The struggle of the peoples of ancient Russia against foreign invaders. The struggle of Russia with foreign invaders

The 13th century in the history of Russia is a time of armed opposition to the onslaught from the east (Mongo-lo-Tatars) and the north-west (Germans, Swedes, Danes).

The Mongol-Tatars came to Russia from the depths of Central Asia. Formed in 1206, the empire, led by Khan Temuchin, who took the title of Khan of all Mongols (Genghis Khan), by the 30s. XIII century subordinated to its power North China, Korea, Central Asia, Transcaucasia. In 1223, in the battle of Kalka, the combined army of Russians and Polovtsy was defeated by the 30,000th Mongol detachment. Genghis Khan refused to advance into the southern Russian steppes. Russia received almost a fifteen-year respite, but could not take advantage of it: all attempts to unite and stop the civil strife were futile.

In 1236, the grandson of Genghis Khan Batu began a campaign in Russia. Having conquered the Volga Bulgaria, in January 1237 he invaded the Principality of Ryazan, ruined it and moved on to Vladimir. The city, despite fierce resistance, fell, and was killed on March 4, 1238 in the battle on the River Sit grand Duke Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich. Having taken Torzhok, the Mongols could go to Novgorod, but the spring thaw and heavy losses forced them to return to the Polovtsian steppes. This movement to the southeast is sometimes called the "Tatar raid": on the way Batu robbed and burned Russian cities that courageously fought against the invaders. Especially fierce was the resistance of the inhabitants of Kozelsk, nicknamed the enemies of the "evil city." In 1238-1239 years. Mongol-Tatars conquered the Murom, Pereyaslav, Chernihiv principalities.

Northeastern Russia was ravaged. Batu turned south. The heroic resistance of the inhabitants of Kiev was broken in December 1240. In 1241, the Principality of Galicia-Volyn fell. Mongol hordes invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, came to northern Italy and Germany, but, weakened by the desperate resistance of the Russian troops, deprived of reinforcements, retreated and returned to the steppes of the Lower Volga. Here in 1243 the state of the Golden Horde was created (the capital of Saray-Batu), whose dominion was forced to recognize the devastated Russian lands. A system was established that went down in history under the name of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The essence of this system, degrading in the spiritual and predatory economically, was that: the Russian principalities were not part of the Horde, they retained their own reigns; the princes, especially the Grand Duke of Vladimir, received a label for reigning in the Horde, confirming their stay on the throne; they had to pay a large tribute ("way out") to the Mongol rulers. Population censuses were conducted, and tribute collection standards were established. Mongol garrisons left Russian cities, but before the beginning of the XIV century. the tribute was collected by the authorized Mongol officials - the Basques. In case of disobedience (and anti-Mongol uprisings often broke out) punitive detachments — rati — were sent to Russia.

Two important questions arise: why did the Russian principalities, showing heroism and courage, not be able to repulse the conquerors? What consequences did the yoke have for Russia? The answer to the first question is obvious: of course, the military superiority of the Mongol Tatars (strict discipline, excellent cavalry, well-established intelligence, etc.) mattered, but the decisive role was played by the disunity of the Russian princes, their feuds, and the inability to unite even in the face of a mortal threat.

The second question is controversial. Some historians point to the positive consequences of the yoke in the sense of creating the prerequisites for the creation of a single Russian state. Others emphasize that the yoke did not have a significant effect on internal development Russia. Most scholars agree as follows: the raids caused severe material damage, were accompanied by the loss of population, the devastation of villages, the ruin of cities; the tribute that went to the Horde drained the country, made it difficult to restore and develop the economy; South Russia was in fact isolated from the North-West and North-East; their historical destinies diverged for a long time; interrupted relations of Russia with European states.

10. Stages of the formation of a centralized state:

Stage 1. The rise of Moscow (end of XIII - beginning of XIV centuries). By the end of the XIII century. the old cities of Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir lose their former significance. New cities of Moscow and Tver rise.

The rise of Tver began after the death of Alexander Nevsky (1263). During the last decades of the XIII century. Tver acts as a political center and organizer of the struggle against Lithuania and the Tatars and tried to subjugate the most important political centers: Novgorod, Kostroma, Pereyaslavl, Nizhny Novgorod. But this desire ran into strong resistance from other principalities, and especially Moscow.

The beginning of the rise of Moscow is connected with the name of the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky - Daniel (1276 - 1303). Daniel inherited the small village of Moscow. For three years, the territory of Daniel's possession increased three times: Kolomna and Pereyaslavl joined Moscow. Moscow became a principality.

His son Yuri (1303 - 1325). joined the Tver prince in the struggle for the throne of Vladimir. A long and stubborn confrontation began for the title of Grand Duke. The brother of Yuri Ivan Danilovich nicknamed Kalita in 1327 in Tver, Ivan Kalita went to Tver with the army and crushed the uprising. In gratitude in 1327, the Tatars gave him a label for the Great reign.

Stage 2. Moscow - the center of the struggle against the Mongol-Tatars (second half of the XIV - the first half of the XV centuries). The strengthening of Moscow continued under the children of Ivan Kalita - Simeon Gordom (1340-1353) and Ivan II Red (1353-1359). Under the rule of Prince Dmitry Donskoy on September 8, 1380, the Battle of Kulikovo took place. The Tatar army of Khan Mamaia was defeated.

Stage 3. Completion of the formation of the Russian centralized state (the end of the ХУ - the beginning of the 16th centuries). The unification of Russian lands was completed under the great-grandson of Dmitry Donskoy Ivan III (1462 - 1505) and Vasily III (1505 - 1533). Ivan III annexed the entire Northeast of Russia to Moscow: in 1463 - the Principality of Yaroslavl, in 1474 - Rostov. After several campaigns in 1478, the independence of Novgorod was finally liquidated.

