What does classification mean. What is a classification? Political Science: Dictionary Reference

1) Classification- (from lat. classis - category, group and facere - delat) - eng. classification; German classification. 1. A system of subordinate concepts (classes, objects, phenomena) in a particular branch of knowledge or human activity, compiled on the basis of taking into account the common features of objects and regular relationships between them, which allows you to navigate in a variety of objects and is a source of knowledge about them. 2. Distribution of c.-l. objects by classes (departments, categories) on the basis of their common features, similarities and differences, reflecting the links between classes of objects in a single system of a given branch of knowledge.

2) Classification- (from Latin classis - category, group and facere - to do) - 1. A system of subordinate concepts (classes, objects, phenomena) in a particular branch of knowledge or human activity, compiled on the basis of taking into account the common features of objects and regular relationships between them , which allows you to navigate in the variety of objects and is a source of knowledge about them. 2. Distribution of c.-l. objects by classes (departments, categories) on the basis of their common features, similarities and differences, reflecting the links between classes of objects in a single system of a given branch of knowledge.

3) Classification- - the process of organizing empirical data and bringing them to generalized concepts (categories, classes, subcategories) for the subsequent identification of formal relationships between them.

4) Classification - (lat. classis - category, class and facio - I do, lay out) - a multi-stage division of the logical volume of a concept (logic) or any set of units (empirical social knowledge) into a system of subordinate concepts or classes of objects (genus - species - subspecies) . K. - a way of organizing an empirical array of information. The purpose of K. is the establishment of a certain structure of order, a normative-dimensional ordering of a set, which is divided into heteronomous with respect to each other, but homogeneous within themselves according to some attribute, separated from each other subsets. With K., each element of the totality must fall into one or another subset. Thus, the goal of K. is to determine the place in the system of any unit (object), and thereby establish the presence of certain connections between them. The subject, who owns the key (criterion) of K., gets the opportunity to navigate in the variety of concepts and (and) objects. K. always reflects the level of knowledge available at a given point in time, summarizes it, as it were, gives its "topological map". On the other hand, K. allows you to detect gaps in existing knowledge, to serve as the basis for diagnostic and prognostic procedures. In the so-called descriptive science, K. acted as the result (goal) of knowledge (systematics in biology, attempts to classify sciences on various grounds, etc.), and further development was presented as its improvement or the proposal of a new K. Thus, the term "K. " is used both to denote a specified procedure and to denote its result. Distinguish natural and artificial to. depending on essentiality of a sign which is put in its basis. Natural to. suggest finding a significant criterion for distinguishing, artificial can be built in principle on the basis of any feature. Variants of artificial symbols are various auxiliary symbols, such as alphabetical indexes, and so on. In addition, there are theoretical (in particular, genetic) and empirical K. The latter have found wide application, in particular, in sociology. The goal of empirical K. is the same, but the criterion itself is often problematic, and in many respects its establishment can be the goal of empirical K. In it, they tend to divide the entire set of units under study into homogeneous groups, which are then assigned one or another "label" subject to meaningful filling in the processes of interpretation according to a detected (or predetermined) statistical (purely formal) criterion. In this case, the set is considered homogeneous if all values of the considered attribute are the values of the same random variable. Empirical K. is sometimes preceded by data grouping procedures. Sociology considers the procedure of zoning (spatio-temporal division for the subsequent representative choice of objects of study) as a special type of categorization in sociology. K., especially empirical ones, are often considered as a step towards the creation of substantiated typologies. In contrast to K., typology singles out homogeneous sets, each of which is a modification of the same quality (essential, "root" feature, more precisely, the "idea" of this set). Naturally, in contrast to the sign of K., the "idea" of typology is far from visual, outwardly manifested and detectable. K. is weaker than typology, connected with the content, but the class of natural K. must have a meaning corresponding to the level of knowledge at the moment, and have its own essential properties. On the whole, natural k. is always typology to one degree or another and is capable of solving substantive problems. V.L. Abushenko

5) Classification- (classification) - 1. An attempt to determine the types of social structure that occur regularly: societies, organizations, relationships. In biology, the classification of animals and plants, which has sometimes been used as a model for sociological classification, has developed along two main lines: (a) the Linnaean classification (synchronous) of mutually exclusive possibilities; (b) an evolutionary (diachronic) sequence representing evolutionary relationships. Although purists may argue that all individual phenomena are distinct and never exactly identical, the purpose of a classification is to group all individual occurrences of a phenomenon whose similarities and differences from other types of phenomena are such as to justify classification for certain theoretical purposes. See also Taxonomy. 2. (Sociology of education) defining the boundaries between different forms of human knowledge. It is used in the preparation of curricula or to identify various areas of activity. This term is the key concept of Bernstein's theory of codes of knowledge.

