functioning self-consciousness always contributes to forgetting especially unpleasant events. Therefore, people often tend to remember only the good, forgetting the true, but unacceptable motive of the act. Thus, psychotraumatic information related to the life of loved ones, facts of personal biography, when a person showed his worst qualities, hostility, love of power, stupidity, permissiveness, sexual desires, are usually repressed. those thoughts and desires that contradict the values and norms accepted by the person himself. Teenagers, for example, tend to forget the unpleasant reasons behind important events. At the same time, what is repressed from consciousness is not simply forgotten, but retains in the unconscious the psychic energy of attraction inherent in it (cathexis) and strives to return to consciousness. The return of the repressed may result in a "clearance" in the process of repression, a functional and useful valve (dreaming, fantasies), or a less innocuous form (mistakes, forgetfulness), or a pathological manifestation of a real failure of repression (symptoms). Among the symptoms associated with the mechanism of displacement 3. Freud named the symptoms of hysteria, impotence, frigidity, psychosomatic diseases (gastric ulcer, bronchial asthma).

In its strictly functional aspect, repression is necessary for the simplification of everyday life, and therefore it does not always contain the presumption of morbidity. However, due to the ability to cope with the most powerful instincts, energy intensity and high pathogenicity for the personality itself, repression is the most dangerous defense mechanism.

Repression can be either complete or incomplete, partial. In the latter case, the individual may show a certain attitude towards the part of the behavior that is being realized. Moreover, such behavior, as it were, satisfies the individual instead of causing anxiety (“disregard” in the words of the famous French neuropathologist and psychotherapist J.M. Charcot). A striking example of this kind of displacement is inactivation (exclusion).

Projection and regression, according to E.N. Andreeva, there are no differences in the gender factor.

Regression is a defense mechanism, which in psychoanalysis is recognized as the mechanism not only the most characteristic of adolescents, but, according to P. Blos, the only one acceptable to accompany adolescent development. It represents a return to primitive, early, childhood-related responses and behaviors after a new level of competence has been reached. This relatively simple mechanism can last for a few moments or much longer.

The specificity of regressive defense mechanisms lies in the predominance of a passive position and indicates uncertainty in making one's own decisions. Its actualization creates the illusion of relieving oneself of responsibility for solving one's problems thanks to the habitual position of the little one, and therefore characterizes an infantile personality.

Traditionally, there are three types of regression:

- topical, due to the functioning of the mental apparatus; predominantly manifested in dreams;

- temporary, in which the old methods of mental organization come into play again;

- formal, replacing the usual ways of expression and figurative representation with more primitive ones.

These three forms are basically the same, since the oldest in time turns out to be at the same time simpler in form, being located in the psychological topic in the system of perception.

4. Typical defenses of adolescents in Russian psychology: a study by V.G. Kamenskaya and S.V. Zvereva

Studying the protective mechanisms of adolescents, V.G. Kamenskaya and S.V. Zverev received similar data. The leading defense mechanism in adolescents is projection. The researchers also found a significantly high value, indicating the frequent use by adolescents of such a protective mechanism as rationalization.

Rationalization is the awareness and use of only beneficial information or that part of the information that characterizes behavior as correct and socially approved. Actually, the concept of "rationalization" was introduced by E. Jones in 1908. The essence of this mechanism lies in the fact that a person first acts in response to unconscious motives, and after the action puts forward various supposed reasons to explain the behavior.

In general, rationalization is associated with the peculiarities of thinking, according to which a decision is made by “filtering” information in accordance with the basic rules between “should” and “should not” and obtaining the conclusion necessary at the moment to justify one’s act (the presence of arguments up to -evidence, justifications for the need for just such and not another form of behavior). At the same time, only that part of the perceived information is used in thinking, thanks to which one's own behavior appears as well controlled and does not contradict objective circumstances. Subsequently, the individual, as a rule, does not try to revise these relationships.

The choice of arguments for rationalization is a predominantly subconscious process in which the real motives of the process of self-justification remain unconscious. Defensive argumentation differs from conscious deceit by the non-arbitrariness of its motivation ri by persuading the individual that he is telling the truth. The presence of elements of truth at the same time gives a person a false confidence that everything is really true. Rationalization finds a particularly strong support in ready-made ideological schemes, generally accepted morality, religions, and political convictions. Today, regarding rationalization, the opinion is widespread: the smarter and more creative a person is, the better rationalizer he is.

Traditionally, the following types of rationalization are distinguished:

1. Actual rationalization - is most actively used when a person, having violated generally accepted norms of morality and being sufficiently socialized, experiences an internal conflict or cognitive dissonance. It is motivated by the need to get rid of the anxiety or frustration that the individual is actually experiencing.

2. Anticipatory rationalization - a person can foresee the beginning of unacceptable events for him in advance. In this case, he plans the process of self-justification before the onset of the unacceptable part of the situation (as a consequence, in most of these cases, the person makes less effort to achieve the goal).

3. Rationalization for oneself - presented in the form of discrediting the goal; a decrease in the value of an object that an individual aspired to, but could not achieve due to some circumstances (according to the “green grapes” principle) and in exaggeration of the value of an already existing good (according to the “sweet lemon” principle).

4. Direct rationalization - an individual, carrying out a defensive argument, speaks about threatening events that cause anxiety, and about himself, justifying himself, overestimating the strength of the threat.

