Knowledge and technical and technological achievements of the primitive era. The Essence of the Neolithic Revolution

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An assessment was made of the stages in the history of the development of technology: the stage of the emergence of technical devices; stage of craft development of technical devices; machine technology stage; stage of information-rich technology (automated control systems / information technology systems). The concept of technology has ancient Greek etymological roots and has become widespread in both ordinary and scientific consciousness. Technology is understood as a set of mechanisms and machines created by man on the basis of scientific achievements, designed to carry out various types of activities. Features of the development of technology contributed to the emergence of six technological structures of society.

technical devices

craft equipment

machine technology

information technology systems

technological structure.

1. Mumford, L. The Myth of the Machine // Utopia and Utopian Thinking. Anthology of foreign literature. – M., 1991.

2. Heidegger, M. The question of technology // New technocratic wave in the West. - M., 1986.

3. Al-Ani, N.M. Philosophy of technology: essays on history and theory: textbook. – St. Petersburg, 2004.

4. Glazyev, S.Yu. Strategy for advanced development of Russia in the context of the global crisis. – M., Economics, 2010.

5. Petrov, V.P. Social and philosophical analysis of the peculiarities of personality formation in modern Russia. – N. Novgorod, NNGASU, 2011.

Etymology of the word technique has an ancient Greek history - τεχνῆτιο (techne), which determined the widest range of human activities at that time in the existence of the Hellenes - from the simplest craft to high art. It is assumed that this word appeared in the time of Homer and was interpreted as τέκτων (tekton), having the Indo-European root tekp, meaning carpentry, and was originally used to refer to the art of a master of construction - a carpenter, and then began to be used in the meaning crafts or arts generally.

Aristotle considered this concept more comprehensively, giving it the meaning of knowledge. In the treatise “Nicomachean Ethics,” he drew attention to the difference between other types of knowledge, such as ουράνιος (empeireia: experimental knowledge) and της επιστήμη (episteme: theoretical knowledge). Although the meaning of knowledge among the Hellenes was close to the meaning of knowledge, they still did not unite them, realizing that there are things that have not yet received their explanation. Knowledge in the broadest sense of the word meant turning to the still unknown. Techne (τεχνῆτιο) represented that area of ​​knowledge that is directly related to human activity, connected with it, reflects its result, that is, generated by human thought and labor in accordance with existing needs. This was the area of ​​​​technological knowledge. Its subject was the sphere of what was being created, i.e. in the process of becoming. Theoretical knowledge was addressed to what directly exists, that is, to what was already given by nature or the gods and required understanding.

Technical knowledge was, as it were, a connecting link between experimental knowledge and theoretical knowledge. Technoscience intuitively combined experimental data and theoretical conclusions to explain what is happening and the present.

A feature of technical knowledge was its focus on design, construction and production. The process of future production in technical knowledge consists of a number of stages: ideal modeling of the object, its design and direct development of the structure. This is an essential feature that allows us to see technical knowledge as a means to achieve goals that meet the real needs of society and people.

Comparing the processes of production in technical knowledge and the processes of emergence in nature, Greek thinkers believed that they were similar in many ways, although the production process was more complex. Unlike nature, technical knowledge through technology is capable of modeling and improving what it creates in accordance with emerging needs. Technoknowledge has the power to change natural processes, so technology, on the one hand, acts similarly to natural processes, and on the other, can change the world around us in accordance with the emerging needs of people.

Thus, in the word technology, from the moment of its verbal use, two aspects were combined: Firstly, tools, i.e. tools with which a person carries out activities, realizing his needs; Secondly, accumulated knowledge, skills, methods of work necessary in the use of tools, as well as used to improve them. Although the word techne was first used in Hellas, it does not prove that technical devices originated there. This fact emphasizes the peculiarity of the development of knowledge among the Hellenes, based on the spiritual understanding of the phenomena of reality. The technology itself, or rather the primary tools for economic use, dates back to 4-3 millennia BC, that is, to the time of the birth of human civilization. Therefore, they could not yet be considered technology in its essential understanding and engineering application. This was only a prototype of technology for the initial designation of “human techno-making”: the creation of tools (scrapers, hoes, axes, shovels, spindles, wheels), the organization of primary production (in construction, agriculture, metalworking). These were the first steps of mankind in the development of technology, and later in conceptual justification.

Technology as an essential element of the culture of society and the development of civilization historically includes four stages of its existence. I. The origin of technical devices. II. Craft formation of technical devices. III. Machine technology. IV. Information-rich technology [automated control systems / information technology systems (ACS/ITS)].