Under Ivan III, one of the most important events in Russian history happened - the Mongol-Tatar yoke was dropped (in 1480 after standing on the Ugra River)

11. "new time" in Europe.This time is sometimes called "the time of the great breakthrough": - It was during this period that the foundations of the capitalist mode of production were laid; - significantly increased the level of productive forces; - the forms of organization of production have changed; - Thanks to the introduction of technical innovations, labor productivity has increased and the pace of economic development has accelerated. This period was a turning point in relations between Europe and other civilizations: Great geographical discoveries pushed the boundaries of the Western world, broadened the horizons of Europeans. There have been a number of significant changes in the state system of European countries. Absolute monarchies almost completely disappear. They are replaced by constitutional monarchies or republics. The development of trade relations has deepened the process of formation of national markets, pan-European and world. Europe became the birthplace of the first early bourgeois revolutions in which a system of civil rights and freedoms was born, a fundamental concept of freedom of conscience was developed. The industrial revolution was accompanied by social revolutions - the age of formation industrial society It was a century of turmoil, a change in the map of the world, the disappearance of entire empires and the emergence of new states. All spheres of human society underwent changes, a new civilization has come - the traditional civilization has replaced the industrial civilization.

2. The struggle of Russia with foreign invaders.

The first meeting of the Russians with the Mongols - the battle on kalka River in 1223 AT 1237 g. Grandson of Genghis Khan Khan Baty launched an invasion of North-Eastern Russia. The first of the Russian lands was attacked Principality of Ryazan. Ryazan princes refused to submit to the Mongols. The Principality was devastated and ruined. After several days of continuous assault, its capital Ryazan was taken, plundered, and then the city was razed to the ground. The legend about the remarkable feat of the Ryazan boyar Evpatiya Kolovrat , who himself attacked the army of Batu, managed to inflict heavy losses on the enemy and heroically died in battle with the invaders.

Following Ryazansky, the turn came Principality of Vladimir-Suzdal. Cities were taken and burned Kolomna, Moscow and etc . The capital of the Principality of Vladimir after a fierce assault was taken and subjected to complete destruction. Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich was at that time outside the city, collecting troops. After the capture of Vladimir March 4, 1248 on the river City the army of the prince was destroyed by the Mongols, the prince himself died during the battle.

Novgorod escaped the invasion. Having not reached the capital of the rich boyar republic a hundred miles, Batu turned south and headed with the whole horde to rest in the Polovtsian steppes. Walking past a small town Kozelska the Mongols were forced to linger for seven weeks. That is how much this town survived the siege of the Batyv hordes before falling and being completely destroyed. The Mongols called it the "evil city."

After a year and a half, in 1239–1240 were ravaged by the southern Russian lands led by Kiev . Then, through the Galicia-Volyn land, the troops of the conquerors invaded Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Some of their units reached the Adriatic Sea. However, the ongoing resistance of the devastated, but not completely conquered Russian lands forced the conquerors to stop the further war in Europe.

Russia and the Horde. It was established in Russia yoke Golden Horde. Russian lands were forced to admit their vassal dependence on the descendants of Genghis Khan. Russian princes, headed by the great prince of Vladimir, had to be approved by special letters ( shortcuts) The main part of taxes imposed on Russian lands was tribute , or " output ". The population was supposed to feed the Khan's ambassadors and messengers and their horses, supply them with vehicles, etc. Military duty was very difficult, by virtue of which the Russian troops took part in the conquest of Iran, South China, etc. by the Mongols. To supervise the Russian lands and collect the first time the Dani khans were kept in Russian cities by the governors - baskakov . In order to take into account the population in order to determine the size of the "exit" by the khans, a census of the taxable population was carried out, causing great discontent among the Russian people. Baskakov violence caused uprisings in a number of Russian cities. This gradually led to the fact that by the end of the XIII century. Horde tribute for sending to the khans began to collect the Russian princes themselves.

Expansion from the West. The beginning of the XIII century. It was a time of expansion to the east of Western European countries and religious and political organizations. The ideological justification for this kind of policy was given by the Roman Catholic Church, which sought to establish its influence throughout the Baltic region. In summer 1240 g . Swedes attacked the Novgorod lands. AT Neva battle the prince Alexander Yaroslavich nicknamed afterwards Nevsky defeated them.

Two years later, the German knights of the Livonian Order captured Pskov, Izborsk, Koporye. April 5, 1242 . on the ice of Lake Peipsi met the main forces of the German knights and russian army led by Prince Alexander Nevsky. The prince defeated the crusaders in a battle called Battle on the Ice . The chivalrous offensive was suspended, but the threat of military and religious expansion continued until the victory of the combined forces of the Slavs in Battle of grunwald at 1410g .

The weakening of Russia as a result of the Mongol invasion was used by its western neighbor: the western Russian lands became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. A single Old Russian nation broke up into Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.

The beginning of the formation of the Russian centralized state. Moscow as a center for the unification of Russian lands. In the fourteenth century. the rise of Moscow takes place. The reasons for this:

1) the flexible policy of the Moscow princes in relation to the Horde and neighboring principalities;

2) convenient geographical location at the intersection of river and land trade routes, as well as relative protection by other Russian lands from Horde aggression;

3) support from the Russian Orthodox Church.

Moscow was especially strengthened under the prince Ivan I Danilovich nicknamed Kalita (1325–1340) (Kalita - a purse for money) thanks to his policy of austerity, land purchase, increase in taxes. Under him, the metropolitan’s chair was moved from Vladimir to Moscow.

The policy of the Horde khans was to foment rivalry between the Russian princes (this struggle was especially fierce between the Moscow and Tver princes) and thereby impede the efforts of the Russian lands towards unification. AT 1327 g . Ivan Kalita defeated the uprising in Tver against the Horde tribute collectors led by a khan's relative Cholkhan , and received label (letter) to the great reign. In addition to the label, Ivan Kalita received the right to collect the Horde exit, the Basqual system was finally canceled. The right to collect tribute gave the Moscow prince significant advantages, allowing him to replenish his own treasury.

Under Ivan Kalita, the territorial expansion of the Moscow principality continued, begun under the first Moscow princes Daniile Alexandrovich and Yuri Danilovich. Kalita acquired labels in the Horde for whole specific principalities - Uglich, Galich, Beloozero. Throughout his reign, the Moscow prince pursued a flexible policy towards the Horde princes, which allowed the Moscow principality to have a long (almost 40 years) peaceful respite.

The wise policy of Ivan Kalita created him considerable authority in the Horde, which allowed his sons To Semeon the Proud (1340–1353) and Ivan II the Red (1353–1359) not have competitors when receiving a label for a great reign.