5. Indirect rationalization - here the objects of thought are such objects and questions that are not directly related to threats (more often in highly anxious individuals).

6. Discrediting the victim - this method of rationalization is used in cases where an individual, attributing negative qualities to another person, commits immoral actions towards him (the victim).

7. Self-discredit - criticism or "destruction" of oneself.

8. Self-deception - most often occurs in those situations in which an individual makes a choice between two possibilities (goals, alternative lines of behavior), the fact of committing an act is denied to some extent, i.e. it is argued that the individual did not have a genuine possibility of free choice. At the same time, the individual either tries to present himself as a subject of activity, an “element of technology” (science, power, experimental conditions), for which he cannot be held responsible, or he performs actions that harm another, but does not recognize himself as a pest and creates a belief in himself that he acted in favor of the victim.

E. Fromm once noted that rationalization is the best way to "stay in the herd" and feel like a person. Rationalization plays a positive role in situations that cause negative experiences (for example, the period of adolescence), making it possible to better adapt to them. However, the frequent use of this psychological defense mechanism leads to an inadequate assessment of emerging problems based on a series of deceptive self-justifications.

The next widespread study of the defense mechanisms of adolescents was organized by A.B. Karpov. Examining boys and girls of adolescence and early youth periods of ontogeny, aged 14 to 22 years, he found that the top three most pronounced defenses in them include intellectualization, located in the same row with projection and substitution.

Intellectualization is a kind of attempt to get away from an emotionally threatening situation by discussing it in a detached way in abstract, intellectualized terms. Individuals who systematically use intellectualization leave the impression of being emotionally cold, machine-like and alienated in interpersonal relationships, prone to maintaining a mental distance between themselves and others. It is interesting to note that, in its essence, intellectualization has similar features with rationalization. Both mechanisms are the result of intellectual processes. Meanwhile, in the case of the action of rationalization, the entire selection of facts by a person is aimed at proving the assertion or denial of the goal, while with the action of intellectualization, its value. Rationalization is more associated with motivation, intellectualization - with the logical-perceptual component of psychological protection. Rationalization is a pseudo-reasonable explanation by a person of his desires, actions, in fact caused by reasons, the recognition of which would threaten the individual with a loss of self-respect. Intellectualization is the neutralization of emotion. The main task of rationalization is to find weighty evidence that justifies the wrong actions of the individual, and intellectualization is to justify its inaction, making its causes dependent on objective conditions.

Intellectualization develops already in early adolescence to analyze the content of emotions of expectation, foresight, fear of disappointment. The formation of a mechanism is usually correlated with the frustration associated with failures in competition with peers. In adolescents, often the lack of social contacts serves as the basis for excessive fantasizing and intellectualization, along with the fact that abstract discussions and reasoning on religious and philosophical topics make it possible to effectively avoid specific bodily experiences or conflicting feelings and ideas. Of course, this is not an attempt to solve the problem posed by reality, but rather a way of relieving tension, a wary attitude towards affective processes and transferring them to the level of abstract thinking. Therefore, in adolescents, a romantic view of love is combined with illegibility of relationships, empathy in the process of reasoning - with a real indifference to loved ones, to people around them.

A. Freud identified the following features characteristic of intellectualization:

- focus on specific objects, real things as opposed to fantasy objects;

- increased attention to the process of reasoning, reflection;

- the practical absence of a connection between reasoning and real behavior;

- change of flight from the conflict by turning to it - such a purely intellectual process is the reflection and development of many ways to prevent danger;

- friendship, which in adolescence is based on the desire to reason. The range of topics of interest to young people is very wide: they discuss their love, marriage, political problems, acquiring a profession, philosophical problems of the meaning of life, freedom, etc. .

Under favorable circumstances, adaptive intellectualization can contribute to an increase in the level of knowledge and intellect. At the same time, if it intensifies so much that a person is deprived of a full-fledged emotional life, then it acquires pathological features, becomes maladaptive.

Similar to intellectualization is the isolation mechanism. Isolation is the separation of the traumatic situation from the emotional experiences associated with it, the separation of feeling from the situation. The essence of isolation is the alienation of one part of the personality (unacceptable and traumatic individual) from another part of his own personality, which suits him perfectly. With such a separation, the event almost does not cause an emotional reaction. The replacement of the situation occurs, as it were, unconsciously, at least, it is not associated with one's own experiences. As a result, the individual discusses problems separated from the rest of the personality in such a way that the events are not associated with any feelings, as if they happened to someone else.

Isolation begins with the manifestation of obsession (accordingly, it is common mainly in obsessional neurosis). With its frequent actualization, the individual can go more and more into ideas, less and less in contact with his own feelings. Further withdrawal into oneself leads to increased anxiety, to a feeling of lack of strong roots in this world. Such a psychological withdrawal into another state of consciousness can be observed already in the smallest children. An adult version of the same phenomenon can be found in people who isolate themselves from social or interpersonal situations and replace the tension that comes from interacting with others with the stimulation that comes from the fantasies of their inner world.

Isolation can manifest itself in different ways. Thus, two or more related thoughts or feelings can be isolated: for example, the thoughts “I am angry with her” and “she left me” are separated in time and lose their causal connection. Or thoughts may appear without the conscious presence of the feelings associated with them. Sudden aggressive thoughts—stabbing someone with a knife, throwing a child out of a window, swearing obscenely in a public place—often appear without the corresponding emotion of anger.

