Large-scale structure of the universe. Structure of space
The Universe is everything that can be detected at the most distant distances by any means, including various technical devices. And as technology, driven by our needs and scientific progress, develops, our understanding of the Universe also changes.
Until the beginning of the 19th century, the source of knowledge about the Universe was observations of a relatively small part of our galaxy in the form of star clusters closest to us. This part was taken to be the entire Universe. Moreover, it was believed that the Universe is a once and for all given, frozen formation, obeying mainly the laws of mechanics and existing forever. The further development of science and the emergence of new powerful means of observation have shown that even our entire galaxy is just one of the star clusters, of which there are billions in the Universe, and in addition to the forces of gravity and inertia, other forces related to electromagnetic, strong and weak interactions act in them .
The use of which appeared at the beginning of the nineteenth century. A. Einstein's theory of relativity allowed the Russian scientist Alexander Alexandrovich Friedman (1888-1925) to theoretically predict the possibility of a non-stationary state of the Universe. His calculations showed that the Universe can expand or contract depending on the value of its total mass. Somewhat later, the observations of the American astronomer Edwin Paul Hubble (1889-1953) showed that when moving to more distant stars, the length of the electromagnetic waves emitted by them naturally increases. Since the waves corresponding to red light have the longest wavelength among visible electromagnetic waves, the discovered phenomenon is called redshift. It, in accordance with the laws of physics, meant that distant galaxies were moving away from the observer, and the further away, the faster.
This fact led to the creation of the hypothesis of the origin of the Universe, as a result big bang. According to this hypothesis, it is believed that approximately 15-20 billion years ago all matter was concentrated in a small volume. This age of the Universe is determined based on an estimate of the distance to the most distant galaxies (billions of light years) and their speed of recession, which is comparable to the speed of light. The volume and shape of the state of matter before the Big Bang is impossible to estimate with modern knowledge. Although in the literature there are different assumptions about volumes on the order of kilometers or even the size of atoms. Such reasoning is probably of little use, since it is reminiscent of the reasoning of medieval scholastics, who at their meetings would spend several days without rest, in heated debates, with very serious expressions on their faces, discussing such, for example, a very important question, in their opinion: “ How many devils can fit on the point of a needle?
For science, questions that cannot be verified experimentally are meaningless. We cannot reproduce in the laboratory or even theoretically estimate gravity, temperature, pressure and other conditions when such masses as the entire Universe are concentrated in a small volume. It is not known how the forces causing gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak interactions manifest themselves and whether they even exist in this state.
The difficulty of assessing spatial relationships under given conditions must also be taken into account. In accordance with the theory of relativity, in strong gravitational fields and when processes occur at the speed of light, curved and compressed space does not at all correspond to what usually exists in our imagination. For example, you cannot talk about the place from which the flight began. It cannot be assumed that there is a fixed center from which other galaxies are moving away. This can be shown on a model of two-dimensional space in the form of an inflated ball, on the surface of which points are marked. These points will move equally away from each other, and it is impossible to indicate which of them is the center of retreat. In this model, the space under consideration is two-dimensional, the center of divergence is in the third dimension. The difference between the real expanding Universe and the two-dimensional model is that it is three-dimensional and the structure of our consciousness does not allow us to imagine the center of expansion in the fourth dimension. The only way to solve this problem is to formulate it in the form of mathematical formulas.
Here it is appropriate to recall how A. Einstein himself defined the essence of his theory when he was asked to do it very briefly. According to Einstein, if earlier, before the theory of relativity, it was believed that after the disappearance of matter, empty space remains, now the disappearance of matter means that space also disappears.
In addition to the observed recession of galaxies, there is another significant fact that can be interpreted as evidence in favor of the Big Bang hypothesis. This is the so called cosmic microwave background radiation. Theoretically, it was predicted in 1953 by the American scientist Georgy Antonovich Gamow (1904-1968). His calculations showed that as a result of intense interactions in the initial stages of expansion, strong electromagnetic radiation should have arisen, traces of which may be present to this day. The radiation was actually discovered in 1965 by American scientists Arno Alan Penzias (b. 1933) and Robert Woodrow Wilson (b. 1936), who were awarded the Nobel Prize for this discovery. While setting up a new radio telescope, these scientists could not get rid of interfering background radiation. Further analysis of the nature of this radiation showed that it is constant in time and equal in intensity in all directions and at different points in outer space, as predicted by Gamow's hypothesis. The radiation belongs to the microwave radio range with a wavelength of 7.35 cm.
The initial state of the Universe, from which the expansion of matter and the formation of its modern forms began, is called singular. With some certainty we can say that in this state such forms of matter as photons, elementary particles and atoms, which form the basis of the modern Universe, cannot exist.
Currently, through the joint efforts of many countries, expensive experimental facilities have been built, in which scientists hope to recreate some types of high-energy interactions, similar to the interactions of matter particles during the Big Bang.
The state at the initial moments of scattering due to high speeds and intense interactions of matter is usually called hot Universe. As a result of the explosion, the nature of which still remains a mystery, the already known laws of quantum mechanics, which are responsible for the formation of photons, elementary particles and atoms, came into effect, and the laws of classical Newtonian mechanics also began to operate.