With the grandson of Ivan Kalita Dmitry Ivanovich (1359–1389) the process of strengthening the power of the Moscow dynasty continued: the white-stone walls of the Kremlin were erected, the attacks of the Lithuanians were repulsed. After the first Russian failure on the river Piane in 1377, on the river Vozhe in 1378 . Russian troops defeated the Mongols for the first time. In the decisive battle on Kulikovo Field September 8, 1380 Dmitry Ivanovich won a major victory over the Horde, led by Mamai, for which he received the nickname Donskoy . The victory served as evidence of the increased role of Moscow. In addition, the victory in the Battle of Kulikovo contributed to the growth of self-awareness of the Russian people and the unification of the country. But in 1382 g . Khan Tokhtamysh raided Moscow and restored the Horde rule for another 100 years.

And although Russia resumed paying tribute to the Horde, political dependence on it became much weaker. Dmitry Donskoy transferred the right to a great reign to his son Vasily I (1389-1425), without asking permission of the khan.

The completion of the unification of Russian lands and the formation of the Russian state. After the death of Basil II, the throne passed to his son without any mention of the Horde. To the board Ivan III (1462–1505) The Principality of Moscow successfully developed: with almost no resistance, many Russian lands were annexed to Moscow - Yaroslavl, Rostov, as well as Perm, Vyatka, with non-Russian peoples living here. This expanded the multinational composition of the Russian state. Chernigov-Seversky possessions passed from Lithuania.

Independent of the Moscow prince was the Novgorod boyar republic, which possessed considerable strength. AT 1471 g . Ivan III took decisive measures to subjugate Novgorod. The decisive battle took place on sheloni River when Muscovites, being in the minority, defeated the Novgorodians. AT 1478 g . republic in Novgorod It was finally eliminated. The veche bell was taken from the city to Moscow. The city was now ruled by Moscow governors.

AT 1480 g . the Horde yoke was finally overthrown. This happened after the collision of Moscow and Mongol-Tatar troops on river Ugra . At the head of the Horde forces was the Khan Ahmat . After standing on the Ugra for several weeks, Akhmat realized that it was pointless to join the battle. This event went down in history as “ standing on the Ugra ". Russia a few years before the campaign, Akhmat stopped paying tribute to the Horde. In 1502, the Crimean Khan Mengli-Giray inflicted a crushing defeat on the Golden Horde, after which its existence ceased.

AT 1497 g . a set of laws was introduced - “ Judicial code » Ivan III who strengthened the power of the sovereign and introduced uniform legal norms throughout the state. One of the articles of the Code of Law regulated the transfer of peasants from one owner to another. According to Sudebnik, peasants could leave feudal lords only a week before and a week after St. George's Day Autumn (November 26) by paying the elderly. The nationwide governing bodies of the country began to form - orders . Existed parochialism - the procedure for obtaining posts depending on the nobility of the clan. Field management was based on a system feeding : collecting taxes from the population, the governors kept part of the funds at home. The sovereign's authority was strengthened by the marriage of Ivan III to the Byzantine Princess Sophia Paleolog.

Father's case completed Basil III (1505-1533) by attaching Ryazan and Pskov having won from Lithuania Smolensk . All Russian lands united into one Russian state. During the reign of Vasily III, stone construction unfolded in many Russian cities. In Moscow, the Annunciation Cathedral was built in the Kremlin and the Archangel Cathedral was finally completed, in which the remains of the great Moscow princes were transferred. The moat near the Moscow Kremlin was laid out with stone. The wooden walls in Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Kolomna and Zaraysk were replaced by stone ones. And in Novgorod, which the Grand Duke of Moscow liked to run into, besides the walls, streets, squares and ranks were rebuilt.

Russian history [ Tutorial] Team of authors

1.4. The struggle of Russia with foreign invaders in the XIII century

Mongol-Tatar conquests in Asia and the Caucasus

At the beginning of the XIII centuries. mortal danger was approaching Russia. Her threat came from the Mongol-Tatar hordes. In the XII century. the Mongols were at the stage of the collapse of the tribal system and the beginning of the formation of the feudal state. The need for new pastures forced the Mongolian pastoralists to conquer new territories, entering into bloody wars with neighboring tribes and peoples. During the civil strife, one of the noyons (princes) Temuchin won, elected in Kurultai - the congress of the Mongol nobility, held in 1206 on the Onon River, the leader of the Mongol tribes. He received the name Genghis Khan - the great khan. Genghis Khan created a huge, several hundred thousand warriors, horse army.

The main directions of the conquests of Genghis Khan at the beginning of the XIII century. were associated with the search for new pasture. Having conquered the tribes of the Kirghiz, Buryats, Uighurs, the Tangut kingdom, he invaded China and in 1215 took Beijing. Having defeated China, the Mongols began to use advanced at that time Chinese siege equipment. Capturing thousands of Chinese artisans, weapons and equipment, the Mongols attacked the largest state in 1219 Central Asia - Khorezm, which could not resist the nomads. After the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, the Mongol feudal lords decided to resume the campaign to the west: towards Transcaucasia, Russia, into the depths of Europe. In 1231–1243 Mongol hordes invaded Persia, occupied Transcaucasia, conquered the peoples of the North Caucasus.

Mongol-Tatars attack on Russia

In the spring of 1223, a thirty-thousandth Mongol detachment under the command of the Jeions and Subedea noyons invaded the Polovtsian steppes, defeated the Polovtsians, whose remains fled beyond the Dnieper. The Polovtsian Khan Kotyan requested help from his son-in-law, Prince Mstislav Udulo. The South Russian princes at the congress in Kiev decided to help the Polovtsians and come forward with joint forces. The campaign involved teams of the Kiev prince Mstislav the Old, Mstislav Svyatoslavich of Chernigov, Daniel Romanovich of Volyn. Due to feudal strife, the Prince of Russia, the strongest at that time in Russia, Yuri Vsevolodovich Vladimirsky did not make a campaign.

The decisive battle took place in May 1223 on the Kalka River. It was attended by the allied forces of Russian and Polovtsian. The lack of a single command, inconsistency of actions, strife between the princes, skillful tactics of the Mongol military leaders allowed the Mongols to win. It was a grave defeat of Russia. Only a tenth of the Russian squads returned to their native lands.