Classification

(from lat. classis - category, group and facere - delat) - English. classification; German classification. 1. A system of subordinate concepts (classes, objects, phenomena) in a particular branch of knowledge or human activity, compiled on the basis of taking into account the common features of objects and regular relationships between them, which allows you to navigate in a variety of objects and is a source of knowledge about them. 2. Distribution of c.-l. objects by classes (departments, categories) on the basis of their common features, similarities and differences, reflecting the links between classes of objects in a single system of a given branch of knowledge.

(from Latin classis - category, group and facere - to do) - 1. A system of subordinate concepts (classes, objects, phenomena) in a particular branch of knowledge or human activity, compiled on the basis of taking into account the common features of objects and regular relationships between them, allowing to navigate in the variety of objects and being a source of knowledge about them. 2. Distribution of c.-l. objects by classes (departments, categories) on the basis of their common features, similarities and differences, reflecting the links between classes of objects in a single system of a given branch of knowledge.

The process of organizing empirical data and bringing them to generalized concepts (categories, classes, subcategories) for the subsequent identification of formal relationships between them.

(lat. classis - category, class and facio - I do, lay out) - a multi-stage division of the logical volume of a concept (logic) or any set of units (empirical social knowledge) into a system of subordinate concepts or classes of objects (genus - species - subspecies). K. - a way of organizing an empirical array of information. The purpose of K. is the establishment of a certain structure of order, a normative-dimensional ordering of a set, which is divided into heteronomous with respect to each other, but homogeneous within themselves according to some attribute, separated from each other subsets. With K., each element of the totality must fall into one or another subset. Thus, the goal of K. is to determine the place in the system of any unit (object), and thereby establish the presence of certain connections between them. The subject, who owns the key (criterion) of K., gets the opportunity to navigate in the variety of concepts and (and) objects. K. always reflects the level of knowledge available at a given point in time, summarizes it, as it were, gives its "topological map". On the other hand, K. allows you to detect gaps in existing knowledge, to serve as the basis for diagnostic and prognostic procedures. In the so-called descriptive science, K. acted as the result (goal) of knowledge (systematics in biology, attempts to classify sciences on various grounds, etc.), and further development was presented as its improvement or the proposal of a new K. Thus, the term "K. " is used both to denote a specified procedure and to denote its result. Distinguish natural and artificial to. depending on essentiality of a sign which is put in its basis. Natural to. suggest finding a significant criterion for distinguishing, artificial can be built in principle on the basis of any feature. Variants of artificial symbols are various auxiliary symbols, such as alphabetical indexes, and so on. In addition, there are theoretical (in particular, genetic) and empirical K. The latter have found wide application, in particular, in sociology. The goal of empirical K. is the same, but the criterion itself is often problematic, and in many respects its establishment can be the goal of empirical K. In it, they tend to divide the entire set of units under study into homogeneous groups, which are then assigned one or another "label" subject to meaningful filling in the processes of interpretation according to a detected (or predetermined) statistical (purely formal) criterion. In this case, the set is considered homogeneous if all values of the considered attribute are the values of the same random variable. Empirical K. is sometimes preceded by data grouping procedures. Sociology considers the procedure of zoning (spatio-temporal division for the subsequent representative choice of objects of study) as a special type of categorization in sociology. K., especially empirical ones, are often considered as a step towards the creation of substantiated typologies. In contrast to K., typology singles out homogeneous sets, each of which is a modification of the same quality (essential, "root" feature, more precisely, the "idea" of this set). Naturally, in contrast to the sign of K., the "idea" of typology is far from visual, outwardly manifested and detectable. K. is weaker than typology, connected with the content, but the class of natural K. must have a meaning corresponding to the level of knowledge at the moment, and have its own essential properties. On the whole, natural k. is always typology to one degree or another and is capable of solving substantive problems. V.L. Abushenko

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1. Classification signs and corresponding to the classes of systems.

Classification of systems.

Classification is the distribution of a certain set of objects into classes according to the most significant features. The requirements for building a classification are as follows:

in the same classification, the same basis must be applied;

the volume of elements of the classified population should be equal to the volume of elements of all formed classes;

members of the classification (formed classes) must mutually exclude each other, that is, they must be non-overlapping;

division into classes (for multi-stage classifications) should be continuous, that is, when moving from one level of the hierarchy to another, it is necessary to take the next class for research, the closest in the hierarchical structure of the system.

In accordance with these requirements, the classification of systems provides for dividing them into two types - abstract and material (Fig. 1).

Material systems are objects of real time. Among the variety of material systems, there are natural and artificial systems.

Natural systems are a set of objects of nature, and artificial systems are a set of socio-economic or technical objects.

Natural systems, in turn, are divided into astrocosmic and planetary, physical and chemical.

Artificial systems can be classified according to several criteria, the main of which is the role of a person in the system. On this basis, two classes of systems can be distinguished: technical and organizational-economic systems.

The functioning of technical systems is based on the processes performed by machines, and the functioning of organizational and economic systems is based on the processes performed by human-machine complexes.

Abstract systems are a speculative representation of images or models of material systems, which are divided into descriptive (logical) and symbolic (mathematical).