Among the most common methods of isolation, there are stops in the process of thinking, the use of formulas and rituals, a ban on touching, obsessive symptoms, etc., i.e. the whole set of techniques that allow you to interrupt the temporal sequence of thoughts or actions. For example, some adolescents may defend themselves against thoughts, impressions, actions by isolating them out of context by means of a pause during which nothing should happen. The tendency to use chemicals to change the state of consciousness can also be seen as a form of isolation.

The obvious disadvantage of isolation protection is that it excludes a person from active participation in solving interpersonal problems. Such individuals, constantly hiding in their own inner world, test the patience of those who love them, resisting communication on an emotional level. The outside world is perceived by them as problematic or emotionally poor. In this regard, they often develop a rich inner fantasy life. As a result, the distortion of reality under the action of isolation almost does not occur, since people who rely on isolation find comfort not in not understanding the world, but in moving away from it. Speaking of isolation, 3. Freud indicates that its normal prototype is logical thinking, which also seeks to separate the content of the situation from the emotional component in which it is found.

Gender differences in the use of defense mechanisms by adolescents have become the subject of targeted research relatively recently. In foreign studies, gender differences in defense mechanisms are primarily associated with the name of F. Kramer. It was she who established that the gender identity of a person, expressed in a mismatch between the male and female lines of behavior, can become an equally significant factor in the activation of certain protective mechanisms in them.

It is known that women, experiencing depression, most of all tend to think about the possible causes of their condition. This "thorough thinking", accompanied by an over-focus on the problem, increases women's vulnerability to depression as a result. Men, on the contrary, are more instrumental in their attitude to the world, the desire to remake it, change it in their own image and likeness. As a result, they try to isolate themselves from depressive states, concentrating on activities, engaging in physical activity in order to get themselves out of negative experiences. These masculine and feminine ways of responding to stress are most likely the result of socialization, the operation of stereotypes that attribute men to be active and successful, and women to be sensitive and empathic. On the basis of these patterns, a positive relationship was found in the theory of psychological defenses between masculinity and substitution, femininity and denial. So, men, starting from childhood, are more prone to aggression than women. This predetermines the possibility of using the replacement mechanism.

Substitution is a defense mechanism that is expressed in a reorientation from a topic that causes anxiety and unpleasant sensations to another or in satisfying an unacceptable motive in some morally acceptable way. In other words, substitution is the transfer of a reaction from an inaccessible to an accessible object.

The replacement is often compared with the reaction of the opposition. Therefore, in the form of an active protest of the child against the norms and requirements of adults, this type of protection manifests itself quite early. More

4. Freud noted that when an infant cannot satisfy its need for pleasure through the absorption of food, it becomes demanding and aggressive (begins to bite the mother's breast or suck on an object that replaces it, for example, his finger). In general, the call to return love is characterized by a great variety and intensity of manifestations. These are explosive reactions with outbursts of anger, destructive actions and aggression, and general motor excitement with a temporary narrowing of consciousness, and malicious acts that directly or indirectly harm the offender. Moreover, they can develop both sharply and rapidly, and slowly when the accumulating excitation is discharged by individual hostile acts, damage or destruction of the offender's things, bodily harm or insults, slander, animal torture. In adolescents, substitution is most often manifested in self-incrimination, incomprehensible theft, an exaggerated interest in alcohol, drugs, suicidal demonstrations, debauchery, since substitution by action is more effective for a person than substitution by a word. The positive effect of substitution is that through physical activities (construction work, window cleaning, laundry, garbage disposal, digging the garden, arranging firewood, rearranging furniture or intense sports) one can easily overcome, for example, rage, anger or strong suffering.

Feminine traits do not allow the subject to take an active offensive position, and therefore, in critical situations, the most effective for them is the denial of problems. Denial is the earliest, and therefore primitive, form of defensive behavior. This is a refusal, flight, leaving the situation, including the internal one, carried out only in self-consciousness. “The first reaction of a person who was informed of the death of a loved one: “No!”. Such a reaction is an echo of an archaic process rooted in children's egocentrism, when cognition is controlled by a prelogical conviction: "If I do not recognize this, then it did not happen." These actions are based on the impossibility of satisfying the basic needs for safety and security, as well as the premature belief that as a result of any business, unpleasant experiences will necessarily arise. The ability to deny the unpleasant aspects of reality serves as a kind of temporary addition to the fulfillment of desires and the preservation of affective balance, in which the conflict is not allowed inside the personality, one’s Self. Thus, a terminally ill person, denying this fact, finds the strength to continue to fight for life ( cancer cure) is the positive manifestation of denial. Thanks to him, heroic actions are performed: people, without losing their heads in mortally dangerous circumstances, save themselves and their comrades.

Of course, denial can also work with great redundancy, taking something quite harmless as signal information. As a result, a person loses some of the information he needs. Therefore, under certain conditions, this type of protection can become dangerous for physical health. A wife who denies that a beating husband is dangerous; an alcoholic who insists that he has no problems with alcohol; a mother who ignores evidence of sexual harassment of her daughter; an elderly person who does not consider giving up driving, despite a clear decline in the ability to do so, are all familiar examples of denial at its worst.