Chronologically, the first stage included the entire prehistoric era and lasted until the emergence of the first ancient civilizations of 4-3 millennia BC. At this time, primitive communal relations formally took shape and then gradually transformed. The socio-economic formation had a primitive appearance, and human activity was limited to his family and tribal needs. Primitive household devices were used, necessary for domestic needs. They were often random in nature, because not invented a person, and accidentally found them. According to the Spanish philosopher and publicist J. Ortega y Gasset, this technique was the “technique of chance.” At the very early stage of his existence, primitive man did not understand the meaning of a tool and, naturally, could not imagine how to make it. He limited himself only to using suitable natural objects for his needs. For example, an empty shell served him as a natural drinking vessel that replaced his palms (L. Geiger, German researcher). A random stone or animal bone was used as a primitive “knife,” “axe,” or “hammer.” But even here the “case” was not for everyone, but only for the most developed, that is, those who were able to comprehend what they saw for their primary needs. And only after millions of years did repeated accidents begin to turn among primitive man into a tendency to conscious, and later to expedient his use of natural objects as economic devices, which gave impetus to their technical production and use.

The range of technical and economic means was limited, and the operations for their production were simple and passed on from generation to generation. Man has not yet realized himself as a subject of his activity, and, consequently, as a creator of technology. He “does not yet feel like homo faber,” so he accepts technology as part of nature with which he is in unity (H. Ortega y Gasset).

The pace of development of technical devices during this period was the longest in the history of mankind, since ancient man created devices using the “trial and error” method, accidentally came across the desired solution, and only with the advent of the first civilizations in Egypt, India, China And Mesopotamia (states of Ur, Uruk, Lagash in the two rivers Tigris and Euphrates) A new stage in the development of technical devices begins to take shape.

Chronologically, it can be defined from the stage of the emergence of the first ancient civilizations (4-3 millennia BC) until the advent of modern times (late 16th - early 17th centuries).

Technical devices during this period began to differ significantly from primitive ones, but it was impossible to call them technology due to the fact that scientific knowledge was just emerging and people had not yet learned how to put it into practice. True, household equipment is becoming more diverse, and the methods of its manufacture are becoming more complicated, and not every person can make the device he needs himself. Moreover, the very use of sophisticated objects of labor required knowledge and serious preparation for engaging in a specific craft with the manufacture of production tools in various types of household activities.

For these reasons, a social stratum of artisans gradually began to emerge, people who combined technology and worker (J. Ortega y Gasset). Their tools of labor still acted as a simple addition to man, who, although he was the “driving force” of the technical process (K. Marx), but the relationship “man - tool” has not changed fundamentally since the time of the primitive communal system. This will happen much later with machine technology, with the use of which labor productivity will increase significantly and the technological process will qualitatively change.

The bottom line was that the craft of an artisan as a special form of technical activity was not based on science, no theoretical calculations were made. The basis was the traditional knowledge and practical skills of generations. This meant that the craft could only be mastered empirically, which is why it remained within the framework of tradition. This circumstance imposed natural restrictions on all inventive activity. The emergence of new technical devices was, as before, a matter of great time. And although the pace of technical development accelerated compared to the pace of development of “accidental technology,” they could not satisfy the growing needs of mankind. Only with the advent of the Renaissance, or more precisely with the beginning of the New Age, in Europe did technology acquire the content that corresponded to its form. This content of technology was science. Craft technology has historically exhausted its potential and opened the way to machine technology.

The chronological framework of the third stage includes several centuries: from the modern period to the middle of the 20th century.

Machine technology was based on engineering activity , which, as a more developed form of technical activity, is oriented towards science, that is, theoretical and applied natural science.

This is the social essence of the fact that machine technology could not appear as an alternative to craft technology at the same historical time. There were no real conditions for the free development of natural science, as well as engineering activities, which were later brought to life by the objective needs for the development of productive forces. Society began to realize this fact precisely in modern times, along with the end of the era of primitive accumulation of capital and the beginning of the era of bourgeois revolutions in the countries of Western Europe.

At the same time, it is worth noting that engineering activity has its own background. It naturally fits into the chronological framework of those eras that preceded the New Age. This was facilitated by the circumstances and activities of a number of unique representatives of the human race, in particular, Archimedes (287-212 BC), Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), Nicolaus Copernicus ( 1473-1543), Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), Francis Bacon (1561-1626), Isaac Newton (1643-1727), Christian Huygens (1629-1695). However, the docking of scientific knowledge and production has not yet taken place, the time of scientific and technological revolutions was ahead.

As M. Heidegger noted, mankind still had time for the continuous evolution of production and the development of theoretical and practical natural science knowledge associated with it, before the industrial revolution that began in England in the 60s of the 18th century (which swept Europe and the USA) did not lead to the need formation of individual technical sciences (for example, theoretical mechanics).