Logical systems are the result of a deductive or inductive representation of material systems. They can be considered as systems of concepts and definitions (a set of ideas) about the structure, about the main laws of states and about the dynamics of material systems.

Symbolic systems are a formalization of logical systems, they are divided into three classes:

static mathematical systems or models, which can be considered as a description by means of the mathematical apparatus of the state of material systems (state equations);

dynamic mathematical systems or models, which can be considered as a mathematical formalization of the processes of material (or abstract) systems;

quasi-static (quasi-dynamic) systems that are in an unstable position between statics and dynamics, which, with some interactions, behave as static, and with others, as dynamic.

However, other classifications of systems exist in the literature.

Large systems. A large system is understood as a set of material resources, means of collecting, transmitting and processing information, human operators involved in the maintenance of these funds, and human managers who are vested with the appropriate rights and responsibilities for making decisions. Large systems are systems that are not observed at the same time from the position of one observer, either in time or in space.

Examples of large systems: information system; passenger transport of a large city; manufacturing process; flight control system of a large airfield; energy system, etc.

The characteristic features of large systems include the following:

the large size of the system, that is, a large number of parts and elements, inputs and outputs, a variety of functions performed;

relationship and interaction between elements;

purposefulness and controllability of the system, the presence of a common goal and purpose for the entire system, set and adjusted in systems of higher levels;

a complex hierarchical structure of the organization of the system, providing for a combination of centralized control with the autonomy of subsystems;

integrity and complexity of behavior: complex, intertwining relationships among variables, including feedback loops, cause a change in one to change many other variables.

In order to obtain the necessary knowledge about a large object, the observer sequentially examines it in parts, building its subsystems. Then he moves to a higher level, to the next level of the hierarchy and, considering the subsystems already as objects, builds a single system for them. If the set of subsystems again turns out to be too large to be able to build a general system out of them, then the procedure is repeated, and the observer moves to the next level of the hierarchy, and so on.

Each of the subsystems of one level is described by the same language, and when moving to the next level, the observer uses a metalanguage, which is an extension of the first level language by means of describing the properties of this language itself.

If the researcher proceeds from observing a real object, then a large system is created by composition - composing it from small subsystems described by one language.

The operation opposite to composition is the decomposition of a large system, that is, its division into subsystems. It is carried out in order to extract new valuable information from the knowledge of the system as a whole, which cannot be obtained in any other way. An important conceptual tool of system analysis is the hierarchy of subsystems in a large system. Consideration of systems in a hierarchy makes it possible to reveal their new properties.

The size of a large system can be measured by various criteria: by the number of subsystems; by the number of steps in the hierarchy of subsystems.

Complex systems. Complex systems are systems that cannot be composed of some subsystems. This is equivalent to:

the observer consistently changes his position in relation to the object and observes it from different sides;

different observers examine the object from different angles.

Each of the observers selects a subset of transparent materials that meet his requirements and criteria. In the area of intersection of subsets selected by all observers, the meta-observer selects the only material, working in a metalanguage that combines the concepts of all lower-level languages and describes their properties and relationships.

The concept of complexity is one of the fundamental in system analysis. Systems analysis is a research strategy that takes complexity as an essential, inherent property of objects and shows how valuable information can be extracted by approaching it from the perspective of complex systems. According to the American researcher Russell Akkof, simplicity is not set at the beginning of the study, but if it can be found at all, then it is found as a result of the study.

So, a complex system is a system built to solve a multi-purpose problem; a system that reflects various incomparable aspects of the characteristics of an object; a system that requires the use of several languages to describe; a system that includes an interconnected complex of different models.

The English cybernetician S. Beer classifies all systems into simple and complex depending on the method of description: deterministic or probabilistic. AI Berg defines a complex system as a system that can be described in at least two different mathematical languages (for example, using the theory of differential equations and Boolean algebra).

Very often, complex systems are called systems that cannot be correctly described mathematically, either because the system has a very large number of elements that are connected to each other in an unknown way, or the nature of the phenomena occurring in the system is unknown. All this indicates the absence of a single definition of the complexity of the system.

When developing complex systems, problems arise that relate not only to the properties of their constituent elements and subsystems, but also to the laws of the functioning of the system as a whole. In this case, a wide range of specific tasks appears, such as determining the general structure of the system; organization of interaction between elements and subsystems; taking into account the influence of the external environment; selection of optimal modes of system functioning; optimal system control, etc.

The more complex the system, the more attention is paid to the above issues. The mathematical basis for the study of complex systems is the theory of systems. In systems theory, a system is called a large complex system, a large scale system, if it consists of a large number of interconnected and interacting elements and is capable of performing complex functions.

There is no clear boundary separating simple systems from large ones. This division is conditional and arose due to the emergence of systems that have in their composition a set of subsystems with the presence of functional redundancy. A simple system can only be in two states: a state of health (healthy) and a state of failure (faulty). When an element fails, a simple system either completely stops performing its function, or continues its execution in full, if the failed element is redundant. In case of failure of individual elements and even entire subsystems, a large system does not always lose its operability, often only its efficiency characteristics decrease. This property of large systems is due to their functional redundancy and, in turn, makes it difficult to formulate the concept of "failure" of the system.