The simplest in structure are hydrogen atoms. In accordance with the laws of quantum mechanics, they are also the most stable. Therefore, hydrogen atoms were formed at the highest rates and made up the bulk of the Universe at the initial stages. Currently, their share is determined by the value of about 90% of the total number of atoms.
In the conditions of a hot Universe, when moving at enormous speeds, collisions of hydrogen atoms led to the destruction of electron shells and the fusion of nuclei. As a result of a process consisting of several stages, four protons, of which two are converted into neutrons, form the nucleus of helium, the second element of the periodic table. This element is also very stable, but is less stable than hydrogen and requires more complex procedures for its formation. Its share in the modern Universe is approximately 10%.
Atoms of other elements can be synthesized in a similar way, but they are much less stable and this stability decreases with increasing atomic number and mass of the atom. The lifetime of atoms of some heavy elements is measured in fractions of a second. Accordingly, their occurrence in the Universe is inversely related to atomic mass. The total share of all elements, without hydrogen and helium, does not exceed 1%.
As with any explosive process, which is a complex set of powerful explosive impulses, the scattering matter of the Universe (mainly hydrogen) was distributed very unevenly. Clusters of a completely different nature arose - from individual molecules, dust grains, gas nebulae and dust clouds to small bodies and relatively large concentrated clusters of masses. Large clusters, obeying the laws of gravity, began to shrink. The final result of compression was determined by the size of the compressed mass.
If the mass exceeded a certain critical value, for example, slightly more than the mass of the largest planet in our solar system, Jupiter (section 4.5), then the gravitational compression energy, turning into heat, heated the cosmic body to a million degrees. At this temperature, thermonuclear processes of synthesis of helium from hydrogen begin, and a star lights up.
If the mass compressed by gravity is not very large, then the heating reaches thousands of degrees. This is not enough to start nuclear reactions and a hot, gradually cooling body is formed, usually a satellite of a star (planet) or a satellite of a large planet. For smaller masses, heating occurs only in the central part; they cool faster and also become planets or satellites of planets.
And finally, very small bodies do not heat up. Their low mass does not allow them to effectively retain volatile hydrogen and helium, which are dissipated due to diffusion in outer space. This, in particular, is facilitated by the “blowing out” of light molecules by the “stellar wind” (a stream of rapidly flying elementary particles). Therefore, the composition of not very massive bodies is dominated by heavy elements (for example, silicon or iron) or simple compounds, for example, water in the form of ice. These bodies, depending on their size and specific conditions, become comets, asteroids, small satellites, form rings of debris around planets, or rush through space in the form of meteorites until they collide with other bodies or are captured by their gravity.
As for the further fate of the expanding Universe, it is not yet possible to give a final answer, since the exact mass and average density of matter is not known. Calculations show that, depending on the assumed mass value, one can expect both an infinite expansion of galaxies and a gradual slowdown in expansion under the influence of gravity, followed by a transition to compression. The second option allows us to put forward a hypothesis according to which, on a scale of hundreds of billions of years, the Universe can be considered as a pulsating system, periodically returning to singular states, followed by explosions and expansions.
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Universe
Scale of the Universe
Star systems
You know that our Earth with its planets, other planets and their satellites, comets and small planets revolve around the Sun, that all these bodies make up the Solar System. In turn, the Sun and all other stars visible in the sky are part of a huge star system - our Galaxy. The star closest to the solar system is so far away that light, which travels at a speed of 300,000 km/s, takes more than four years to travel from it to Earth. Stars are the most common type of celestial body; there are more than one in our Galaxy alone several hundred billion. The volume occupied by this star system is so large that light can cross it in only 100 thousand years.
The main structural units of the Universe are “stellar islands” - similar to ours. One of them is located in the constellation Andromeda. This is a giant galaxy, similar in structure to ours and consisting of hundreds of billions of stars. The light from it to the Earth travels more than 2 million years. The Andromeda Galaxy, together with our Galaxy and several other galaxies of smaller mass, form the so-called Local group. Some of the star systems of this group, including the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, galaxies in the constellations Sculptor, Ursa Minor, Draco, and Orion, are satellites of our Galaxy. Together with it, they revolve around a common center of mass. It is the location and movement of galaxies that determines the structure and structure of the Universe as a whole.
The galaxies are so far from each other that only the three closest ones can be seen with the naked eye: two in the Southern Hemisphere - Large Magellanic Cloud, Small Magellanic Cloud, and from the north there is only one - Andromeda's nebula.
Dwarf galaxy in the constellation Sagittarius- closest to . This small galaxy is so close that the Milky Way seems to absorb it. The Sagittarius Galaxy lies 80 thousand light years from the Sun and 52 thousand light years from the center of the Milky Way. The next closest galaxy to us is the Large Magellanic Cloud, located 170 thousand light years away. Until 1994, when a dwarf galaxy in the constellation Sagittarius was discovered, it was thought that the closest galaxy was the Large Magellanic Cloud.