Among domestic researchers, gender-type types of defenses in adolescence were purposefully studied by I.o. Dvoryanchikov and S.S. Nosov. The researchers found that typically "male" forms of defensive behavior, regardless of the age of the subject, include suppression and intellectualization. The repertoire of defense mechanisms in "women" includes regression, compensation and reactive formation.

Reactive formation (reverse feeling, reaction formation, etc.) is one of the forms of a mental attitude or habit that is opposite to a repressed desire. Unlike projection, where the object changes, here the object that caused negative emotions remains the same, but the attitude towards it changes. In other words, in this case we are talking about replacing unacceptable tendencies with directly opposite ones (the so-called inversion of desires), when people can hide from themselves the motive of their own behavior by suppressing it with a consciously supported motive of the opposite type:

- unconscious hostility to the child can be expressed in deliberate, controlling attention to him - caressing the child;

- rejected love is often expressed in hatred for the former object of love;

Boys try to offend the girls they like.

In general, this mechanism is considered an example of successful defense, as it establishes mental barriers - disgust, shame, morality. However, if the new attitude becomes overly strong and active, it causes intolerance and bigotry, and as a result limits the person's ability to respond flexibly to events.

7. Empirical substantiation of the relevance of studying psychological defense in adolescence: research organization and diagnostic methods

An analysis of the results of studies devoted to the study of psychological defense in adolescents showed that adolescent defense mechanisms (the so-called age-related defenses) and, moreover, demonstrate a typical sex-based defense scheme (sexual dimorphism in the use of defenses). It turns out that there is an agreement among the researchers on a number of basic points, which thereby allow us to outline some general contours of the problem. At the same time, in general, studies of psychological defense in adolescents are fragmented and fragmentary. As a result, to clarify this fragmentation, which exists in the information about the psychological protection of adolescents, a pilot study was conducted. The main purpose of the study is indicative. The data obtained are supposed to be considered as the basis for organizing the main study aimed at resolving the question of what exactly may cause the appearance of certain protective mechanisms in adolescents.

During the study, the following tasks were solved:

1) determine the general level of psychological protection in adolescents, including taking into account the gender factor;

2) identify specific types of operations (protective mechanisms) characteristic of teenage boys and teenage girls;

3) to characterize the dynamics of maintaining intrapersonal balance by adolescents through protective mechanisms.

The study involved 478 people:

- 12 years - 127 people (girls - 64; boys - 63);

- 13 years old - 138 people (girls - 75; boys - 63);

- 14 years - 213 people (girls - 113; boys - 100).

The hypothesis tested in the study was an assumption about the presence of differences in psychological protection in adolescents of different sexes and at different age intervals in the following parameters:

- dominant defense mechanisms;

— frequency of use of protective mechanisms.

To solve the tasks set in the study and test the formulated hypothesis, a standardized conversation and R. Plutchik's Life Style Index test (Life Style Index) adapted by L.R. Grebennikov were used.

The author's version of the questionnaire "Life Style Index" was developed by R. Plutchik, G. Kellerman and G. Conte in 1979 on the basis of ideas about the relationship of specific emotions with specific ego-protective mechanisms. The basis for creating the questionnaire is the psychoevolutionary theory of R. Plutchik and the structural theory of personality of G. Kellerman, which asserted the existence of a specific network of relationships between different levels of personality - the level of emotions, protection and disposition (hereditary predisposition to mental illness).

According to the views of G. Kellerman and R. Plutchik, emotions and defense mechanisms are reactions of functional adaptation designed to establish some kind of social balance. This means that the emotion-protection dyad enters into any social transaction and helps to establish a balance of opposing forces. Such balances are always temporary and often change as you move through life from one situation to another. Thus, in their works, the authors proceed from the concept of the normal use of psychological defenses as a special mechanism (operating on the principle of negative feedback). It is believed that the inclusion of such a mechanism has the resulting effect in the form of a weakening of an excessively intense emotional reaction in order to preserve one's self-image, on the one hand, and on the other hand, in order to maintain socially adequate relations.

As already mentioned, the concept considers eight basic emotions inherent in all people, as conservative ways of behaving in specific, constantly recurring situations, and their corresponding eight options for psychological protection. These eight emotions are combined according to the principle of bipolarity in four pairs:

- fear - anger;

- joy - sadness;

- acceptance - rejection;

- expectation - surprise.

Similarly, the qualities of polarity exhibit eight basic defense mechanisms:

- suppression - substitution;

- reactive formation - compensation;

- projection - denial;

- intellectualization - regression.

- suppression - the exclusion from the consciousness of any idea or personal experience and the emotions associated with them;

- substitution - the discharge of emotion (usually the emotion of anger) on objects, animals or people perceived by the individual as less dangerous than those that really cause anger;

- reactive formation - prevention of the manifestation of unacceptable desires, especially sexual and aggressive ones, due to the development of attitudes and behaviors that are opposite to these desires;

- compensation - intensive attempts to correct or somehow make up for one's own real or imagined physical or mental inferiority;

- projection - unconscious rejection of one's own emotionally unacceptable thoughts, attitudes or desires and attributing them to other people;

- denial - insufficient awareness of certain co-existences, experiences and sensations that would cause pain to a person if they were recognized;

- intellectualization - unconscious control over emotions and impulses due to their pronounced dependence on the rational interpretation of the situation;

- regression - return under stress to ontogenetically earlier or less mature types of behavior.