The final conquest of Eastern Europe, Genghis Khan entrusted to his eldest son Jochi. After the sudden death of the latter, the Western ulus passed to the son of Jochi, Khan Batu. On the Kurultai of 1235 in Karakorum, a decision was made to march to the southeast of Europe. Khan Batu led the campaign; an experienced commander Subedey became an adviser to him.

In the winter of 1237, the Mongol-Tatar hordes invaded Ryazan, before defeating the Volga Bulgaria, subjugating the Mordovians, Bashkirs, Cheremis, finally dispersing the Alans and Polovtsians. Against the 120-140 thousandth army of the Mongol-Tatars, all of Russia could put up no more than 100 thousand soldiers, but the unification of forces was impossible in the conditions of incessant princely feuds. Princely horse-drawn squads in armament and combat qualities surpassed the Mongolian cavalry, but they were relatively few. The bulk of the armed forces of Russia were militias. The numerical superiority and maneuverability of the Mongol cavalry forced the Russian princes to switch to defensive tactics. The wooden fortresses of Russian cities were suitable for defense against local feudal rivals, but not for continuous assault using the siege technique of the Mongol-Tatar hordes. This explains the fact that in a short time the Mongol-Tatars managed to take possession of many Russian lands.

The first blow was the Ryazan principality. The Ryazan prince turned to the princes of Vladimir and Chernigov for help, but they did not answer. An attempt by the Ryazan prince to put up resistance on his own ended in defeat. Ryazan was besieged, taken by an attack and destroyed. Then Batu moved to the Principality of Vladimir. Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich put up an army at Kolomna, which covered a convenient winter route to Vladimir. However, almost the entire Russian army perished in the “Great Cross”. Five days the inhabitants of a small fortress - the city of Moscow - defended themselves. The Mongols, having captured the city, completely destroyed it. In February 1238, Batu besieged Vladimir. As a result of a brutal assault, the city was taken, ravaged and plundered. Having ravaged several more cities of North-Eastern Russia, Batu met with a new army, hastily assembled by Yuri Vsevolodovich on the River City on March 4, 1238, where the “evil cross” took place. Russian regiments were defeated, the Grand Duke was killed. On March 4, after a two-week siege, Torzhok fell. The Mongol-Tatars opened the way to Novgorod, Polotsk and other cities of Northern and North-Western Russia.

However, Batu, not reaching 100 miles to Novgorod, turned south. Natural factors - the presence of impenetrable forests, swamps and marshes, the spring thaw stopped the Mongol-Tatar army. The Mongols suffered heavy losses during the conquest of North-Eastern Russia and feared the no less stubborn resistance of the Novgorodians. The lands of "Veliky Novgorod" were unsuitable for nomadic farming, therefore they were not interested in nomads. However, the forces of Russia were undermined, now she could not prevent Batu from fulfilling her ultimate goal - a trip to the "last sea".

Departing south, the Mongol-Tatars again passed through the territory of North-Eastern Russia, destroying the surviving cities. The small town of Kozelsk beat off the onslaught of the nomads for seven weeks, and only with the help of wall-driven vehicles did the enemy manage to take this “evil city”.

In the fall of 1238, separate Batu detachments again devastated the Ryazan land, in the spring of 1239 the Pereyaslav principality was defeated, and in early 1240 the Mongols first appeared near Kiev, besieging the city. The annals testify: the army of Batu was so great that "do not hear the voice from the creak of his carts, the multitude of the roar of the belbludous and neighing, from the voice of the herds of his horses, and the Russian land of the military was executed." For eight days, the people of Kiev desperately repelled the attacks of the conquerors. On the ninth day, through the breaches in the wall, the Mongol-Tatars managed to break into the city, fights unfolded on the streets of Kiev. The last defenders died at the Church of the Tithes. Defeated and deserted, Kiev for a long time lost the significance of the large political center of Southern Russia. The date of the fall of Kiev, the formal capital of Russia, became the starting point for the establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Having captured Kiev, the Mongol-Tatars captured Vladimir-Volynsky and Galich. In the spring of 1241, they moved west.

Europe then could hardly oppose sufficient forces to the Mongol-Tatars and stop the nomads. Europe, like Russia, was torn by rivalry between the rulers of large and small states, internal strife. This predetermined the fact that, despite the resistance of the peoples of European countries, the troops of Batu devastated Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Croatia and Dalmatia. By the summer of 1242, they reached the coast of the Adriatic Sea. However, at this critical moment for Europe, the news came of the death of the great Hagan of Ogedei. Batu, taking advantage of this pretext, immediately turned his army back, trying to catch the election of the new great khan.

The decisive role in the disruption of the Mongol-Tatar campaign against Europe was played by the heroic struggle of the Russian people against the invasion, the resistance of Russians behind the rear of the Mongol troops. The weakened hordes of Batu did not dare to continue further advancement on the territory of Western Europe.

Golden Horde and Russia

As a result of the Mongol conquests in Eastern Europe, golden Horde State,stretching from the Dniester to Tobol in Siberia, from the lower reaches of the Syr Darya to the lands of the Volga-Kama Bulgarians and Mordovians. Depending on the Golden Horde, there were Russian principalities. The capital of the state was the city of Saray-Batu on the Volga. Initially, the religion of the Mongols was paganism in the form of shamanism, and only in 1312 Islam became the official religion. The Golden Horde state reached its greatest prosperity under the Khan Uzbek (1312–1340), then the power of the Mongols over Russia strengthened.

Unlike other territories conquered by the Mongol-Tatars, Russia retained its statehood. The conquerors refused to directly incorporate Russia into the Golden Horde and create their own administration in the Russian lands. The dependence of the Russian lands was expressed primarily in the payment of annual tribute ("exit"). Russian princes were supposed to receive from the Horde khans labels-letters for the right to reign. The princes of Vladimir were given a special label for a great reign. The khans intervened in inter-princely strife and summoned the princes to the "great court." To control the fidelity and loyalty of the Russian princes, representatives of the khans, the Baskaks with military units, were sent to their lands. They were also engaged in collecting and sending to the Golden Horde the incoming tribute.