Obviously, large and complex systems are actually two ways of decomposing a problem into its components or, accordingly, building a system model in a different way. This method has become so widespread that the concepts of goal and criterion in some areas of technology and operations research have become synonymous.

Dynamic systems. Dynamic systems are constantly changing systems. Any change that occurs in a dynamic system is called a process. It is sometimes defined as the transformation of the input to the output of the system.

If a system can have only one behavior, then it is called a deterministic system.

Probabilistic system. A probabilistic system is a system whose behavior can be predicted with a certain degree of probability based on the study of its past behavior.

Control systems. Control systems are systems with the help of which control processes in technical, biological and social systems are studied. The central concept here is information - a means of influencing the system. The control system makes it possible to simplify the hard-to-understand control processes to the maximum in order to solve the problems of design research.

Purposeful systems. Purposeful systems are systems that have purposefulness, that is, control of the system and bringing it to a certain behavior or state, compensating for external disturbances. Achieving the goal in most cases is probabilistic.

To compile a classification of systems, various classification features can be used. Table 1 shows an example of the classification of systems using the main classification features used in system analysis.

Classification of systems according to features

Classification features	System classes
By interaction with the external environment	open Closed Combined
By structure
By the nature of the functions	Specialized Multifunctional (universal)
According to the nature of development	stable developing
By degree of organization	Well organized Poorly organized (diffuse)
The complexity of the behavior	Automatic Decisive self-organizing foresight transforming
By the nature of the relationship between the elements	deterministic Stochastic
By the nature of the management structure	Centralized decentralized
By appointment	Producing Managers Serving

Classification is the division into classes according to the most significant features. A class is understood as a set of objects that have some features of commonality. A sign (or a set of signs) is the basis (criterion) of classification.

A system can be characterized by one or more features and, accordingly, it can be placed in various classifications, each of which can be useful in choosing a research methodology. Usually the goal of classification is to limit the choice of approaches to displaying systems, to develop a description language suitable for the corresponding class.

Real systems are divided into natural (natural systems) and artificial (anthropogenic).

Natural systems: systems of inanimate (physical, chemical) and living (biological) nature.

Artificial systems: created by mankind for their needs or formed as a result of purposeful efforts.

Artificial are divided into technical (techno-economic) and social (public).

A technical system is designed and manufactured by man for specific purposes.

Social systems include various systems of human society.

The selection of systems consisting of only technical devices is almost always conditional, since they are not capable of generating their own state. These systems act as parts of larger, including people - organizational and technical systems.

An organizational system, for the effective functioning of which an essential factor is the way of organizing the interaction of people with a technical subsystem, is called a man-machine system.

Examples of human-machine systems: car - driver; aircraft - pilot; COMPUTER - user, etc.

Thus, technical systems are understood as a single constructive set of interconnected and interacting objects, intended for purposeful actions with the task of achieving a given result in the process of functioning.

The distinguishing features of technical systems in comparison with an arbitrary set of objects or in comparison with individual elements are constructiveness (practical feasibility of relations between elements), orientation and interconnectedness of constituent elements and purposefulness.

In order for the system to be resistant to external influences, it must have a stable structure. The choice of structure practically determines the technical appearance of both the entire system and its subsystems and elements. The question of the appropriateness of using a particular structure should be decided on the basis of the specific purpose of the system. The ability of the system to redistribute functions in the event of a complete or partial withdrawal of individual elements, and, consequently, the reliability and survivability of the system for given characteristics of its elements, also depends on the structure.

Abstract systems are the result of the reflection of reality (real systems) in the human brain.

Their mood is a necessary step to ensure effective human interaction with the outside world. Abstract (ideal) systems are objective in terms of their source of origin, since their primary source is an objectively existing reality.

Abstract systems are divided into direct mapping systems (reflecting certain aspects of real systems) and generalizing (generalizing) mapping systems. The former include mathematical and heuristic models, while the latter include conceptual systems (theories of methodological construction) and languages.

Based on the concept of the external environment, systems are divided into: open, closed (closed, isolated) and combined. The division of systems into open and closed is associated with their characteristic features: the ability to preserve properties in the presence of external influences. If the system is insensitive to external influences, it can be considered closed. Otherwise, open.

An open system is a system that interacts with the environment. All real systems are open. An open system is part of a larger system or systems. If we isolate the system under consideration from this formation, then the remaining part is its environment.

An open system is connected with the environment by certain communications, that is, by a network of external connections of the system. The allocation of external links and the description of the mechanisms of interaction "system-environment" is the central task of the theory of open systems. Consideration of open systems allows us to expand the concept of system structure. For open systems, it includes not only internal connections between elements, but also external connections with the environment. When describing the structure, they try to divide external communication channels into input (through which the environment affects the system) and output (vice versa). The set of elements of these channels belonging to its own system are called the input and output poles of the system. In open systems, at least one element has a connection with the external environment, at least one input pole and one output pole, by which it is connected with the external environment.