In addition, the authors adhere to the position that usually an individual, having the opportunity to use a combination of protective mechanisms, trusts very specific protections. For example, a person with high self-control will most often use intellectualization as the main defense mechanism.

Taking into account this theoretical model, a questionnaire was compiled that determines the severity of the leading protective mechanisms. At the same time, the authors substantiated the possibility of their measurement using a questionnaire. So, despite the fact that defense mechanisms develop ontogenetically in the area of the unconscious, their use does not have to remain completely unconscious. Many people, both with the help of a psychotherapist and through their own life experience, manage to distinguish their typical defensive reactions. In addition, most people can be accountable for their own feelings and can also describe behaviors that reflect their own defense mechanisms. What they cannot explain is the dynamic mechanism of such behavior.

The studies conducted by the authors on different clinical groups of subjects to obtain normative data and differences confirmed the good diagnostic capabilities of the technique. However, when analyzing the questionnaire in our country, it turned out that it has a number of criticisms, one of which is related to its further verification. At the same time, many researchers recognize it as the most successful tool that allows diagnosing the entire system of psychological defense mechanisms. (It was with its help that most of the studies discussed above were carried out.) Therefore, Russian researchers made various attempts to adapt and standardize it. As a result, with its help, on the Russian sample, it becomes possible to determine both the overall severity of psychological defense and the severity of each protective mechanism separately.

For the purposes of our study, we used the adaptation developed by JI.P. Grebennikov. However, this option was also subjected to some processing on our part. In particular, we removed from the questionnaire a statement that, in our opinion, could pose a danger to the perception of it by adolescent children (statement: I happened to think about suicide).

Data processing was carried out using keys, separate for each protection mechanism. Then, according to the formula, the coefficient of the total tension of each protection was determined:

- where n is the number of positive responses on the scale of this protection, N is the number of all statements related to the scale. Next, a statistical analysis of the obtained data was carried out.

The results of the study of psychological protection in adolescents obtained in the study are presented in Table. 1-3.

Table 1

Median values of defense mechanisms and their differences in adolescent boys at different age intervals

	boys

Projection
Intellectualization		5 .8
Negation		5.4
substitution
Regression
suppression
Compensation
Jet formation

NOTE: Significantly significant differences between boys aged 12 and 14 are in bold, p<0.05, достоверно значимые различия между мальчиками 13 и 14 лет отмечены подчеркиванием, р < 0.05, достовер-но значимые различия между мальчиками 12 и 13 лет отмечены *, р<0.05

From Table. Table 1 shows that adolescent boys are characterized by a fairly wide range of analyzed defense mechanisms. Adhering to the point of view of the influence of psychological protection on the entire process of child development, it can be stated that no obstacles to normal development have been found in adolescents. The logic of reasoning is as follows: development, as a rule, is hindered by rigid defense mechanisms. Rigid defense mechanisms, in turn, develop due to the presence of persistent anxiety. Persistent anxiety is an indicator of personality problems. The presence of a large repertoire of defense mechanisms indicates that adolescents have a wide range of ways that protect them from experiencing anxiety. It turns out that a teenager can, in fact, “pick up” the necessary protection for each traumatic case. Under such conditions, there will be no obstacles to normal development on the part of psychological defense.

At the same time, against the background of a wide range of protective mechanisms, it is impossible not to notice the presence of clear preferences among adolescent boys in the use of certain protective mechanisms. We are talking about a significant dominance of projection and intellectualization in boys at all age intervals (12, 13, 14 years). At the same time, the frequency of using the projection does not change with age. There is a downward trend in the use of intellectualization.

In addition, distinct differences were found in adolescent boys when analyzing the profiles of their defense mechanisms. We are talking about the fact that by the age of 14, the activity of protective mechanisms in boys is significantly reduced. Reliably significant differences in comparison with the age of 12 years are noted in the mechanisms of intellectualization, denial, compensation and reactive formation. In comparison with the age of 13 years, differences are observed in the mechanisms of intellectualization, denial and compensation. The picture looks different only in relation to the substitution mechanism: the frequency of using substitution by the age of 14 increases significantly.

Similar results were obtained for the group of adolescent girls (Table 2). Thus, a statistical analysis of the data showed that the profile of the protective mechanisms of 14-year-old girls differs significantly from the profiles of the protective mechanisms of girls at other stages of adolescence. The differences found are expressed in a decrease by the age of 14 in the actualization of such protective mechanisms as projection, intellectualization, denial, and reactive formation. A clear preference for teenage girls is projection and intellectualization (mainly projection).

table 2

Median values of defense mechanisms and differences between them in adolescent girls at different age intervals



Projection			6 .9
Intellectualization			5.8
Negation			5.4
substitution
Regression
suppression
Compensation
Jet formation

NOTE: Significantly significant differences between girls aged 12 and 14 are in bold, p< 0.05, достоверно значимые различия между девочками 13 и 14 лет отмечены подчеркиванием, р < 0.05.