At the first request, the princes were to appear in the Horde with their army. In 1257, a census was carried out throughout the empire of the Mongols, including in Russian lands (“recording in number”) to streamline the collection of tribute. The unit of taxation was recognized as an economy (house). The clergy and church people were freed from the “number”. In favor of the khans, deductions from trade duties and a number of other in-kind duties were levied. Initially, the tribute was collected by the Basques, later it was left at the mercy of the Muslim merchants, the Bessermens, and since 1327 the tribute was collected by the Grand Duke.

The Horde tribute and other duties that ravaged the population of Russia, caused open indignation of the townspeople and peasants, which led to clashes with the Mongol administration and troops. So, in 1257 the “great rebellion” broke out in Novgorod against the “numerical” who conducted the census, in 1262 there were uprisings in Rostov, Suzdal and Yaroslavl. To suppress the unrest, the Mongols sent punitive detachments, which further exacerbated the ruin of the Russian lands. Only for the last quarter of the XIII century. 14 major punitive actions were committed.

The Batu invasion and then established foreign yoke led to the economic decline of Russian lands. Many cities were destroyed, thousands of artisans stolen into slavery. Because of this, a number of types of handicraft production were lost, such as, for example, the manufacture of glassware and window glass, multicolor ceramics, cloisonne enamel jewelry, etc. Stone construction froze for many years. The connection of urban craft with the market has weakened, the development of commodity production has slowed down. Tribute to the "silver" led to an almost complete cessation of monetary circulation within the Russian lands.

Trade ties with foreign countries were curtailed. Trade in North-Eastern Russia was hindered by the predatory raids of the Horde on Russian trade caravans.

It took centuries of hard work to ensure the further economic development of the country, the rise of national Russian culture.

The fight against the aggression of the crusaders

While the Batu hordes ravaged North-East and South Russia, in the west Russian lands were aggressed by German, Swedish and Danish crusader knights. In 1201, the crusaders led by Bishop Albert invaded the land of the Livs, founded the Riga fortress and the Riga bishopric. In 1202, the Knightly Order of the Swordsmen was founded, subordinate to the Bishop of Riga. He became the main instrument in the hands of the German feudal lords in the conquest of the Baltic lands. In 1226, knights arrived to conquer Lithuania from Palestine. Teutonic Order. In 1237, the swordsmen united with the Teutons, forming the Livonian Order.

The peoples of the Baltic countries offered fierce resistance to the offensive from the West. The feat of the Russian-Estonian garrison of Yuryev is widely known, until the last warrior defending the city from the crusaders in 1224. In the battle of Šiauliai in 1236, the tops of the Order of the Sword-Bearers, led by the Magister, were exterminated by detachments of Lithuanians and Zemgals.

Neva battle

In July 1240, a detachment of Swedes landed at the mouth of the Neva, led by the jarl (duke) Birger, a relative of the Swedish king. At that time, in Novgorod, the nineteen-year-old Alexander Yaroslavich reigned. He entrusted the protection of sea borders along the shores of the Gulf of Finland to a detachment from the Izhoryan tribe, who settled on the Izhora River. The elder of the tribe noticed the Swedish ships in time and announced that the enemy was approaching Alexander in Novgorod.

Prince Alexander gathered a horse squad, a small militia on foot, and suddenly attacked the Swedish camp. The Russian victory was complete. The decisiveness and courage of the Russian soldiers, the military skill of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich, for a long time stopped the Swedish aggression to the east, preserved access to the Baltic Sea beyond Russia. For the victory on the Neva, Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich received the nickname Nevsky.

Battle on the Ice

In 1240, the Livonian knights marched on the offensive on Russian lands. Having invaded the Pskov land, they captured the fortress of Izborsk, and then, as a result of the betrayal of the posadnik and part of the boyars, captured Pskov.

The Novgorod boyars, fearing the growing influence of Prince Alexander Nevsky in the city, forced him to leave Novgorod and leave for Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. However, when the first crusader detachments appeared near Novgorod, under pressure from the lower classes, the boyars were forced to ask Alexander to return and lead the fight against the Order. In 1241, Alexander Nevsky gathered the Novgorod militia, and Vladimir regiments, sent by Grand Duke Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, soon came to the rescue. Having stormed the Koporye fortress, Alexander captured Pskov in the winter of 1242. The traitors of the boyars, led by the posadnik Tverdiloy, were executed by the sentence of the veche. Captured knights were sent to Novgorod.

On April 5, 1242, one of the most bloody battles of the Middle Ages - the Battle of the Ice - took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi. The leadership talent of Alexander Nevsky was manifested in the preparation of the battle with the Crusaders, in choosing the place of battle, in the construction of Russian troops. A knightly armored wedge, breaking through the center of the Russian army, was drawn into the battle formations of Alexander's squad. The prince's horse-drawn squad from an ambush struck from the flanks under the base of the wedge. The enemy army was in the ring. After a fierce battle, the knights fled. Russian cavalry pursued them. “And they drive away fast, like on the Asra and do not be comforted by them and beating them for 7 versts on ice,” the annals says.

The battle of ice ended in the complete defeat of the conquerors. Killed about 400 knights. The victory on the ice of Lake Peipsi put an end to the claims of the German feudal lords on Russian lands. The knights were finally thrown back from the Russian borders, thus the forced catholicization of the Russian population was also prevented.