Significant events along this path were: the invention by the Englishman James Watt (1736-1819) of a steam engine and a universal heat engine; the Frenchman Etienne Lenoir (1822-1900) of the internal combustion engine; Russian inventors, father and son Cherepanov, a steam locomotive and the construction of a railway, 3.5 km long (Cherepanovs - Efim Alexandrovich (1774-1842) and his son Miron Efimovich (1803-1849) were serfs from the breeders Demidovs) ; the discovery of the physical properties of electricity and the invention of the electric motor - the dynamo in 1867; Yablochkov Pavel Nikolaevich (1847-1894) electric candle (1876), which resulted in a whole series of world electrical inventions that marked the beginning of the fourth stage in the development of technology. Scientific discoveries played a decisive role in the transition from crafts to machine technology, and then to machine production.

The transition from manufacture to industrial production required the professional training of engineers. In Paris in 1794, the famous mathematician and engineer Gaspard Monge (1746-1818) opened the Polytechnic School, which combined scientific-theoretical and technical-practical training. This training system began to spread throughout Europe and the USA. Russia is also taking specific measures to train technical specialists. In 1830, a vocational school was opened in Moscow, which in 1868 was transformed into the Imperial Moscow Technical School (higher educational institution), since 1917 it has been the Moscow Higher Technical School, a university, the largest research center for mechanical and instrument engineering. Nowadays MSTU named after. N.E. Bauman.

Unlike craft practice, where man continued to be the main driving force of the technical process, in machine technology the driving principle is the force of nature transformed into a machine. Machine technology created the prerequisites for the transition to the fourth stage of technical development of society.

Chronologically, the fourth stage - the stage of information-rich technology - begins to take shape in the mid-twentieth century and continues to this day. ACS/ITS contribute to the improvement of design, scientific research, production and process management.

The largest scientific discoveries in the field of atomic physics and quantum mechanics, the development of chemical physics and electronics (nanoelectronics), technological developments (biotechnology, membrane, vacuum, laser technologies) and the use of traditional and non-traditional energy carriers contributed to the emergence of new generations of technology. The creative scientific and technical process among scientists and specialists, inventors and engineers in various spheres of human life goes in parallel with the creation and use of new technology. Numerous research institutes, design bureaus, design bureaus, laboratories, institutes, factories, enterprises of various types of ownership are working to create new equipment and apply new technologies in the production of a wide range of products.

The machine technology was replaced by machine production, automated control systems, information technical systems. Electronic computing technology, computerization of production and intellectual processes have made it possible to reduce the time for the development and implementation of products by tens, hundreds and thousands of times. A person in this process is represented at three levels: engineer, programmer, technologist.

The problem of the historical formation and development of technology, its theoretical vision has been substantively developed in a number of countries and scientific schools, including Russia. Western theorists and philosophers of technology include a galaxy of German thinkers of the 19th-21st centuries - E. Kapp, F. Dessauer, E. Bloch, M. Heidegger; French philosopher and sociologist J. Ellul; American scientists L. Mumford, T. Veblen, D. Bell, A. Toffler, J. K. Galbraith, W. Rostow; Spanish philosopher J. Ortega y Gasset. In Russia, among the thinkers of this trend is P.K. Engelmeyer - the first theorist of the philosophy of technology, A.A. Bogdanov. In modern Russia, the work of V.G. deserves a worthy assessment. Gorokhova, V.M. Rozina, E.A. Shapovalov, the work of the St. Petersburg philosopher N.M. is very relevant. Al-Ani, whose ideas are used in the article.

The historical emergence of technology led to the development of six technological structures, differing in production technologies. The beginning was laid by the industrial revolution of the 18th century in Europe. In the first technological structure (1770-1830), textile machines became a key factor in the development of production. In the second (1830-1880) it was a steam engine. In the third (1880-1930), the electric motor played a leading role, significantly increasing the flexibility of production. In the fourth (1930-1970), a technical and technological breakthrough in industry was provided by the internal combustion engine, which made it possible to move to mass production of various classes of cars, tractors, and airplanes. The fifth technological structure (1970-2010) was based on achievements in the field of microelectronics, computer science, biotechnology, genetic engineering, new types of energy and materials. There was a substantive exploration of outer space and the development of satellite communications. The core of the technological structure consisted of the electronics industry, computer technology, robotics, software, telecommunications, information technology, and fiber optic technology. The sixth technological structure has been developing before our eyes since 2010. The key factor is nanotechnology and cellular technologies. The advantage of the sixth technological structure, compared to the previous one, is predicted to consist in a sharp reduction in energy and material intensity of production, in the design of materials and organisms with predetermined properties. Its core is nanoelectronics, molecular and nanophotonics, nanomaterials and nanostructured coatings, nanobiotechnology, nanosystem technology. The rationale for this approach was laid by S.Yu. Glazyev, and it can be noted with a sufficient degree of optimism that the forecasts of the Russian economist are quite realistic, as is his identification of six technological structures. Modern technology is technology of the fifth, sixth and even seventh generations; its functioning is possible only with the use of advanced technologies. The relationship between engineering and technology gives a real impetus to the development of both industrial production and society as a whole in all spheres of its life: economic and environmental, managerial and scientific, pedagogical and artistic, medical and physical education, defense and public safety.