The Sagittarius dwarf galaxy was originally a sphere approximately 1,000 light-years across. But now its shape is distorted by the gravity of the Milky Way, and the galaxy has stretched 10 thousand light years in length. Several million stars that belong to the dwarf in Sagittarius are now scattered throughout the constellation Sagittarius. Therefore, if you just look at the sky, the stars of this galaxy cannot be distinguished from the stars of our own Galaxy.
Cosmic distances
From the most distant galaxies, light reaches Earth in 10 billion years. A significant part of the matter of stars and galaxies is in conditions that cannot be created in earthly laboratories. All outer space is filled with electromagnetic radiation, gravitational and magnetic fields; between stars in galaxies and between galaxies there is very rarefied matter in the form of gas, dust, individual molecules, atoms and ions, atomic nuclei and elementary particles. As you know, the distance to the closest celestial body to the Earth, the Moon, is approximately 400,000 km. The most distant objects are located at a distance from us that is more than 10 times greater than the distance to the Moon. Let's try to imagine the sizes of celestial bodies and the distances between them in the Universe, using a well-known model - the school globe of the Earth, which is 50 million times smaller than our planet. In this case, we must depict the Moon as a ball with a diameter of approximately 7 cm, located at a distance of about 7.5 m from the globe. The model of the Sun will have a diameter of 28 m and be at a distance of 3 km, and the model of Pluto - the most distant planet in the Solar System - will be removed 120 km from us. The closest star to us at this scale of the model will be located at a distance of approximately 800,000 km, i.e. 2 times further than the Moon. The size of our Galaxy will shrink to approximately the size of the Solar System, but the most distant stars will still be located outside of it.
Since all the galaxies are moving away from us, one cannot help but get the impression that our Galaxy is at the center of expansion, at the stationary central point of the expanding Universe. In reality, we are dealing with one of the astronomical illusions. The expansion of the Universe occurs in such a way that there is no “predominant” fixed point in it. Whichever two galaxies we choose, the distance between them will increase over time. This means that no matter which galaxy the observer finds himself in, he will also see a picture of the scattering of stellar islands, similar to the one we see.
Local group at a speed of several hundred kilometers per second, it is moving towards another cluster of galaxies in the constellation Virgo. The Virgo cluster is the center of an even more gigantic system of stellar islands - Superclusters of galaxies, which includes the Local Group along with our Galaxy. According to observational data, superclusters include over 90% of all existing galaxies and occupy about 10% of the total volume of space in our Universe. Superclusters have masses of the order of 10 15 solar masses. Modern means of astronomical research have access to a colossal region of space with a radius of about 10-12 billion light years. In this area, according to modern estimates, there are 10 10 galaxies. Their totality was called Metagalaxies.
So, we live in a non-stationary, expanding Universe, which changes over time and whose past is not identical to its current state, and the modern is not identical to its future.
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Your work is disabled JavaScript. Please enable scripts in your browser, and the full functionality of the site will open to you!According to modern ideas, obtained as a result of centuries of observations and research, the structure of the Universe is basically as follows. The studied part of space is filled with a huge number of stars - celestial bodies similar to our Sun.
Stars are scattered unevenly in space; they form systems called galaxies. Galaxies are mostly ellipsoidal and oblate, lenticular in shape. Their sizes are such that light, propagating at a speed of 300,000 km/sec, travels the distance from one edge of the galaxy to the other in tens and hundreds of thousands of years.
The distances between individual galaxies are even greater - they are tens of times greater than the size of the galaxies themselves. The number of stars in each galaxy is huge - from hundreds of millions to hundreds of billions of stars. From Earth, galaxies are visible as faint nebulous spots, and therefore they were previously called extragalactic nebulae. Only in galaxies close to us and only in photographs taken by the most powerful telescopes can individual stars be seen.
Inside galaxies, stars are also distributed unevenly, concentrating towards their centers and forming various clusters. The space between stars in galaxies and the space between galaxies is filled with matter in the form of gas, dust, elementary particles, electromagnetic radiation and gravitational fields. The density of matter in the interstellar and intergalactic medium is very low. The Sun and most of the stars and star clusters visible in the sky form the system we call our Galaxy; the huge number of faint stars included in it appears to the naked eye as a whitish stripe running across the entire sky and called the Milky Way.
The Sun is one of many billions of stars in the Galaxy. But the Sun is not a lonely star: it is surrounded by planets - dark bodies, like our Earth. Planets (not all) in turn have satellites. The Earth's satellite is the Moon. The solar system also includes asteroids (minor planets), comets and meteoroids.
Science has data that suggests that many stars in our Galaxy and stars in other galaxies have planetary systems similar to the Solar one. Everything in the Universe is in motion. Planets and their satellites, comets and meteoroids move; the Sun and stars move in galaxies, galaxies move relative to each other. Just as there is no space without matter, so there is no matter without movement.
The main features of the structure of the Universe described above were revealed as a result of enormous work that was carried out over thousands of years. Of course, different parts of the Universe have been studied to varying degrees of completeness. So, until the 19th century. The solar system was mainly studied and only from the middle of the 19th century. successful study of the structure of the Milky Way began, and from the beginning of the 20th century. - star systems.