For each system, communications with all subsystems subordinate to it and between the latter are internal, and all others are external. The connections between systems and the external environment, as well as between the elements of the system, are, as a rule, directional.

It is important to emphasize that in any real system, due to the laws of dialectics on the universal connection of phenomena, the number of all interconnections is huge, so it is impossible to take into account and study absolutely all connections, therefore their number is artificially limited. At the same time, it is not advisable to take into account all possible connections, since among them there are many insignificant ones that practically do not affect the functioning of the system and the number of solutions obtained (from the point of view of the tasks being solved). If a change in the characteristics of a connection, its exclusion (complete break) leads to a significant deterioration in the operation of the system, a decrease in efficiency, then such a connection is significant. One of the most important tasks of the researcher is to single out the essential systems for consideration under the conditions of the problem being solved and to separate them from the non-essential ones. Due to the fact that it is not always possible to clearly distinguish the input and output poles of the system, one has to resort to a certain idealization of actions. The greatest idealization takes place when considering a closed system.

A closed system is a system that does not interact with the environment or interacts with the environment in a strictly defined way. In the first case, it is assumed that the system does not have input poles, and in the second case, that there are input poles, but the impact of the environment is unchanged and completely (in advance) known. Obviously, under the latter assumption, these effects can be attributed to the system itself, and it can be considered as closed. For a closed system, any of its elements has connections only with the elements of the system itself.

Of course, closed systems represent some abstraction of the real situation, since, strictly speaking, isolated systems do not exist. However, it is obvious that the simplification of the description of the system, which consists in the rejection of external relations, can lead to useful results, simplify the study of the system. All real systems are closely or weakly connected with the external environment - open. If a temporary break or a change in characteristic external connections does not cause deviations in the functioning of the system beyond the predetermined limits, then the system is weakly connected with the external environment. Otherwise, it's tight.

Combined systems contain open and closed subsystems. The presence of combined systems indicates a complex combination of open and closed subsystems.

Depending on the structure and spatio-temporal properties, systems are divided into simple, complex and large.

Simple - systems that do not have branched structures, consisting of a small number of relationships and a small number of elements. Such elements serve to perform the simplest functions; it is impossible to single out hierarchical levels in them. A distinctive feature of simple systems is the determinism (clear certainty) of the nomenclature, the number of elements and connections both within the system and with the environment.

Complex - characterized by a large number of elements and internal connections, their heterogeneity and heterogeneity, structural diversity, perform a complex function or a number of functions. The components of complex systems can be viewed as subsystems, each of which can be further refined into even simpler subsystems, and so on. until the element is received.

A system is called complex (from epistemological positions) if its cognition requires the joint involvement of many models of theories, and in some cases many scientific disciplines, as well as taking into account the uncertainty of a probabilistic and improbable nature. The most characteristic manifestation of this definition is multi-modeling.

A model is a certain system, the study of which serves as a means for obtaining information about another system. This is a description of systems (mathematical, verbal, etc.) reflecting a certain group of its properties.

A system is called complex if in reality the signs of its complexity are clearly (essentially) manifested. Namely:

a) structural complexity - is determined by the number of system elements, the number and variety of types of connections between them, the number of hierarchical levels and the total number of system subsystems. The main types are the following types of connections: structural (including hierarchical), functional, causal (causal), informational, space-time;

b) the complexity of functioning (behavior) - is determined by the characteristics of the set of states, the rules for the transition from state to state, the impact of the system on the environment and the environment on the system, the degree of uncertainty of the listed characteristics and rules;

c) the complexity of the choice of behavior - in multi-alternative situations, when the choice of behavior is determined by the purpose of the system, the flexibility of reactions to previously unknown environmental influences;

d) the complexity of development - determined by the characteristics of evolutionary or spasmodic processes.

Naturally, all signs are considered in interrelation. Hierarchical construction is a characteristic feature of complex systems, while the levels of the hierarchy can be both homogeneous and heterogeneous. Complex systems are characterized by such factors as the inability to predict their behavior, that is, weak predictability, their secrecy, various states.

Complex systems can be subdivided into the following factorial subsystems:

1) the decisive one, which makes global decisions in interaction with the external environment and distributes local tasks among all other subsystems;

2) information, which ensures the collection, processing and transmission of information necessary for making global decisions and performing local tasks;

3) manager for the implementation of global solutions;

4) homeostasis, maintaining dynamic balance within systems and regulating the flow of energy and matter in subsystems;

5) adaptive, accumulating experience in the learning process to improve the structure and functions of the system.

A large system is a system that is not observed simultaneously from the position of one observer in time or space, for which the spatial factor is significant, the number of subsystems of which is very large, and the composition is heterogeneous.

The system can be both large and complex. Complex systems unite a larger group of systems, that is, large - a subclass of complex systems.