From the book History of Russia from Ancient Times to the End of the 17th Century the author Milov Leonid Vasilievich

From the book The World History. Volume 2. The Middle Ages by Yeager Oscar

CHAPTER FIVE The history of northeastern Russia from the beginning of the XIII to the end of the XIV century. The situation of Russian principalities in the north-east and south-west of Russia before the invasion of the Mongols. - The first appearance of the Tatars. - Invasion of Batu. The conquest of Russia by the Mongols. - General disasters. - Alexander

From the book Birth of Russia the author Rybakov Boris Alexandrovich

Culture of Russia IX-XIII centuries Monuments of Russian architecture of the X-XIII centuries. The culture of Kievan Rus is the starting point and primary basis of the culture of Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. Kievan Rus created a single Russian literary language; in this era the eastern Slavs became

From the book History of Russia from Ancient Times to the Beginning of the 20th Century the author Froyanov Igor Yakovlevich

III. The struggle of Russia for independence in the XIII in the XIII century. became a time of severe trials for the Russian people and their nascent statehood. Geographically located at the junction of Europe and Asia, Russia was at once between two fires. Capture Attempts Continued from the North

From the book History of Russia [for students of technical universities] the author Shubin Alexander Vladlenovich

§ 6. THE FIGHT FOR POLITICAL LEADERSHIP IN RUSSIA. NORTH-EAST RUSSIA IN THE XIII – XV CENTURIES Already half a century after the establishment of the Horde rule between the Russian princes, a rather fierce struggle for political leadership began. If before rivalry

From the book Under the banner of Wrangel: notes from a former military prosecutor the author Kalinin Ivan Mikhailovich

Xiii. FIGHT AGAINST CRIME The failure of the grandiose Denikin enterprise even in the white camp was openly explained by many as an unscrupulous attitude of the troops towards the population. Advocates of the legal system, trampled down by the "Bolshevik rapists", have introduced robbery to such an extent

From the book History of the USSR. Short course the author Shestakov Andrey Vasilievich

20. The fight against the Polish invaders Polish invaders and their expulsion from Moscow. The Polish lords, after the failure of their first attempt to enslave Russia, made a second attempt. They put forward a new impostor. There was a rumor that another person was mistakenly killed in Moscow, and

From the book Foreign Russia the author Pogodin Alexander Lvovich

III. Galician Rus under the rule of Austria. - Russian language and literature in Galicia. - Awakening of national consciousness in foreign Russia. - The struggle of Galician Rus with Polish influence. - Russian and Ukrainian movements Icon portrait from Ugric Rus. (From the Museum of the Partnership

From the book Reader on the history of the USSR. Volume 1. the author author unknown

Chapter VI THE FIGHT OF THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE WITH GERMAN AND SWEDISH

From the book History of Russia from Ancient Times to the Present the author Sakharov Andrey Nikolaevich

Chapter 7. CULTURE OF RUSSIA X - THE BEGINNING OF THE XIII CENTURIES How the culture of Russia was born. The culture of the people is part of its history. Its formation, subsequent development are closely related to the same historical factors that affect the formation and development of the country's economy, its

From the book of the Earth of South-Western Russia as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania the author SHABULDO Felix

1. The struggle of South-Western Russia against the rule of the Golden Horde at the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. Beginning of territorial acquisitions of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Galicia-Volyn and Kiev principalities To territorial conquests in Russia The early feudal state of Lithuania

From the book A Short Course on the History of Russia from Ancient Times to the Beginning of the 21st Century the author Kerov Valery Vsevolodovich

Theme 7 The struggle of the peoples of Russia for independence in the XIII century. PLAN 1. Background of the conquests of the Mongols. 1.1. The extensive nature of nomadic cattle breeding. 1.2. Influence of neighboring civilizations. 1.3. Becoming a New Nomad Noble. 1.4. Early Mongolian education

From the book World of History: Russian Lands in the XIII-XV Centuries the author Shakhmagonov Fedor Fedorovich

Literature on the history of Russia of the XIII – XV centuries N. Karamzin. History of the Russian state. SPb., 1816, vol. III.Soloviev S.M. History of Russia since ancient times. M., 1960, vol. II, III. Klyuchevsky V.O. The course of Russian history. M., 1959, T. II. Presnyakov A.E. Formation of the Great Russian State. P.,

From the book History of medieval Russia. Part 2. Russian state in the XIII-XVI centuries author Lyapin D.A.

Theme № 1 From Russia to Russia (XIII – XV centuries)

From the book Who are Ainu? author Wowanych Wowan

Fighting the invaders Around the middle of the Jomon era, other ethnic groups began to arrive in the Japanese islands. First, migrants from Southeast Asia (Southeast Asia) and South China arrive. Migrants from Southeast Asia mainly speak Austronesian languages. They settle

In the 13th century, Kievan Rus as a single state ceased to exist. The fate of the western and eastern Russian lands turned out to be different.

In the middle of the 13th century, most of the Russian principalities were conquered by the Mongol forces that came from the east. Russian princes began to pay tribute to the khan of the new Mongol state of the Golden Horde. The Khan of the Horde decided which of the Russian princes would become a great prince. This permission was called the "label of reign."

Mongol domination in Russia lasted more than 200 years. One of the results of this domination was the creation by the Russian princes in the 15th century of a new state with its capital in Moscow.

From the west, Novgorod and Pskov lands in the 13th century were attacked by Swedish, German and Lithuanian troops. These capture attempts were repelled. As a result, the population of the northern and eastern Russian lands remained Orthodox and fell under the influence of the khans of the Golden Horde, and did not come under the influence of the Catholic Church and European kings.

After the collapse of Kievan Rus, the southern and western Russian lands came under the influence of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and then the Commonwealth. The influence of the Catholic Church grew in these lands.

Subsequently, the struggle for the western lands of the former Kievan Rus between the Russian state and European states took place with varying success. Today, part of these lands is part of Russia, part - as part of Belarus and Ukraine.

The Mongols are nomads who began their conquests from Central Asia.

In the 13th century they conquered China, Central Asia, Transcaucasia and in the 30s of the 13th century they attacked Russian lands.

Genghis Khan is the founder of the state (empire) of the Mongols.

The first battle of the Mongolian and Russian troops took place in the 20s of the 13th century (in 1223) on the Kalka River (south of the borders of Kievan Rus).

The Russians made an alliance with the Polovtsy against the Mongols, but the Mongols won. The reason for the defeat of the Russian-Polovtsian troops is considered to be the lack of a common command.

Historians consider the battle of Kalka a warning to the Russian princes. The princes did not understand this warning and did not join forces before the Mongol invasion of Russia.

The Mongol attack on Russia occurred in two waves in the 30s of the 13th century (in 1236 and 1239). They completed the conquest of Russia by the end of the 30s of the 13th century (by 1240).

The northeastern Russian lands were first conquered: the Ryazan principality, Vladimir-Suzdal, Smolensk.