The new theory of the structure of matter does not deny the modern idea of the structure of the Universe, but significantly complements it. In addition to the listed components, it consists of ether, which is material matter with a- and b-spherons chaotically moving in it.
The nuclei of galaxies can be various formations from the listed types of matter. Their condition is determined by the age and stage of development of the galactic formation.
Once upon a time, the world space was filled exclusively with ether, consisting of some conditionally inextricable material matter and α- and β-spherons moving in it. Moreover, the body of waves of α-spherons consists of material matter, and the body of waves of β-spherons consists of α-spherons. A flow of material matter is constantly moving towards α-spherons, which are in dynamic equilibrium with the ether. The flow of this matter gives energy to the spheron, which, compressing, accumulates it in the form of potential energy of a compressed wave, and immediately (when the wave opens) returns this energy to the ether in the form of waves of material matter. The flow of material matter to the spheron causes gravitational forces. Waves of material matter formed by α-spheron also have an impact on wave particles, however, due to their characteristics, their impact is weaker. In this regard, where there is a cluster of α-spherons, a gravitational field arises there, which is a general flow of material matter moving towards the center of the cluster. Under the influence of the flow of material matter (or, as they say, under the influence of gravitational forces) a global core is formed from α- and β-spherons, after the decay of which hydrogen atoms arise.
The resulting hydrogen atoms, as well as the named spherons, are capable of forming clouds, which, under the influence of the same gravitational forces, become denser, as a result of which in the central region of the cloud, the energy of hydrogen atoms and molecules becomes very high, and they begin to react, the so-called , thermonuclear fusion.
Further observations and research should explain a lot more in the structure and development of the Universe. They must clarify the picture drawn above, for which it will be necessary to resolve many important and fundamental issues. And despite the enormous remoteness of celestial objects, modern research methods and tools allow us to say with confidence that many of these issues will be resolved in the near future.
2.4. The emergence of planets.
Speaking about the structure of the Universe, we cannot ignore the issue related to the emergence of planets. For some time, not so much in scientific circles as in popular science publications, the question was often asked: are there planets around stars other than the Sun? In fact, this question in itself is naive. Just as the question is naive: does life exist anywhere else in the Universe? All these questions are not at all explained by ignorance. As a rule, they are asked by intellectual people. Most likely, they are associated with a subconscious feeling of our exclusivity. The answer to these questions can only be a resounding “yes.” Yes, we are not alone in the Universe (I have given convincing arguments for this in the chapters on the origin and evolution of life). Yes, planets exist around most of the stars in our galaxy. They also exist in other galaxies. We will be convinced of this by identifying the nature of the origin of planets in the Solar system.
According to modern concepts, the planets of the solar system were formed from a diffuse cloud in the protosolar system of a gas and dust cloud. However, this assumption does not entirely agree with the known characteristics of the planets. In particular, based on these ideas, it is almost impossible to explain the ordered movement of planets around the sun within limits close to the plane of rotation of the sun itself. Even in the case of the initial ordered rotation of the clouds, the planets, after their formation, would have to rotate with a significant displacement of the planes of their revolution around the Sun. In accordance with my hypothesis, the planets of the solar system are secondary formations caused by the activity of the Sun. Based on the actual characteristics of the bodies that form the Solar System, it can be assumed that it was formed in three main stages. The objects farthest away from the Sun are comets. Theoretically, they can have two origins. Along with their formation from solar emissions, some of them may be “aliens” from other stars in our galaxy. But in both cases, they should mainly consist of light chemical elements and their compounds. Comets are formed from emissions during the global explosion of a star during its period of great activity. The greatest activity should be in the initial stage of formation, when the shell mainly consists of light chemical elements, and the core is in a state corresponding to the fourth and fifth zones in Fig. 1. The high energy of the explosion tears the mass of the shell into small parts. In this regard, their mass is relatively small, and therefore thermonuclear fusion does not occur in them. For this reason, the bulk of comets consists of frozen gases.
The birth of comets is probably the first stage in the formation of the Solar System. The second stage, after a second global explosion, likely formed Pluto and hundreds of small planets like Quaoar, discovered in 2001. However, it is possible that some of the most distant planets could have been formed during the first global explosion. The planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, were already formed as a result of local emissions. The nature of these emissions was described above. There is a pattern - planets and satellites rotate in orbits located in a plane close to the plane of rotation of the sun and planets, respectively. But most importantly, the direction of rotation of the sun coincides with the direction of movement of the planets around it. This indicates that the emissions occur in the equatorial region of an active cosmic body. This is the only way to explain the existence of rings on Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus. At the third stage, the planets were formed: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. These planets most likely formed from local solar emissions as a result of local explosions, when solar activity was already significantly reduced.
If this hypothesis is correct, and it is sufficiently reasoned, then the existence of satellites of stars, that is, planets, should be recognized as a natural phenomenon. A star cannot escape the active stage, when huge masses are ejected into space.
The structure of a star.