Decomposition and aggregation procedures are fundamental in the analysis and synthesis of large and complex systems.

Decomposition is the division of systems into parts, followed by independent consideration of individual parts.

Obviously, decomposition is a concept associated with a model, since the system itself cannot be dissected without violating properties. At the level of modeling, separate connections will be replaced by equivalents, respectively, or the system model is built in such a way that its decomposition into separate parts turns out to be natural.

When applied to large and complex systems, decomposition is a powerful research tool.

Aggregation is the opposite of decomposition. In the process of research, it becomes necessary to combine the elements of the system in order to consider it from a more general position.

Decomposition and aggregation are two opposite sides of the approach to considering large and complex systems, applied in dialectical unity.

Systems for which the state of the system is uniquely determined by the initial values and can be predicted for any subsequent point in time are called deterministic.

Stochastic systems are systems in which changes are random. With random impacts, data on the state of the system is not enough to predict at a subsequent point in time.

By degree of organization: well organized, poorly organized (diffuse).

To represent the analyzed object or process as a well-organized system means to determine the elements of the system, their relationship, the rules for combining into larger components. The problem situation can be described as a mathematical expression. The solution of the problem when it is presented in the form of a well-organized system is carried out by analytical methods of formalized representation of the system.

Examples of well-organized systems: the solar system, which describes the most significant patterns of planetary motion around the Sun; display of an atom in the form of a planetary system consisting of a nucleus and electrons; description of the operation of a complex electronic device using a system of equations that takes into account the peculiarities of its operating conditions (presence of noise, instability of power supplies, etc.).

The description of an object in the form of a well-organized system is used in cases where it is possible to offer a deterministic description and experimentally prove the validity of its application, the adequacy of the model to the real process. Attempts to apply the class of well-organized systems to represent complex multi-component objects or multi-criteria problems are unsuccessful: they require an unacceptably large amount of time, are practically unrealizable, and are inadequate to the models used.

Poorly organized systems. When an object is represented as a poorly organized or diffuse system, the task is not to determine all the components taken into account, their properties and the connections between them and the goals of the system. The system is characterized by a certain set of macro-parameters and regularities that are found on the basis of a study not of the entire object or class of phenomena, but on the basis of a selection of components defined using certain rules that characterize the object or process under study. On the basis of such a selective study, characteristics or patterns (statistical, economic) are obtained and distributed to the entire system as a whole. At the same time, appropriate reservations are made. For example, when obtaining statistical regularities, they are extended to the behavior of the entire system with a certain confidence probability.

The approach to displaying objects in the form of diffuse systems is widely used in: describing queuing systems, determining the number of staff in enterprises and institutions, studying documentary information flows in control systems, etc.

From the point of view of the nature of the functions, special, multifunctional, and universal systems are distinguished.

Special systems are characterized by a unique purpose and a narrow professional specialization of the service personnel (comparatively simple).

Multifunctional systems allow you to implement several functions on the same structure. Example: a production system that ensures the release of various products within a certain range.

For universal systems: many actions are implemented on the same structure, but the composition of functions in terms of type and quantity is less homogeneous (less defined).

By the nature of development, there are two classes of systems: stable and developing.

In a stable system, the structure and functions practically do not change during the entire period of its existence, and, as a rule, the quality of functioning of stable systems only worsens as their elements wear out. Restorative measures can usually only reduce the rate of deterioration.

An excellent feature of developing systems is that over time, their structure and functions acquire significant changes. The functions of the system are more constant, although they often change. Only their purpose remains virtually unchanged. Evolving systems have higher complexity.

In order of complexity of behavior: automatic, decisive, self-organizing, anticipating, transforming.

Automatic: unequivocally react to a limited set of external influences, their internal organization is adapted to the transition to an equilibrium state upon withdrawal from it (homeostasis).

Decisive: have constant criteria for distinguishing their constant response to broad classes of external influences. The constancy of the internal structure is maintained by replacing failed elements.

Self-organizing: have flexible criteria for distinguishing and flexible responses to external influences, adapting to different types of influence. The stability of the internal structure of the higher forms of such systems is ensured by constant self-reproduction.

Self-organizing systems have the characteristics of diffuse systems: stochastic behavior, non-stationarity of individual parameters and processes. Added to this are signs such as unpredictability of behavior; the ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions, change the structure when the system interacts with the environment, while maintaining the properties of integrity; the ability to form possible behaviors and choose the best from them, etc. Sometimes this class is divided into subclasses, distinguishing adaptive or self-adapting systems, self-healing, self-reproducing and other subclasses corresponding to various properties of developing systems.

Examples: biological organizations, collective behavior of people, organization of management at the level of an enterprise, industry, state as a whole, i.e. in those systems where there is necessarily a human factor.

If stability in its complexity begins to surpass the complex influences of the external world, these are anticipatory systems: it can foresee the further course of interaction.