Reviewers:

Kulakov A.A., Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor, Head. Department of National History and Culture of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education NNGASU, Nizhny Novgorod.

Kozhevnikov V.P., Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor, Professor of the Department of Philosophy and Political Science of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education NNGASU, Nizhny Novgorod.

Bibliographic link

Petrov V.P. HISTORICAL STAGES OF FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNOLOGY: PECULIARITIES OF THE PROBLEM AND THE DEGREE OF ITS STUDY // Modern problems of science and education. – 2014. – No. 2.;
URL: http://science-education.ru/ru/article/view?id=12679 (date of access: 11/26/2019). We bring to your attention magazines published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural Sciences"

HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Abstracts of lectures were prepared by Associate Professor, Candidate of Cultural Studies

Lecture one. Science and technology in the history of mankind…………………………………….1

Lecture two. Antique science and technology……………………………………………………..4

Lecture three. The development of science and technology in the era of modern times…………………………7

Lecture four. World science and technology in the twentieth century. and at the beginning XXI century……………………….10

Lecture five. Russian science and technology in the eighteenth century………………………………………..13

Lecture six. Russian science and technology in the nineteenth century………………………………………..16

Lecture seven. Russian science and technology in the twentieth century. and at the beginning XXI century………………………19

Lecture one. Science and technology in the history of mankind.

1. History of science and technology in the system of modern scientific knowledge.

2. Science as a historical and cultural phenomenon.

3. Technology as a historical and cultural phenomenon.

4. The role of science and technology in the history of mankind.

5. Accumulation of knowledge in primitive society. Neolithic revolution.

1. History of science and technology in the system of modern scientific knowledge.

History of science and technology is a science that began to take shape as an independent branch of historical knowledge only at the end of the 19th century. It is characterized by the following provisions: it is interdisciplinary in nature, it is a complex, integrative science, at the same time humanitarian, natural and technical.

Historians of science and technology study the historical processes of scientific knowledge and technical creativity. The history of science and technology as a science collects information about events and creators of the history of science and technology, studies material monuments of the history of science and technology; processes of obtaining and substantiating scientific and technical knowledge in various cultural and historical conditions.

Since the subject of the course is the global development of science and technology, the use of general historical periodization can be considered justified.

2. Science as a historical and cultural phenomenon

The science is one of the spheres of culture along with religion, mythology, art, philosophy, etc.

Nauka – this is a sphere of human activity, the function of which is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality; includes both the activity of obtaining new knowledge and its result - the sum of knowledge that underlies the scientific picture of the world.

It originated in the ancient world and began to take shape in the 16th – 17th centuries. and in the course of historical development it has become the most important social institution, exerting a significant influence on all spheres of society and culture as a whole. The volume of scientific activity since the 17th century. doubles approximately every 10-15 years (increase in the number of discoveries, scientific information, number of scientists).

Paradigm(in a broad sense) - a dominant (recognized by the majority of a certain community of people) system of ideas (ideas, achievements), which over a certain period of time provides the community with a sample (model, example) of posing problems and their solutions. Scientific and technical paradigm is a paradigm in a narrow (scientific and technical) sense, where a community of people means a community of scientists and engineers.

Currently there are three fundamental models of historical reconstruction of science:

· history of science as a cumulative progressive process

· history of science as development through scientific revolutions

A qualitative leap in the development of science and/or technology, leading to a change in the scientific and technological paradigm, is considered scientific and technological revolution.

· the history of science as a set of individual, particular situations(Case Studies).

3. Technology as a historical and cultural phenomenon

T technique (from Greek - art, craft, skill) - this is a set of means of human activity created to carry out production processes and serve the non-productive needs of society; machines, mechanisms, instruments, devices, tools of one or another branch of production; a set of skills and techniques in any type of activity, craftsmanship (construction equipment, music).

Artificial products are not only technical products; These are also products of art. Both are created by man and are often called artifacts (from arte - artificially + factus - made = arte-factum - lat.