The nuclei of heavy atoms are concentrated in the center of the star. Gradually, the pressure increases so much that the nuclei of atoms begin to collapse. First, they are destroyed into individual a-spherons in the a-L state, then they pass into the a-T state and, finally, cease to exist in the form of particles with the transition to the state of material matter. After this, the star has zones corresponding to all states and forms of matter.
At the center of such a star is a core of material matter. This core, although it has a large mass, has a relatively weak gravitational field. In certain cases, the gravitational forces of the core can be practically zero. The core is surrounded by a shell consisting of a-spherons in the a-T state. This zone is impenetrable to material matter and a-spherons. It is a wave that is in dynamic equilibrium with its environment. The size and mass of the zone of a-spherons depend on the age and mass of the star. At the same time, the frequency of its vibrations depends on the mass and size, which can range from tens, hundreds, and possibly more vibrations per second.
The next zone consists of a-spherons in the a-L state. This zone is transparent to material matter, but it does not allow a-spherons to pass through.
The next 4th zone is a solid formation of nuclei of atoms in the n-L state. This condition was not described in the new theory. It is characterized by the fact that, like the a-J state, it is impenetrable to a-spherons.
In the 5th zone of the nucleus, in addition to atomic nuclei in the hyperon state, there are also electrons in the meson state. This formation is also in a solid state, not permeable to b-spherons, but permeable to a-spherons. However, when the wave opens, in its outer part the nuclei of atoms leave the hyperonic state, and this part of the wave becomes permeable to b-spherons. The wave oscillation frequency of this zone is even lower than that of the previous ones.
Zone 6 is a region of liquid plasma that oscillates around the center with a relatively large period. This zone is transparent to all components of the ether.
The active component of the star ends with a zone in which the plasma is in a gaseous state. The period of oscillation of this zone relative to the center can be measured in months and years.
The presented model of a star is in accordance with all known properties of stars, and also allows us to explain what was previously in conflict with the laws of classical mechanics. In particular, from the standpoint of modern science, the behavior of the so-called black holes remained inexplicable. In accordance with existing ideas, black holes have a huge mass of matter concentrated in negligibly small volumes. It is believed that the gravitational forces of a black hole are such that it even absorbs light. All this does not contradict the new theory of the structure of matter, but on the contrary confirms it.
According to the new theory, the explosion occurs because, along with compaction, the black hole loses gravitational mass. With a decrease in gravitational mass, the flow of material matter to the black hole decreases, and at the same time the force of its pressure on the surface decreases. The dynamic balance of the waves of the black hole is disrupted - it explodes.
Flows of material matter form gravitational fields. The flow of material matter carries energy, due to which the acceleration of hydrogen atoms (and other particles) that are in a free state in the ether occurs. Hydrogen atoms will accelerate towards the center of the star. In turn, the energy of hydrogen atoms obtained as a result of acceleration is used in the thermonuclear fusion of deuterium, helium and other heavier atoms.
Heavier atoms move closer to the center of the star. Moreover, due to additional acceleration, their kinetic energy increases even more, which contributes to the synthesis of superheavy atoms. Closer to the center of the star, under the influence of ether flows, all those zones that we discussed above are formed.
The synthesis of any atoms occurs exclusively with the absorption of energy. However, in the process of thermonuclear reactions of synthesis of heavier atoms, one of them disintegrates into lighter atoms. It is the energy released during the decay of atoms that is emitted in the form of photons and neutrinos.
In addition to the processes described, other, more complex processes also occur in the interior of a star. In particular, at the boundary between the fifth and sixth shells, the synthesis and decay of superheavy atoms occurs. Let's look at this in more detail.
As we have already said, each shell of a star is essentially a macroscopic wave. The fifth shell consists of superheavy atoms. In the phase of its compression, local extrusion of superheavy atoms occurs into the sixth shell, where the pressure is lower. Once in an environment with lower pressure, superheavy atoms begin to decay, releasing energy previously spent on fusion. At the place of extrusion, a powerful explosion occurs, which disrupts the harmony of the shells. In this regard, secondary disturbances occur associated with the transition of matter from one shell to another. In an active star, such phenomena occur constantly, and therefore its shells do not have clearly defined spheres. During the formation of a star, disturbances associated with explosions of displaced superheavy atomic nuclei lead to significant ejections of stellar mass into space. These masses, as will be shown below, are the basis of the planets.
As already noted, stars and galactic formations in the universe are at different stages of their development. Depending on the age of the star and its mass, they can manifest themselves as variable stars, differing in the frequency of oscillations of the outer sphere (waves).
Modern science divides stars into variables based on the frequency of changes in the star's brightness, the frequency of radio emission pulses, and the frequency of x-ray emission. It is believed that radio emission is inherent in neutron stars, and x-ray emission is inherent in black holes and neutron stars paired with a “normal” star.
Based on the new theory of the structure of matter, all types of stellar pulsations and their radiation in various ranges do not require special explanations. Their nature is obvious - it lies in the wave structure of stars.