Transformers are imaginary complex systems at the highest level of complexity, not bound by the permanence of existing carriers. They can change material carriers while retaining their individuality. Science does not yet know examples of such systems.

The system can be divided into types according to the characteristics of the structure of their construction and the significance of the role that individual components play in them in comparison with the roles of other parts.

In some systems, one of the parts may have a dominant role (its importance >> (significant superiority relation symbol) the importance of other parts). Such a component will act as a central one that determines the functioning of the entire system. Such systems are called centralized.

In other systems, all their constituent components are approximately equally significant. Structurally, they are not located around some centralized component, but are interconnected in series or in parallel and have approximately the same values for the functioning of the system. These are decentralized systems.

Systems can be classified according to their purpose. Among the technical and organizational systems, there are: producing, managing, servicing.

In producing systems, processes for obtaining some products or services are implemented. They, in turn, are divided into material-energy, in which the transformation of the natural environment or raw materials into the final product of a material or energy nature, or the transportation of such products; and information - for the collection, transmission and transformation of information and the provision of information services.

The purpose of control systems is the organization and management of material-energy and information processes.

Servicing systems are engaged in maintaining the specified limits of performance of production and control systems.

It is convenient to use the classes of systems considered in this section as approaches at the initial stage of modeling any problem, since having defined the class of the system for a real object, it is possible to confidently give recommendations on the choice of a method that will allow it to be displayed more adequately.

Proper accounting at the enterprise requires a strict delineation of fixed assets among themselves.

Their division, which is based on belonging to different classification categories (groups), has become widespread.

Basic information about the elements of the classification used for accounting purposes is contained in the legal documentation and decrees of the Government of the Russian Federation.

Despite the established detailed structure, it is often difficult to determine the ownership of fixed assets.

Consider options for the distribution of funds in practice in order to minimize possible difficulties.

Ways to classify fixed assets

Depending on the composition and nature of use, fixed assets are divided as follows:

by type - natural-material classification;
by age or period of operation;
by sector of the economy, economy and industry - industry affiliation;
by functional purpose;
by property;
on the impact on the subject of labor;
by degree of use.

Each classification group has its own structure, the elements of which distinguish separate subgroups. The criteria for assigning objects are different and include features based on the content and features of use.

1. Classification by species - established sequence

In total, the following types of fixed assets are distinguished:

building- industrial and utility buildings in which the activities of the enterprise are organized;
structures- engineering structures that perform special functions (mines, pools, furnaces, treatment facilities, etc.);
transmission devices. These include facilities whose functional purpose is the transmission of electricity, as well as the transportation of liquids, gases, solid raw materials and suspensions (pipelines, heat and power networks, conveyors);
cars and equipment- include the equipment of the enterprise, including production, measuring and computing facilities (machines, computer equipment, engineering machines, cranes, etc.);
vehicles– cover the transport fleet of the enterprise;
tools- material objects, with the use of which there is a direct impact on the subject of production;
stock and accessories that perform a function accompanying production (provide the required working conditions);
other- not included in the previous subgroups.

Based on the list of types of fixed assets and the Classification approved by the Government, the useful life and depreciation rates are determined.

In total, ten depreciation groups are distinguished.

For the first group, the monthly depreciation rate is 14.3%, and the useful life is from 1 to 2 years. For the tenth group, the depreciation rate is set at 0.7%, and the useful life is more than 30 years.

2. Classification by actual service life

There are five age groups of fixed assets: up to 5 years, 5-10 years, 10-15 years, 15-20 years and more than 20 years (not to be confused with useful life).

The first two groups include mainly machines and mechanisms of the enterprise, the last two - buildings and structures.

Medium-term use is characterized by special structures, as well as machinery and equipment designed for long-term use.

3. Classification by economic sectors

Fixed assets belong to the industry, as well as the products produced with their use. This means that the classification of fixed assets should be made at a particular enterprise.

An example of fixed assets related to various industries is road transport. Its use is widespread in all sectors of the economic, industrial and social sphere - agriculture, heavy and light industry, utilities and the service sector.

4. Classification by functional purpose

In this section, two groups of fixed assets are distinguished:

production - participate in production or provide appropriate conditions for its implementation. Production means are divided into agricultural and non-agricultural;
non-production - exist to ensure the socio-cultural sphere (kindergartens, hospitals, educational institutions).

5. Classification by property

In total, there are two types of property - own and rented. The requirement for a separate classification of leased fixed assets is associated with the peculiarities of their accounting and operation. When repairing own funds, there are usually no difficulties associated with the design of the repair and modernization procedure.

For leased funds, accounting is more stringent, which is caused by the need to take into account the interest of the lessor.

6. Classification according to the impact on the subject of labor

This group includes active and passive fixed assets. Active means are understood as those that have a direct impact on the products produced and form the volume of output, quality and assortment. Passive means create the conditions for production, but do not directly participate in it. So, for the metalworking industry, machine tools are active fixed assets, and transport performs a passive function.