4. The role of science and technology in the history of mankind

Science and technology play a major, decisive role in modern society. However, the ancient Greeks, with all their love for philosophy, looked at the craft of a mechanic as an occupation of common people, not worthy of a true scientist. One of the fathers of the Christian church, Tertullian (Quintus Centimius Florens, c. 160-after 200, lived mainly in Carthage, a city-state in North Africa, modern Tunisia), argued that after the Gospel there is no need for any other knowledge . Understanding of the role of science came only during the Enlightenment.

5. Accumulation of knowledge in primitive society. Neolithic revolution.

Periodization of the primitive era

The most developed is archaeological periodization, which is based on a comparison of human-made tools, their materials, forms of dwellings, burials, etc.

The internal periodization schemes of the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages at different stages differ significantly among different researchers. This can be explained by the significant distance between the primitive era and the modern era and the non-simultaneity of the onset and end of certain eras in different territories. For most of the ecumene (the territory of the globe inhabited by humans), the Early Paleolithic covers a period of about 2.5 million - about 100 thousand years ago; Middle Paleolithic - 100 thousand - 35 thousand years ago; late (upper) Paleolithic - 35 thousand - 12 thousand years ago; Mesolithic - 12 thousand - 10 thousand years ago; Neolithic - 10 thousand - 5 thousand BC e.; copper, copper-stone, Chalcolithic, Chalcolithic (from Greek χαλκός “copper” + λίθος “stone”) or Chalcolithic(from lat. aeneus"copper" + Greek λίθος "stone") - 4-3 thousand BC. e.; Bronze Age - 3 - 2 thousand BC e.; iron age - the beginning of 1 thousand BC. e.

According to theories of anthropogenesis(theory of the origin and formation of man) , it was labor, labor activity that created man himself, mankind.

Period	Achievements
Paleolithic	Rough hand ax made of flint; Use of fire in driven hunting, for cooking and heating; Knives, piercers, scrapers, harpoons, stone ax
	Bow and arrows; Microliths (miniature stone plates); Fishnet; Boat hollowed out of a tree trunk (boat)
	Domestication (domestication) of wild plants and animals leads to agriculture and cattle breeding; The first ceramic products; Techniques for grinding, sawing and drilling stone; Weaving
Copperstone Age (final stage of the Neolithic)	Metallurgy (copper),
Bronze Age	Metallurgy (copper+tin=bronze); Chariot; Megalithic structures (menhir, dolmen, cromlech); Navigation; Skis (c. 2500 in Scandinavia)
Iron Age	Metallurgy (iron);

There is a gradual transition from an appropriating economy to a producing one, associated with the emergence of agriculture and cattle breeding. This phenomenon is called "Neolithic revolution"(the term was introduced in 1925 by an English archaeologist). The progress of the productive forces became possible thanks to the emergence of the social division of labor, which went through three stages: 1) the separation of agriculture and cattle breeding; 2) highlighting the craft; 3) separation of trade from craft. These activities led to a sedentary lifestyle, which led to the creation of permanent settlements, then cities and the first state formations. During the period lasting from the 10th to the 3rd millennium BC. e. There have been fundamental changes in the material and spiritual lives of people.

Summary: The goals of mastering the discipline “History of Science and Technology” are: analysis of the role of science and technology in cultural and historical development; knowledge of the main periods in the history of world and Russian science and technology, identification of ethical problems of scientific and technical activity.

Summarizing the main achievements in the primitive era, it can be argued that people had: the technology of basic forms of activity that ensured the maintenance of life ( hunting, gathering, herding, farming, fishing); knowledge animal habits and selectivity in choice fruits; natural history knowledge ( properties of stone, their changes with heating, types of wood, orientation by stars);medical knowledge(simple techniques for healing wounds, surgical operations, etc.); elementary counting system, measurement distances using body parts (nail, elbow, hand, arrow flight, etc.); elementary time measurement system using the comparison of the positions of stars, the division of seasons, knowledge of natural phenomena; transmission of information over distances (smoke, light and sound signals).

To the main achievements material and technical progress ancient society can be attributed to: the use and receipt fire; Creation complex, composite tools; invention bow and arrow; manufacturing clay products and roasting in the sun and fire; the emergence of the first crafts; metal smelting and alloys; Creation simplest vehicles.

Literature:

Alekseev, primitive society / , . – 6th ed. – M.: AST, Astrel, 2004. Baranov science in modern culture / . – M.: Infra-M, 2007.

3. Nadezhdin, science and technology / . - M.: Phoenix, 2007. - 624 p.

Reale, D. Scientific revolution / D. Reale, D. Antiseri // Western philosophy from its origins to the present day: in 4 volumes. T. 3. - St. Petersburg, 1996. Semenov, the most ancient productions: Mesolithic, Eneolithic / , . – L., 1983. Stepin, knowledge / . – M., 2000.