During the second invasion, the southern and southeastern lands were conquered: the Chernigov, Kiev, Galician-Volyn principalities.

The northwestern Russian lands around the cities of Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk, and Turov were not ravaged by the Mongols.

During the conquest of Russia, the Mongols were led by the grandson of Genghis Khan Khan Batu (emphasis on -u, often called Batu Khan, emphasis on -y).

Genghis Khan at the beginning of the 13th century divided the territory of the state between his sons. This part of the state was called “ulus”.

The Golden Horde is a Mongolian state that arose in the 13th century on lands conquered by the Mongols in Western Siberia, the Urals, Central Asia and the northern Black Sea region. This state was also called “Ulus Jochi”. Jochi is the son of Genghis Khan. Already in the middle of the 13th century, the Golden Horde became an independent state. The horde lasted until the end of the 15th century, then divided into separate khanates.

Russian princes as a result of the Mongol conquest became vassals of the khans of the Golden Horde. A vassal is a feudal lord subordinate to another feudal lord and obliged to act with the army on the side of the one to whom he obeyed. In addition, Russian princes paid tribute to the Mongols. Tribute was collected first by the Mongols themselves, then by the merchants or the Russian princes themselves.

It is the vassal dependence of the Russian princes on the Mongols that they call the Mongol yoke. To gain power in the principality, the prince had to obtain permission from the Khan of the Golden Horde. This permission was called the “shortcut”.

The Mongol yoke has existed in Russia for about 240 years: in the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries.

no response on the site

Eastern Russian lands were under the Mongol yoke for about 240 years. The Russian princes, being vassals of the Mongol khans, fought each other for a shortcut to reign. The label was given to the Russian prince by the Mongol khan.

As a result of the Mongol conquest, the eastern Russian lands ceased to be part of Europe; their further development led to the emergence of the Moscow kingdom in the 15-16 centuries, which claimed a special role in the world.

Western Russian lands were either not conquered by the Mongols, or freed from their rule faster than the northeastern ones. Novgorod land remained formally independent. The southwestern Russian principalities (Galicia-Volyn, Turov-Pinsk, Kiev, Polotsk principalities) in the 13th century became part of the new state - the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Many Russian princes alternately entered into alliances with the Horde against Lithuania, then with Lithuania against the Horde.

In the eastern Russian lands, Orthodoxy remained the dominant religion; in the western lands the influence of the Catholic Church increased.

Alexander Nevsky is a Russian prince who is famous for his victories over the Swedish, German and Lithuanian troops who invaded Novgorod and Pskov lands in the middle of the 13th century.

Nevsky did not fight with the Mongol khans; he preferred to negotiate. Having received a label from the khan on the great reign of Vladimir and becoming the main Russian prince, he did not support the Novgorodians who refused to pay tribute to the Golden Horde. Under pressure from Alexander, a Mongolian census was conducted in Novgorod and the Novgorod population was taxed.

Alexander Nevsky had the opportunity to take the patronage of the Catholic Church and thus get rid of the Horde dependence or reduce this dependence, but refused to do so. This decision of Alexander allowed Orthodoxy to remain the dominant religion in the eastern Russian principalities.

The Novgorodians called on Prince Alexander, first in connection with the invasion of the Swedes, and then in connection with the German attack in the early 40s of the 13th century. The army led by Alexander defeated the Swedes in the Battle of Neva in 1240 (after which Alexander was nicknamed Nevsky) and over the Germans in Battle of the Ice on the ice of Lake Peipsi in 1242. The victories of Alexander Nevsky prevented the conquest of Novgorod and Pskov lands by European kings and the spread of Catholicism in them.

At the beginning of the XIII century. Russian lands experienced a period feudal fragmentation. A feature of their development at that time was a change in the social arrangement, the migration of the Slavic population from south to northeast, the strengthening of new cities, the emergence of new political centers, and the flourishing of culture.

But in the second third of the XIII century. blooming, but fragmented Russia suffered a terrible disaster - the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars. Ryazan, Kolomna, Suzdal, Vladimir, Moscow and other cities of North-Eastern Russia in the winter of 1237 - 1238 were severely defeated. In 1240 - 1242, the same fate befell the southern and southwestern Russian lands. Kiev was taken and defeated - the capital of the Old Russian state, "the mother of Russian cities."

In contrast to the countries of Central Asia, the Caspian Sea and the Northern Black Sea region conquered by the Mongols, who had favorable natural conditions for extensive nomadic cattle breeding, which became the territory of the Mongol Empire, Russia retained its statehood. But the political, largely economic, independence of the Russian lands was lost. The need to pay a heavy tribute, to go to the Horde for a label for reign created specific conditions for the existence of Russian lands in the XIII-XV centuries.

Western neighbors, taking advantage of the disaster that befell Russia, intensified their policies and tried to seize part of the Russian lands. In the summer of 1240 the Swedes marched on Pskov and Novgorod, followed by the German knights. The Pope heated up with his messages the aggressive plans of the northern and western neighbors of Russia. And it is no coincidence that at the time when Kiev selflessly defended itself from the troops of Batu, the knights of the Teutonic Order captured Izborsk, Pskov, robbed and killed Novgorod merchants.

For the Russian princes (the grand duke was Yaroslav Vsevolodovich; his son Alexander, nicknamed Nevsky, reigned in Novgorod; in Galich - Daniil Romanovich; in Chernigov - Mikhail Vsevolodovich) in this most acute situation, when Russia was "between two fires", the problem arose of choice : with whom to fight in the first place? in whose person to seek allies - in the face of the Horde or the Catholic West? These two possible lines in politics were embodied in the activities of two prominent politicians of the XIII century. - Alexander Nevsky and Daniil Galitsky.

Historians believe that Prince Alexander was one of the first to appreciate the complexity and inconsistency of the situation, as he knew better than anyone what danger was coming from the West. Seeing that the crusaders were no less destroyers in Russia than the Mongol-Tatars, Alexander Nevsky made a choice in favor of an alliance with the Horde and successfully implemented his political line until his death (1263).

The position of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich, who advocated peace with the Horde, did not cause sympathy for everyone. The lower estates unanimously opposed the Horde, the princes and the boyars disagreed. The church supported Nevsky (the Mongols pursued a policy of tolerance and freed the clergy from paying tribute), but even in the church community there could be no supporters of the uprising against the Horde.