At the same time, the identified specificity is typical for girls in all age segments of adolescence. Thus, on the basis of the data obtained, it can be concluded that there are age-specific features in the action of the psychological protection of adolescents. First of all, protective mechanisms dominant in adolescents, such as projection and intellectualization, were discovered. Presumably, they represent the norm of adolescent development. In other words, the manifestation of projection and intellectualization in the behavior of adolescents does not imply the presence of mental abnormalities or pathology. In addition, it was found that in the course of growing up, the use of psychological defense by adolescents is significantly reduced.

An analysis of the possible relationship between gender and defense mechanisms in adolescents is presented in Table. 3. The data obtained clearly demonstrate that the age of the largest number of differences in terms of the sex factor is the age of 13 years. The differences here are found in five mechanisms: intellectualization, projection, substitution, regression, suppression. At the same time, in girls, in comparison with boys, at this age, the protective mechanisms of projection, reactive formation, and regression are most pronounced, in boys, substitution and suppression. At the age of 12, the differences are expressed in the predominance of the mechanism of suppression in boys compared to girls, and in girls - the mechanisms of projection and regression. At the age of 14, significantly significant differences are found in boys in terms of the frequency of using the substitution mechanism, in girls — reactive formation and regression.

Table 3

Median values of defense mechanisms of adolescent girls and boys and differences between them

	boys

Projection
Intellectualization
Negation
substitution
Regression
suppression
Compensation
Jet formation

NOTE: Significantly significant differences between girls and boys aged 12 are in bold, p< 0.05, достоверно значимые различия между девочками и мальчиками 13 лет обозначены подчеркивани-ем, р < 0.05, достоверно значимые различия между девочками и мальчиками 14 лет отмечены *, р < 0.05.

The study showed that representatives of both sexes use, to a greater or lesser extent, the entire gamut of protective mechanisms. However, individual mechanisms have different meanings for boys and girls. Noticeable sex differences were found in adolescents in the predominant use by girls of such mechanisms as projection, regression, and reactive formation, and by boys, substitution and suppression.

According to the coefficient of the overall severity of psychological protection, there are no gender differences in adolescents (Table 5). Reliably significant differences exist between the age intervals of 12 and 14, as well as 13 and 14 years, which confirms the previously discovered trend towards a decrease in protective activity in adolescents.

Table 4

The values of the overall severity of psychological protection in boys and girls of adolescence

NOTE: Significantly significant differences between girls aged 12 and 14 and boys aged 12 and 14 are in bold, p< 0.05, достоверно значимые различия между девочками 13 и 14 лет и мальчиками 13 и 14 лет от-мечены *, р < 0.05.

Thus, the hypothesis stated in the study is confirmed. In particular, the presence of age-specific features in the use of certain protective mechanisms is confirmed. It follows from the data obtained that the norm for adolescents is the frequent use of such defenses as projection and intellectualization, and a decrease in protective activity in the course of age development. However, we can talk about this only at the level of trends, since all the studied mechanisms are expressed in adolescents approximately equally (boys: from min = 3 to max = 6.9; girls: from min = 4 to max = 7.7 ). Nevertheless, the revealed fact is very indicative, if only because it does not clearly contradict the results obtained by other researchers.

The presence of sexual dimorphism in the use of defenses by adolescents is also recognized. The results of the study state the presence of specific patterns of typically "male" and typically "female" defenses. Thus, adolescent girls used projection, regression, and reactive formation more often than boys, and the frequency of substitution and suppression is higher among boys than among girls.

An analysis of the relevant literature, which considers general issues of the relationship between gender differences and personality, suggests that the established differences may be associated with the innate characteristics of the emotional and mental organization of men and women. This means that a man is initially presented as an active principle, the energy of which is most of all directed outward. At the same time, a man is more restrained in the manifestation of emotions and is extremely stingy with their diversity. In contrast to men, women are more receptive and tend to adapt to the world around them, as well as emotionally more expressive. In addition, we should not forget that already from birth, parents do not raise a child in general, but a boy or a girl with their inherent psychological differences in worldview, attitude to the environment, mastering skills and abilities, development of the cognitive sphere, emotionality. In the process of upbringing, they stimulate the correspondence of the child's behavior to his gender role, explaining to him: "You are a boy, and boys do not cry", "You are a girl, and girls do not fight." As a result, from the very first moment, boys are expected to behave more harshly and aggressively. This is in good agreement with the data on the predominance of defense mechanisms of suppression and substitution in boys compared to girls.

Gender stereotypes of female behavior are mainly based on the desire for security, so from the beginning, everything new is expected from a girl only bad things. In addition, in female identity, the feeling of happiness and self-esteem are quite strongly dependent on physical attractiveness. As a result, signs of uneven somatic transformations, accompanied by a hormonal storm, are perceived by girls as a huge disaster. Because of this, girls try to hide the changes that occur, for which they use a variety of tricks: they stoop to hide their height, wear a loose sweater so that the emerging breasts are not visible, etc. It is easy to assume that such features of female identity can act a decisive factor for more frequent use by girls of such protective mechanisms as regression and reactive formation.