7. Taylor, culture /; lane from English – M.: Terra - Book Club, 2009. – 960 p.

Lecture two. Ancient science and technology.

1. Discernment techne And episteme in ancient culture.

2. The main stages of the development of science and technology in Ancient Greece.

3. Science and technology of Ancient Rome.

1. Discernment techne And episteme in ancient culture

Ancient (Latin anticus - ancient) culture Renaissance humanists called the culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The influence of ancient Greek culture on European culture was so great that it gave modern historians the opportunity to talk about the “Greek miracle.”

In antiquity, concepts differed episteme(knowledge of existence, science of nature) and techne(art as a craft skill is cunning in a clever plan to do something that does not exist, mechanical art). Technology is opposed to nature (Plato, “Ion” 534c). Therefore, philosophy and science, dealing with genuine knowledge, were considered in ancient culture to be better, higher and more valuable than technology - the production of devices and tools.

2. The main stages of the development of science and technology in Ancient Greece:

1) Archaic period (from the middle of the 8th century to the end of the 6th century BC);

2) Classical period (V – IV centuries BC);

3) Hellenistic era (III – I centuries BC)

Archaic era

Milesian school - philosophical and scientific school founded by Thales in Miletus, a Greek colony in Asia Minor (1st half of the 6th century BC). Representatives - Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes. Directly to the Milesian circle of scientists in the con. 6th century BC e. belonged to the geographer and historian Hecataeus of Miletus.

The Milesian school was predominantly natural science; with it begins the history of European scientific cosmogony and cosmology, physics, geography (and cartography), meteorology, astronomy, biology and mathematics. Behind the variety of phenomena, philosophers saw some essence different from these phenomena (“primary principle”); for Thales it is water, for Anaximander it is apeiron (an indefinite and limitless primary substance), for Anaximenes it is air. The Milesian school was the first to abolish the mythological picture of the world and introduce the universality of physical laws. The Milesians introduced the first scientific terminology.

Pythagoras of Samos(570 – 490 BC) - ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician. Pythagoras did not leave any writings, and all information about him and his teachings is based on the works of his followers, therefore many legends are associated with his name.

Numbers are the basis of things, Pythagoras taught, to know the world means to know the numbers that control it. The merit of the Pythagoreans was the promotion of ideas about the quantitative laws of the development of the world, which contributed to the development of mathematical, physical, astronomical and geographical knowledge.

It was Pythagoras and his students who were the first to study geometry systematically - as a theoretical doctrine about the properties of abstract geometric figures, and not as a collection of applied recipes for land surveying. The most important scientific merit of Pythagoras is considered to be the systematic introduction of proof into mathematics. Mathematics in the sense of demonstrative deductive reasoning begins precisely with Pythagoras.

A lot of things in mathematics are connected with his name, and first of all, of course, the theorem that bears his name: “the square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the legs.” Modern historians argue over the authorship of this theorem. There is an assumption that Pythagoras did not prove the theorem, but could have conveyed this knowledge to the Greeks, known in Babylon 1000 years before Pythagoras (according to Babylonian clay tablets with records of mathematical equations).

Pythagoras is credited with the first application of mathematics to music and the discovery of the laws of musical harmony. Thus, a harmonic chord when sounding three strings is obtained when the lengths of these strings are compared with the ratio of the numbers 3, 4 and 6.

The school of Pythagoras first suggested the sphericity of the Earth.

Eleatics - ancient Greek philosophers, representatives of the Eleatic school (end of the 6th - first half of the 5th centuries BC). Philosophers such as Parmenides, Zeno of Elea and Melissus are credited with belonging to the Eleatic School. Sometimes Xenophanes is also included in this category, given some evidence that he was the teacher of Parmenides.

In the school of Eleatics, for the first time, the subject of logical thinking became the problem of infinity. In this sense, the philosophy of the Eleatics represents an important milestone in the history of scientific thinking. Some researchers believe that the teachings of the Eleatics lay the foundation for scientific knowledge. Theoretical natural science is impossible without mathematics, and mathematics itself is closely related to the concept of infinity.

Zeno the problem of continuum was first posed . The meaning of Zeno's paradoxes is in an effort to prove that the multiple and changeable sensual world of becoming is an illusory world and does not allow strictly scientific knowledge ("Dichotomy", "Achilles", "Arrow", "Stages").

Classical period

The classical period of ancient Greek science primarily includes the works of ancient Greek philosophers - Plato and Aristotle.

Plato(428 - 348 BC) The first Greek thinker who realized the importance of the mathematization of knowledge. The knowledge of ideal truths is, according to Plato, the highest form of knowledge and is carried out with the help of pure speculation, akin to the theoretical thinking of a mathematician. Archytas, Theaetetus, Eudoxus - mathematicians, three outstanding students of Plato. In several dialogues Plato deals with astronomical and physical issues. Of great interest to the historian of science is the theory of matter expounded in the Timaeus.