The evolution of a star is associated with one main factor - the star becomes denser under the influence of gravitational forces. In this case, the spherical zones described above are sequentially formed. However, from the time when the entire mass of the former hydrogen cloud is concentrated in the active component of the star, external waves (spherical zones) begin to successively transform into internal waves. When the outer shell becomes a wave consisting of atoms in a hyperonic state, the star, in accordance with modern terminology, becomes neutron. The transition of the external wave to the n-G state and then to the a-G state leads the star to the state of a black hole.
Knowing the described patterns, it is not difficult to come to the conclusion that, in particular, variable stars with varying luminosity are young formations in which waves with different states of matter are at the stage of formation. During this period, stars are most active, especially when the core begins to form in the solid state. Our Sun probably belongs to a group of stars that are at the end of this stage of development. That is, the Sun has probably already formed a solid core and is in the stage of further compression and formation of a denser core.
Conclusion.
I examined the most popular prevailing views about the structure of the Universe. But science does not stand still, and new theories appear from time to time. It is possible that some postulates will soon be revised.
Researchers from Los Alamos National Laboratory (USA) reported that they had obtained data on the variability of the speed of light. If these results are confirmed, then all current ideas about the picture of the universe will be called into question. In physics, there is a so-called fine structure constant α, equal to the slightly mysterious number 1/137. Modern ideas about the structure of our Universe are based on the unconditional constancy of this quantity - otherwise the entire universe must be structured differently. This constant is related to other world constants - the charge of the electron and Planck's constant, but the main thing is that it is inversely proportional to the speed of light.
Physicists now consider the first two quantities to be reliable constants, and a change in alpha is essentially a statement of a change in the speed of light in a vacuum. And since the creation of the special theory of relativity (SRT) by Albert Einstein, humanity has become accustomed to the idea of the unconditional constancy of the speed of light, equal to the incredible value of 300,000 km/s. And if the speed of light turns out to be different, then this calls into question both the SRT and all our ideas about the picture of the world.
Thus, the modern speed of light seems to be greater than in the distant past. Although many scientists believe that it is too early to revise physics based on these calculations, some of them are already trying to use the data obtained to explain the paradoxes of our Universe. For example, the temperature in large parts of the Universe is approximately the same, which means that energy can be exchanged between them. At a “small” speed of light this is impossible, but a higher speed allows for an exchange of energy.
To summarize, we can say that the Universe is matter, which not only has not yet been fully studied, but from time to time throws up new “surprises” for humanity. I would like to believe that new discoveries will only benefit us and allow humanity to conquer new spaces.
Part 3. Systemogenetics of the universe: SPACE, galaxy, universe, universe.
Chapter 1. Structure of COSMOS.
As a result of the weaving of wave movements of bodies at the micro, macro and mega levels of COSMOS, a single fabric of space-time is formed.
The unified fabric of space-time of the world surrounding a person is woven by the trajectories of cosmic bodies of micro, macro and mega levels of matter by three archetypes of waves:
1. DNA helix.
2. Wave formed by the DNN algorithm.
3. “Daily” movement of the body - a wave of body circulation, formed by the VChS algorithm.
The texture of the weaving of the fabric of space-time creates bodies of matter and the structures of systems of bodies by analogy: from cells - ( 1
) tissue is formed - ( 2
); organs - ( 3
) consist of tissues; the next level of structure of matter - organ systems - ( 4
); body system - ( 5
) crowns the structural organization of bodies of matter according to 5 positions of its structuring.
If in the mega world the cell of SPACE is galaxy (1
), then the fabric will be metagalaxy (2
), consisting of galactic cells - alfioles.
Further, the role of organs in the structure of COSMOS will be played by Universe (3
), A metaverse (4
) is a system of universes, like a system of organs.
Next, the system of the organism of space-time organization of matter of the mega level is represented by supermetaverse (5
).
Section 1.1. Briefly about the structure of the supermetaverse.
The spatial body of the supermetaverse consists of four separate parts. It has a core in the center (Fig. 47).
In literature there is a name for the supermetaverse - universe.
How many universes does the Almighty Almighty have? It's not hard to guess. At least on Earth there are now about 7 billion small universes of the micro level of Life. Let's return to the alfiole of the mega level of matter - the galaxy.
Rice. 47. Pictogram of the structure of the form of the universe from “crop circles” 07/27/2005.
The DNA of a human cell contains about 3.3 billion base pairs (haploid set) - stacks of nucleotide pairs.
If one year of movement of the body of the macro world along the trajectory of stellar DNA contains 10 base pairs (stacks), then the cycle of movement of the Earth and the Sun in the Milky Way galaxy is 330 million years.
Presumably, the full phase contains two cycles of the movement of the Earth and the Sun in the galaxy and is 660 million years due to the diploid set of stellar chromosomes.
Then, judging by the age of the Earth of 4.5 billion years, which science gives us, then the Sun and the Earth make a cyclic tour of the cell of the universe - the galaxy - for the fourteenth time (4.5: 0.33 = 13.6).