Ultimately, the data presented above (see Tables 1-4) determine the age interval of the greatest protective activity in adolescents - the age of 12 years. It is quite remarkable that the literary sources that consider general issues of adolescent development emphasize the high significance of this age segment for adolescents. At the same time, in the literature, this significance concerns primarily girls, and its main criterion is the appearance of signs of pubertal development. The data obtained in our study do not reveal gender differences in significance for adolescents aged 12 years. Consequently, there can be no grounds for any deep conclusions. Moreover, the results were obtained using the cross-sectional method, which means that there was a possibility that the revealed fact could be determined to some extent by the characteristics of the sample. Meanwhile, it is quite possible to state the need for a more detailed study of the manifestation of the psychological defense of adolescents, especially taking into account the process of their puberty, under such conditions.

In a broader sense, based on the results of the study carried out using the methodology of R. Plutchik, one can draw a conclusion about the adaptive nature of the psychological defense of adolescents. The basis for this conclusion is the information available in the literature that various pathological problems "arise only in cases where there is a lack of more mature psychological skills or when these defenses are persistently used to exclude possible others." Meanwhile, a normal subject is “one that has “good” defenses, i.e. varied enough to make the play of drives possible without suppressing the id and given reality, not disturbing the superego, allowing the ego to constantly enrich itself in mature enough to allow exchange and satisfaction at a truly genital level of elaboration, relations with others. Accordingly, the results of our study clearly demonstrate that adolescents use a fairly wide range of defense mechanisms, including not only primitive, but also mature defenses, which, in turn, indicates the adaptive nature of the psychological defense of adolescents.

Thus, in adolescence, a wide variety of defense mechanisms take place, the set of which since the time of A. Freud (asceticism and intellectualism) has expanded significantly. Undoubtedly, this conclusion is of great importance for clarifying the characteristics of development in adolescence, since in cases where a person has a sufficiently large repertoire of defense mechanisms, in each case she can “pick up” one that will effectively protect her from experiences, not hindering normal development. However, the available data do not remove the question of what causes psychological defense mechanisms in adolescents.

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Other interesting materials:

Introduction

Adolescence is a special, critical period. It is at this age that an active process of personality formation takes place, its complication, a change in the hierarchy of needs. This period is important for solving the problems of self-determination and choosing a life path. The solution of such complex issues is significantly complicated in the absence of an adequate perception of information, which may be due to the active inclusion of psychological defense as a reaction to anxiety, tension and uncertainty. The study and understanding of the mechanisms of unconscious self-regulation in modern adolescents is an important condition for facilitating the solution of the problem of self-determination at this age.

Psychological protection in adolescents

Defense mechanisms begin to operate when the achievement of the goal is impossible in a normal way. Experiences that are inconsistent with a person's self-image tend to be kept out of consciousness. There can be either a distortion of the perceived, or its denial, or forgetting. Considering the attitude of the individual to the group, it is important for the team to take into account the influence of psychological protection on behavior. Protection is a kind of filter that turns on when there is a significant discrepancy between the assessments of one's act or the actions of loved ones.

When a person has received unpleasant information, he can react to it in various ways: reduce their significance, deny facts that seem obvious to others, forget "inconvenient" information. According to L.I. Antsyferova, psychological defense is intensified when, in an attempt to transform a traumatic situation, all resources and reserves turn out to be almost exhaustive. Then protective self-regulation occupies a central place in human behavior, and he refuses constructive activity.

With the deterioration of the material and social situation of the majority of citizens of our country, the problem of psychological protection becomes more and more urgent. The stressful situation causes a significant decrease in the sense of security of a person on the part of society. The deterioration of living conditions leads to the fact that adolescents suffer from a lack of communication with adults and hostility from the people around them. The difficulties that arise practically leave parents neither time nor energy to find out and understand the problems of their child. The emerging alienation is painful for both parents and their children. Activation of psychological defense reduces the accumulated tension, transforming incoming information to maintain internal balance.

The action of psychological defense mechanisms in cases of disagreement can lead to the inclusion of a teenager in various groups. Such protection, contributing to the adaptation of a person to his inner world and mental state, can cause social maladaptation.

"Psychological defense is a special regulative system for stabilizing the personality, aimed at eliminating or minimizing the feeling of anxiety associated with the awareness of the conflict." The function of psychological protection is the "protection" of the sphere of consciousness from negative experiences that traumatize the personality. As long as the information coming from outside does not diverge from the person's idea of the world around him, about himself, he does not feel discomfort. But as soon as any mismatch is outlined, a person faces a problem: either change the ideal idea of himself, or somehow process the information received. It is when choosing the latter strategy that psychological defense mechanisms begin to operate. According to R.M. Granovskaya, with the accumulation of life experience, a special system of protective psychological barriers is formed in a person, which protects him from information that violates his internal balance.

A common feature of all types of psychological defense is that it can be judged only by indirect manifestations. The subject is aware of only some of the stimuli affecting him, which have passed through the so-called significance filter, and the behavior is also reflected in what was perceived in an unconscious way.

Information that poses a danger to a person of various kinds, that is, to a different extent threatening his idea of himself, is not equally censored. The most dangerous one is already rejected at the level of perception, the less dangerous one is perceived and then partially transformed. The less incoming information threatens to disrupt the picture of the human world, the deeper it moves from the sensory input to the motor output, and the less it changes along the way. There are many classifications of psychological protection. There is no single classification of psychological defense mechanisms (MPM), although there are many attempts to group them on various grounds.

Purpose: to acquaint teachers with the features of the mechanisms of psychological protection of adolescents.