Scientific heritage Aristotle(384-322 BC) is huge. Aristotle is the founder of formal logic; he made a great contribution to the development of physics, sociology, political science, biology, ethics, aesthetics, literary criticism, and art history. Aristotle laid the foundation for the history of science. In his “Metaphysics” we find thoughts on the emergence of science and art, a review and critical analysis of the results of the work of his predecessors. We know about many ancient scientists only from information given by Aristotle.

Hellenistic period

Hellenism is an interweaving, interaction of ancient and ancient Eastern scientific and scientific-technical traditions, a kind of synthesis of the West and the East.

A distinctive feature of Hellenistic science was both the development of previous ones and the emergence of new large scientific centers (in particular, Alexandria with its library and Museum). Scientific schools and directions are taking shape (Alexandria School of Mathematics, Kos School of Medicine, etc.). Scientists of the Hellenistic era - Eratosthenes, Euclid, Archimedes, etc.

During the Hellenistic period, elements of technical knowledge appeared (the invention of the catapult and ballista).

3. Science and technology of Ancient Rome

In a number of scientific fields, the ancient Romans achieved significant success (geography, cartography, astronomy, jurisprudence, history, etc.).

The main achievement of the Romans was the creation of cement and concrete. The Romans learned to use formwork and build concrete structures. Crushed stone was used as filler. The Romans used cement and concrete to build roads and bridges.

The most famous scientist and engineer of Roman times was Marcus Vitruvius, who lived in the 1st century. BC e. At the request of Emperor Augustus, he wrote “Ten Books on Architecture” - an extensive work that talked about the construction craft and various machines, this work contains the first description of a water mill. In the 15th century Vitruvius's work became a manual for architects of the New Age. Vitruvius used the works of scientists from the Alexandria Museum in his work.

Summary: The main features of ancient science: the contemplative nature of ancient science, the creation of universal scientific and philosophical systems, the denial of scientific pursuits of applied significance, the gap between science and technology, the unusual method of experimental method in ancient science. In ancient Greek science, knowledge was divorced from practical needs, and the main means of obtaining new knowledge was not empirical experience, but theoretical analysis based on a system of logical proofs. As a result, in Ancient Greece philosophy became the basis of all sciences. The main technical inventions of the ancient world (Archimedes' screw, scooper, screw press, gear drive, crane, water pump, mill, cement, concrete).

Ancient Roman science, compared to ancient Greek, was characterized by a greater spirit of practicality, which was a distinctive feature of ancient Roman culture as a whole. In a number of scientific fields, the ancient Romans achieved significant success (geography, cartography, astronomy, jurisprudence, history, etc.), and it was in Ancient Rome that the specialization of sciences acquired a more distinct character. Technical achievements of the ancient Roman era (roads, aqueducts, successes in construction and architecture, military affairs).

Literature:

Azimov, A. Great scientific ideas: From Pythagoras to Darwin. M., 2007.

2. Volkov, culture as the basis of the genesis of science: the problem of essential characteristics // Questions of cultural studies. - 2009. - No. 4. - P. 4-8.

3. Voloshinov, Hellas /. – M.: Education, 2009. – 176 p.

4. Voloshinov,. 3rd ed / . – M.: URSS, 2010. – 224 p.

5. Mamedaliev, the origin and dynamics of the rational: ancient Greek experience // Questions of cultural studies. - 2011. - No. 1. - 31-36.

6. Nadezhdin, science and technology / . - M.: Phoenix, 2007. - 624 p.

Rozhansky, science / . – M., 1980.

Lecture three. Development of science and technology in the modern era.

Scientific revolution of the 17th century. Features of the mechanistic picture of the world. Development of Western European science in the Age of Enlightenment (XVIII centuries) The main achievements of Western European science in the XIX century. Development of technology in modern times. Industrial revolution: the transition from manufacturing to machine production.

1. scientific revolutionXVIIcentury. Features of the mechanistic picture of the world

The 17th century is considered the century of the scientific revolution, which laid the foundations for the modern scientific picture of the world. The most significant achievements of the scientific revolution of this time include: the establishment of the most important laws of mechanics, the creation on their basis of a dynamically substantiated heliocentric picture of the world, the creation of a fundamentally new mathematical apparatus of mechanics and physics - differential and integral calculus.

A new image of the world and a style of thinking began to form, which essentially destroyed the previous picture of the universe that had been created over many centuries and led to the formulation of a new concept of the universe with an orientation towards mechanism and quantitative methods. During this period, man recognized his autonomy, understood nature, which exists only to serve man, a future rational vision of the world was formed, as well as a worldview tradition in which man and nature are opposed.