If we assume that the alfiole galaxy after one cycle of movement of the Sun - Earth (330 million years) multiplies (in science it is customary to say “divides”), then our universe is still an embryo - there are about 16384 alfioles in it. Apparently, the wall of galaxies found (recently discovered in astronomy) is the wall of the womb in which it began to develop.
Approximate sizes: galaxies - 0.105 parsecs; and the supermetaverse - 3,452.5 parsecs (see part 2, chapter 2)
Astrophysics gives us an idea of the texture of the metagalaxy, as a cellular spatial fabric consisting of stars. The cell of the human body, as well as one galaxy, is the primary separate cell of the micro and macro worlds.
Science gives the number of cells in the adult human body as 100 trillion.
Namely, there are so many galaxies in one supermetaverse (“adult”). Galaxies contain not only a nucleus, but also a nucleolus - everything is like in the cytology of... COSMOS.
It makes sense to clarify the concept of SPACE.
Not a single COSMOS system of any (all) levels can do without other systems, including without humans. Everything in SPACE is interdependent and interconnected.
In this case, it is necessary to talk about the development of a new branch of knowledge - system genetics of COSMOS, as a theory of natural systems.
Calibration, as the integration of COSMOS bodies into systems and the general structure, defines COSMOS as a hierarchically structured unification of systems of bodies of micro, macro and mega levels of the structure of matter in the Universe.
The hierarchy of COSMOS systems is the structure of the form of interaction of all structured forms of life of inert and living matter in the simultaneous construction of horizontal (one level) and vertical (multi-level) connections of energy-information equivalent exchange and interchange, subject to the law of conservation of matter, energy and information - homeostasis of COSMOS.
The structure of COSMOS, as a hierarchy of matter systems structured by gauge, is as follows:
1. Structure of the System of Plasma Substances.
2. Structure of the System of Quarks (electrons).
3. Structure of the Atomic System.
4. Structure of the System of Molecules.
5. Structure of systems of Worlds at the planetary level - WORLD.
6. Structure of Planetary Level Systems – Planet.
7. Structure of Planetary Systems - Star.
8. Structure of Star Systems - Galaxy.
9. Structure of Galactic Systems – Metagalaxy.
10. Structure of Metagalaxy Systems - the Universe.
11. Structure of Universe Systems – Metaverse.
12. Structure of Metauniverse Systems – Supermetaverse.
+ 1 (Whole) = SPACE - organism.
COSMOS is a collectively constructive, unitedly structured universe of spiritualized systems.
Let's consider the meaning of the definition of the abbreviation COSMOS offered to your attention.
First of all, the above definition of COSMOS, tells us that each system has its own consciousness, since spirituality is the presence of individual consciousness in all systems without exception.
Second, all systems are united into a Single Living Whole - the Universe.
Third, that there is a structure of united systems, which is called, ... let there be Brahma, in a system of the highest order of constructing Life, and in its characteristics of content and state does not have the parameters of linear time and space. This higher system consists of Universes, each of which unfolds into a space-time continuum.
The universe, just like humans, has cells, tissues from these cells, organs, organ systems and the structure of organ systems.
Fourth, that the structure of all systems of all worlds and levels of fractality of matter has a strict, mathematically described design.
Fifth- the design was created by the Supreme Super Mind (the Supreme Almighty), as a collective Creation of all systems of COSMOS in the reverse movement of Creation, and,
Sixth, the entire COSMOS is biological systems, each of which carries its own DNA code.
Section 1.2. The finitude of the universe.
The DNA of a human cell is folded into a super dense globule.
By analogy: the DNA of the galaxy is also (on an evidentiary basis, Part 2, Chapter 1, Sections 1.1 – 1.9) folded into a super-dense globule.
The trajectories of the globule bodies have no beginning and no end to their internal structure, like a snake.
She is curled up into a ball and “biting” her own tail.
The globule of the galaxy has finite dimensions. It has a finite diameter.
At the same time, the DNA helix is an endlessly winding curve, as Gautama Buddha said: “Great without an outer edge, small without an inner limit.”
But in general, based on the position of the heliogeocentric system of movement of bodies, we can speak with confidence and evidence about the finitude of the supermetaverse and at the same time about the infinity of the movement and development of matter in it.
Section 1.3. Conclusions on some aspects of the theories.
1.3.1.
The law of universal gravitation is an indirect way of assessing the position of bodies in space-time today from the standpoint of the subjective knowledge of mankind.
Bodies have, prescribed by the DNA law, levels of their location in the matrices of MM systems of matter, similar to the position of electrons in an atom according to the levels and sublevels of space-time of the micro world.
1.3.2. The big bang theory is untenable. The development of the supermetaverse occurs according to the development scenario from the zygote of a star cell - an alfiole (galactic level of matter).
1.3.3. There is no expansion and/or collapse of the universe. There is involution, evolution and endless development of matter.
1.3.4.
The validity of the theory of the presence of dark matter in the galaxy.
Explanation #1.
The virus in its size (7.5 10–8 m) is a rather large body in the microcosm. However, the virus is not visible with a simple light microscope. The explanation for this fact is given by science that the wavelength of light is greater than the size of the virus, and more simply, the light bends around the virus and does not transmit information about the encounter with this virus to the microscope. 