History reference

Z. Freud	He was the first to introduce the concept of “psychic defense mechanism” (1894). Defense mechanisms are innate: they are launched in an extreme situation and perform the function of "removing internal conflict.
V.M. Banshchikov	special cases of the relationship of the patient's personality to a traumatic situation or an illness that struck him.
V.F. Bassin V.E. Rozhnov	Psychological defense is a mental activity aimed at spontaneous elimination of the consequences of a mental trauma.
R.A. Zachepitsky	Psychological defense - passive-defensive forms of response in a pathogenic life situation.
I.V. thin-legged	Psychological defense is a way of processing information in the brain, blocking threatening information.
V.A. Tashlykov	Psychological defense is a mechanism for adaptive restructuring of perception and evaluation, acting in cases where a person cannot adequately assess the feeling of anxiety caused by an internal or external conflict and cannot cope with stress.
V.S. Rotenberg	Psychological defense is a mechanism that maintains the integrity of consciousness.
V.N. Tsapkin	Psychological defense - ways of representing a distorted meaning.

Psychological protection is a system of processes and mechanisms aimed at preserving the once achieved (or restoring the lost) positive state of the subject.

Classification of psychological defense mechanisms

Among modern researchers there is no consensus on the number of known defense mechanisms on this issue. A. Freud's monograph describes fifteen mechanisms. In the Dictionary of Psychiatry published by the American Psychiatric Association in 1975, twenty-three. B. A. Marshanin gives the following typology of psychological defenses:

I Classification

Protective (primitive, immature, simpler).

The goal is to prevent information from entering consciousness:

split(insulation);
projection(transfer);
negation;
identification.

Definitive - more mature.

The goal is to allow information into consciousness, distorting it:

sublimation;
rationalization;
altruism;
humor.

II Classification

Psychological defense mechanisms that reduce the level of anxiety, but do not change the nature of urges:

crowding out(suppression);
projection(transfer);
identification;
cancellation(cancel);
insulation(split);
inhibition(blocking in behavior and consciousness).

Psychological defense mechanisms that reduce the level of anxiety, but change the nature of urges:

auto-aggression (turning hostility on yourself);

reversion (change of impulses and feelings to the opposite ones);

regression;

sublimation.

During adolescence, complex biosocial processes take place. Adolescents experience a pronounced effect of emotional stress. In this regard, adolescence is often viewed as a phase of unique developmental stress. Stresses associated with physical and psychological changes in puberty are highly pronounced. Adolescents are more sensitive to stress than older people, more sensitive to various life events and changes. The very awareness by a teenager of the changes taking place with him in puberty is stressful and creates internal uncertainty, mobilizes defense mechanisms. Adolescents protect themselves from the stressful, negative influence of the social environment.

Description of the mechanisms of psychological defense of adolescents.

Name	Characteristic	Possible reasons
Immature mechanisms
Passive protest	Removal from communication with loved ones, refusal to fulfill various requests from adults.	Feels like a hindrance in the life of parents, there is a big distance in relations with parents.
Opposition	Active protest against the demands of adults, harsh statements addressed to them, systematic deceit.	A reaction to a lack of love from loved ones and a call to return it.
Emancipation	The struggle for self-affirmation, independence, release from the control of adults.	Dictatorship of parents and other adults.
Projection	A person attributes his own negative qualities, inclinations, relationships to another person.	The relationship of the child with the parents.
Negation	Denies the existence of trouble or tries to reduce the severity of the threat	Suppression of fear.
Identification	Identifies himself with another person, transfers the desired feelings and qualities to himself.	Increased anxiety.
Cancellation	Repeated action deprives the value of the previous one that caused the alarm.	The reasons lie in the psyche of childhood.
Insulation	The separation of one part of his personality from another part of his own personality, which suits him perfectly.	Psychological trauma in early childhood.
Intellectualization	An attempt to escape from an emotionally threatening situation by discussing it in a detached way in abstract, intellectualized terms.	Lack of social contacts.
self-restraint	He withdraws from communication with loved ones, from food, from games, refuses to perform the required actions, contemplating the activities of another, or seeks to run away.	Tactless, mocking remarks of others, first of all, significant people.
Regression	Return to primitive, early childhood-related responses and behaviors.	With some mental illnesses.
mature mechanisms
Sublimation	Translation of unacceptable desires and forms of behavior into socially approved ones.	Desire to find a meaningful form of activity.
Rationalization	A defensive process consisting in the fact that a person invents verbal, and at first glance logical judgments and conclusions to falsely justify his actions.	Fear of losing self-respect.
Altruism	Constructive activity in relation to others, in which pleasure and help are given to the other.	Thus, a signal is given that he wants to receive.
Humor	Open expression of feelings without discomfort and unpleasant impact on others.	Tolerates unpleasant things until the situation can be changed.
crowding out	Removal from consciousness of those moments, information that cause anxiety.	Excessive demands of adults.

“We don't tell educators, do it one way or another; we say to them: study the laws of those mental phenomena that you want to control, and act in accordance with these laws and the circumstances in which you want to apply them. Not only are these circumstances infinitely varied, but the very natures of the pupils do not resemble one another. With such a variety of circumstances in the upbringing of educated individuals, is it possible to prescribe any general educational recipes? (K.D. Ushinsky)

“The method of education does not allow for stereotyped decisions and even a good template.” ( A.S. Makarenko)

Literature.

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