The expression of popular sentiment was numerous unrest, riots against the numerals, Baskaks, exorbitant Horde tribute (1257 in Novgorod, 1262 in Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Ustyug, etc.). In politics, this line found expression in the activities of a number of princes, in the first place - Daniil Romanovich Galitsky. It is symbolic that the closest ally, comrade-in-arms of Prince Daniil was the brother of Alexander Nevsky, Prince Andrei Yaroslavich. Sources do not provide an opportunity to establish who was the initiator of the anti-Horde union that swept the Russian lands from the north-east to south-west, Prince Daniel or Prince Andrei? It is known that the agreement was supported by the marriage of Andrei Yaroslavich to the daughter of Daniil Galitsky in 1251.

This alliance, based on the moral support of the Catholic Church, was extremely undesirable and dangerous for the Horde. And as soon as Khan Batu strengthened his position, having achieved the election of his henchman by the great khan, he sent another army to Russia, which is known in history as Nevyrueva (1252). Information about her is stingy. It is known that a nevruyev army appeared near Pereyaslavl, Prince Andrei came out to meet her with regiments, and on Klyazma there was a "great battle." On the side of the Vladimir-Suzdal prince, apparently, the Tverichi fought. The forces were unequal, the Russian squads were defeated, Prince Andrei fled to Novgorod, and then to Sweden.

Daniil Galitsky found himself without an ally, but still hoped for the help of Pope Innocent IV, who called Catholics to crusade to Russia. The calls of the head of the Catholic Church were unsuccessful, and Prince Daniel decided to enter the fight against the Horde on his own. In 1257, he expelled the Horde Basques and the Horde garrisons from the Galician and Volyn cities. But the Horde sent a significant army under the command of Burundai, and Prince Daniel, at his request, was forced to dismantle the fortress walls in his cities, which constituted the main military support in the fight against the Horde. The Galicia-Volyn principality did not have forces to resist the burundaev’s ratification.

So the political line chosen by Alexander Nevsky won in life. In 1252, he becomes the Grand Duke and finally affirms the policy of peaceful disappearance from Russian political life of the 13th-15th centuries. pro-Western figures who considered a lesser evil alliance with Catholic Europe. Especially tenacious (for objective reasons), these moods turned out to be in Novgorod and the southwestern principalities.

§ 2. Features of the development of West Russian lands

in XIII - the middle of the XV century.

Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russian

West-Russian lands that were once part of the Old Russian state (the principalities of Polotsk, Turov-Pinsk, Volyn, Galitsky, Smolensk, Chernigov, Kiev) in the middle of the XIII century. ended up in a completely new foreign policy situation. This was connected not only with the establishment of Mongol-Tatar domination over Russia, but also with the fact that a new state, Lithuania, began to take shape on the banks of the Dvina and Baltic.

The nucleus of the Principality of Lithuania was the tribes of the Baltic - Letgol, Zhmud, Prussians, Yavägi, Lithuania, - which at the beginning of the XIII century. experienced the collapse of the tribal system. One of the most important factors that accelerated the birth of the new state was the external danger, on the one hand, the Bati hordes that did not reach these places, on the other hand, knights of the Catholic orders who settled in the Baltic at the beginning of the XIII century.

The initial stage of the formation of the Principality of Lithuania sources draw foggy. But almost all historians today agree that since their appearance on the pages of annals and chronicles in the 40s of the 13th century. The state of Lithuania was a Baltic-Slavic state. It is difficult to unambiguously determine the ways of uniting the Slavic and Baltic lands; most likely, this process went both by agreement (as it was with Polotsk) and by conquest. But for such a merger, undoubtedly, there were objective prerequisites, namely those centripetal tendencies that matured both on the territory of the West Russian principalities and on the lands of ethnic Lithuania.

The creator of the new power was the Lithuanian prince Mindovg. Apparently, already during his reign (killed in 1263), the foundations of the domestic policy of the Lithuanian state were laid. Here paganism and Orthodoxy peacefully coexisted. The Lithuanian princes were tolerant of Slavic customs and traditions, and maintained their economic structure and management system. The Lithuanian nobility actively assimilated the language and script of the Eastern Slavs. It was the language of the East Slavic population that became the state language and retained this status until the end of the 17th century. This naturally determined the attitude of the Russian lands to the Principality of Lithuania, as to their state.

Another factor contributing to the expansion and strengthening of Lithuania was the policy of the Horde khans. The latter regarded the Principality of Lithuania as a counterweight to the excessive strengthening of the Great Vladimir Principality on the one hand, the Order of the Swordsmen and Poland on the other. This was most clearly manifested during the heyday of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia under the princes Gediminas (1316 - 1341) and Olgerda (1345 - 1377).

In the first decades of the XIV century. in the sphere of Lithuanian influence were not only Grodno, Polotsk, Novogorodok, Vitebsk, Minsk, but also Pskov, Smolensk, Bryansk, Galicia-Volyn land. 2/3 of the territory of the state was settled by the Slavs. Naturally, at that time the Principality of Lithuania acquired the significance of a strong center, around which weak Russian regions were grouped. Along with the Grand Duchy of Vladimir, it laid claim to the entire Old Russian inheritance and assumed the function of creating a single Slavic state. The Gediminids in solving this problem made a worthy competition to the Ruriks.

Already in the first half of the XIV century. under Prince Gediminas it was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia that became the center of the anti-Horde struggle. Based on his support, the West Russian lands hoped to throw off the hated yoke. In the 30s, Smolensk prince Ivan Alexandrovich recognized his independence from the Lithuanian state, which caused the wrath of the khan of Uzbek. In 1339, an army led by Tavlubiy Murza came near Smolensk, but the Horde failed to break the resistance of the Smolensk and Lithuanians. The horde was forced to put up with Smolensk's refusal to pay tribute. This put a limit to the spread of the power of the Golden Horde in the West Russian lands.

During the reign of Olgerd Gediminovich, the main territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russian formed, the spheres of its influence were determined: the principality of Kiev, Chernihiv, Severshchina, Volyn principality, Podolia were finally subordinated.