Rice. 48. Scheme of the structure of an adenovirus.
Up: The geometric shape of the adenovirus is an icosahedron.
At the bottom: drawing made from an electron micro photograph of an adenovirus. The capsid consists of 252 capsomeres, 12 are located at the corners of the icosahedron, and 240 are located on the faces and edges. Adenoviruses are DNA viruses.
If we take the wavelength of light (the lattice of vertices of the dodecahedron of photon motion) as a standard for the structure of the space-time lattice, then the mathematical lattice of the structure of the virus matrix will be a fractional space-time based on a lattice whose structure is based on the icosahedron inscribed in the dodecahedron (Fig. 48 ).
As is known, viruses in most cases have the structure of the outer shell of the body of an icosahedron (see M. Singer. P. Berg. “Genes and Genomes” Volume I. 1998, Moscow. Publishing house “Mir”, p. 30).
The algorithm for the structure of the DNA of the virus is also an icosahedron. This reason explains the ability of viruses to integrate into the DNA or RNA of another organism and destroy the latter, and as is assumed, since DNA contains an algorithm for its structure, which is formed not only according to the dodecahedron, but also according to all other Platonic solids, including the icosahedron.
Biologists have learned to “see” viruses using an electron microscope.
In relation to the macrocosm, let us assume that light from the Sun, and therefore from other stars, has a wave amplitude (the diameter of the DNA double helix per nucleosomal core) equal to 127.419182 × 10 * 6 km, and a longitudinal wavelength of one year - the standard unit of spatial time grid of the mega world.
The location of other stars (the Matrix grid) relative to the Earth and the Sun is not a multiple of the distance taken as a unit of space-time. 
Rice. 49. Diagram of the movement of light from the Sun and star W (simplified).
The movement of photons occurs along spherical surfaces (Part 2. Chapter 2). Then the light from “nearby” stars (star W in the picture - Fig. 49) and planetary-type bodies (reflected) will “go around” the Earth, just as light “goes around” the virus.
An observer from Earth will not detect the star W. Having bypassed the globule of the supermetaverse, the light from the star W will again return along its DNA corridor to the earthly observer, but in the form of a point on the sky.
Explanation #2 described further in Part 3, Chapter 4.
Conclusions from the above:
A) Dark matter (halo of a galaxy) is nothing more than the bodies of COSMOS not detected from the Earth.
B) The location of stars in the sky is an illusion of an observer from Earth.
Physically, the stars are located in a different spatial location in COSMOS.
C) It is known that the planet Earth, climatically, went through global periods of glaciation and warming. 
Rice. 50. Scheme of the eras of glaciation of the Earth.
A feature of climatic conditions during the glaciation era was the oscillatory nature of the advances and retreats of ice sheets.
In Fig. 50 shows the glaciation epochs of the last billion years.
As a working hypothesis, it can be assumed that the mechanism leading to the regular oscillatory process of glaciation is a change in the diameter of the DNA double helix on the stellar nucleosomal core (DDNA = 127.419182 × 10 * 6 km). The change in diameter is inherent in the design of DNA helices. If, for example, the distance from the Earth to the Sun is constantly kept within 147.099584 × 10 * 6 km, then the luminosity of the Sun is 25% higher than at a distance of 152 × 10 * 6 km. A decrease in the luminosity of the Sun on Earth by 25% reduces the average annual temperature by 10° ÷15°, which in turn leads to an increase in glaciers on Earth.
This occurs due to the fact that the sun's rays reach the Earth during half the period of their revolution from the Sun with the diameter of the double helix of DNA photons being 147.099584 × 10 * 6 km (Fig. 49). To reach the Earth at a distance of 152 × 10 * 6 km from the Sun, the sun's rays need one and a half or more rotation periods. At the same time, the illumination decreases.
These periods are cyclical in nature, since DNA chromosomes lie on spherical surfaces of different diameters.
Currently, the Earth is going through the Cenozoic era of glaciation, since the main part of the distance to the Sun along the Earth's orbit is more than 147.099584 106 km.
For the same reason, winter in the southern hemisphere, when the distance to the Sun is minimal (perihelion), is much warmer than in the northern hemisphere of the Earth at a distance to the Sun of 152 × 106 km (aphelion).
1.3.6. Kepler's laws.
Kepler's first law states that all planets move in ellipses, at one of the foci of which (common to all planets) is the Sun.
This law is not fulfilled in the model of heliogeocentric movement of bodies - all bodies of COSMOS move along helicoids on the torus.
Kepler's second law states that the radius vector of a planet describes equal areas in equal periods of time.
This law is a law of a relative, closed system-model of Copernicus and is not fulfilled in a heliogeocentric system.
The speed of a body along the trajectory of its motion is constant and the body moves uniformly. Consequently, in equal periods of time the body will travel equal segments of its trajectory. In this case, the areas of the sectors will be different due to different radii of the vectors (from 147.099584 × 106 km to 152 × 106 km).
We will not analyze Kepler’s third law for now, since we need a deep computer analysis of the trajectories of other planets.