Depending on the specific industry, active funds can become passive and vice versa. In the mining industry, vehicles are classified as active assets. Locksmith's tools from an active tool in mechanical engineering will turn into a passive fund in the food industry.

7. Classification according to the degree of use

The participation of fixed assets in production requires timely deductions related to depreciation. To display the degree of participation of funds in production, they are divided into active and inactive.

Operating fixed assets are involved in the production process, and inactive ones are decommissioned for various reasons and may be located:

downtime (to be under repair, modernization or reconstruction);
at the completion stage - often found for large structures (technological wells, furnaces, distillation columns);
in stock (reserve) - typical for equipping a continuous cycle of work. In case of wear or breakage of the main device, a quick replacement with a backup device is carried out;
on conservation (long-term storage of serviceable equipment);
ready for launch - passed acceptance tests and awaiting completion of preparatory work;
decommissioned and also intended for sale.

The planned legislative changes do not affect the existing classification principles.

"rank" and facere“to do”) is a concept in science (in philosophy, in formal logic, etc.), denoting a kind of division of the volume of a concept according to a certain basis (attribute, criterion), in which the volume of a generic concept ( Class, set) is divisible by kinds(subclasses, subsets), and species, in turn, are divided into subspecies, etc.

Description

The classification is widely used both in science (especially in the natural sciences) and in practice, and scientific classifications are more stable in nature, therefore they remain for a long time. For example, the classification of chemical elements created by D. I. Mendeleev continues to be supplemented to this day. In classification, the choice of the basis (criterion, feature) for dividing the subject is important. The reason may be material or non-essential. A classification made on an essential basis is called natural, a classification made on an insignificant basis is called artificial (or, auxiliary) classification . One of the difficulties that arises in the classification is the transitional form. For example, when classifying the rights and freedoms of a person and a citizen, freedom of speech can be attributed to both natural (innate) rights and political rights.

Classification rules (division of the scope of the concept)

Since classification is a kind of division of a concept, then all the rules used in the operation of dividing the volume of concepts are inherent in it.

Incomplete (narrow) classification. That is, the volume of specific concepts as a result of classification does not exhaust the volume of the divisible concept. For example, in the classification "Literary genres are divided by content into tragedies, comedies, horrors", the genre - drama - is not indicated.
Classification with superfluous specific concepts. An example of this type of error is the division "Computers are divided into desktop, mobile, portable and personal", in which "personal" computers is an extra generic concept.

Examples of classifications

Notes

Classification:

Literature

Knipovich N. M.// Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.

Multistage, branched division of the logical scope of the concept. The result of K. is a system of subordinate concepts: the divisible concept is a genus, new concepts are species, species of species (subspecies), etc. The most complex and perfect K. ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

classification- and, well. classification f. 1. Action by value. ch. classify. Engage in the classification of materials collected during the expedition. ALS 1. Do not scold his chronological method of publishing grammars: for a historian, modernity is better than classes, and an index ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

- (new lat. from lat. claseis, and facere to do). Distribution of subjects into departments. See SYSTEMATICS. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. CLASSIFICATION Novolatinsk., From Lat. classis, and facere, do.… … Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Cm … Synonym dictionary

- [asi], classification, female. (book). 1. Action according to Ch. classify. 2. The system of distribution of objects or concepts of some area into classes, departments, categories, etc. Plant classification. Classification of minerals. Classification of sciences. ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

In biology (from lat. classis category, class and facio do), the distribution of the entire set of living organisms by definition. a system of hierarchically subordinate groups of taxa (classes, families, genera, species, etc.). In the history of biol. K. was several. periods. ... ... Biological encyclopedic dictionary

- (from Latin classis category and facere to do) distribution, division of objects, concepts, names into classes, groups, categories, in which objects with a common feature fall into one group. For example, the classification of sectors of the economy ... ... Economic dictionary

See SHELF DEPOSITS. Geological dictionary: in 2 volumes. M.: Nedra. Edited by K. N. Paffengolts et al. 1978 ... Geological Encyclopedia

In mining, the separation of particles of crushed minerals into homogeneous products (classes) in terms of size, density, and other products. Classification is made in classifiers ...

- (from Latin classis category class and ... fication), in logic, a system of subordinate concepts (classes of objects) of any area of knowledge or human activity, used as a means to establish links between these concepts or classes ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

In information retrieval, the process of categorizing documents. In English: Classification English synonyms: Classifying See also: Indexing Financial Dictionary Finam ... Financial vocabulary

Books

Classification and structure of fields, Gurevich Harold Stanislavovich, Kanevsky Samuil Naumovich. The book "Classification and Structure of Fields" gives a classification of the fields of the world around us, based on the relationship between the internal structure of the fields of the macroworld and the microworld. Birth, life and death...
Classification and structure of fields (the theory of absoluteness), Gurevich Harold Stanislavovich, Kanevsky Samuil Naumovich. In the book `Classification and structure of fields` the classification of the fields of the world around us is given, based on the relationship of the internal structure of the fields of the macrocosm and the microcosm. Birth, life and death...