Keplerian laws of planetary motion, scientific mechanics of G. Galileo, Cartesian doctrine, classical mechanics of I. Newton, discovery by I. Newton and G.-W. Leibniz of differential and integral calculus - these and many other outstanding scientific achievements of that time became the pinnacle of the emerging science of the New Age. The success of the new science would have been impossible without the adoption of a new method, the primacy of empiricism (F. Bacon) and the mathematical method (R. Descartes).

2. Development of science during the Enlightenment (XVIIIV.)

The 18th century in Europe passed under the sign of the Enlightenment. Ideologists of the Enlightenment (Voltaire, J.-J. Rousseau, C. Montesquieu, D. Diderot, P.-A. Holbach in France, D. Locke in England, J. Herder in Germany, T. Jefferson, B. Franklin, T. Paine in the USA) attached great importance to the dissemination of scientific knowledge to achieve the “kingdom of reason”. In the XVIII century. The scientific revolution ended, giving a powerful impetus to the development of classical science. In chemical science, the French researcher A. Lavoisier was the first to formulate the idea of ​​​​dividing substances into the simplest elements, obtained oxygen, disproved the theory of phlogiston, and created a new chemical nomenclature. As a result, by the end of the XVIII century. chemistry has become an exact science. In biology, a well-known classification was proposed by the Swedish scientist C. Linnaeus, and his French colleague explained the evolution of the flora and fauna by the adaptation of biological organisms to the environment and their ability to pass on acquired qualities by inheritance. At the end of the 18th century, the creation of celestial mechanics based on I. Newton’s law of universal gravitation was completed. D. Bernoulli, D'Alembert laid the foundations of hydrodynamics.

3. The main achievements of science inXIXV.

In the 19th century There was a change in the social role of science, a new type of scientist and new types of educational institutions appeared, and the prestige of the engineering profession increased. Science becomes a subject of general interest. XIX century - the age of “steam and electricity”, the active use of science for the benefit of society, gave rise to boundless faith in its capabilities, faith in technical progress.

Significant successes in the 19th century. reached mathematics. There was a reform of mathematical analysis. Discoveries in the field of electrodynamics, the theory of magnetism and thermodynamics have significantly expanded the scope of its application. As a result, already at the beginning of the XIX century. Many hypotheses in physics have become possible to confirm or refute mathematically. The scientific achievements of such scientists as K. Gauss, J. Fourier, S. Poisson, C. Jacobi, O. Cauchy, P. Direchle, B. Riemann, E. Galois, A. Poincaré and others are among the most significant in the history of mathematics.

XIX century marked by major achievements in physics. In the 19th century many previous ideas that previously dominated this science were rejected (in particular, supporters of the wave theory of light prevailed over supporters of the corpuscular theory); a significant number of scientific discoveries were made that led to a qualitative change in life (the discovery and use of electricity); Physical knowledge increased at an unprecedented pace. At the beginning of the 19th century. The French physicist became one of the founders of wave optics, created the theory of light diffraction, and proved the transverse nature of light waves. Scientists have achieved significant success in the field of electromagnetism. Galvani and A. Volta's electric current contributed to a whole series of scientific achievements of paramount importance in the first half of the century (G.-H. Ørsted, A.-M. Ampere, M. Faraday). The discovery of the law of electromagnetic induction by M. Faraday becomes a significant contribution to the theory of electricity. This law was of practical importance for the subsequent development of instrument making. The process of creating an electromagnetic picture of the world was completed in the second half of the century by G. Hertz.

In the 19th century, chemistry significantly updated its methods under the influence of the exact sciences, which opened up new opportunities, in particular, in inorganic chemistry.

A real revolution in the 19th century. was accomplished in biological science, which was reflected, in particular, in the hypothesis of the British naturalist Charles Darwin, who first substantiated the origin of man from an ape-like ancestor.

The founder of modern microbiology and immunology was the great French scientist L. Pasteur, who became famous not only for his outstanding discoveries that made it possible to fight epidemics, but also for the creation of the Institute of Microbiology. The Austrian monk laid the foundation for genetics with his research in the field of heredity.

4. Development of technology in modern times. Industrial revolution: the transition from manufacturing to machine production.

The first industrial revolution (the transition from manufacturing to machine production) occurred in England - in the 60s. XVIII century – 10-20s XIX century Then until the end of the nineteenth century. at different times - in the USA, France, Germany, Italy, Japan. The most widely used new machines, used mainly in the textile industry, were in England, as the most advanced state along the path of capitalist development. At the end of the 18th century. in this country, the second stage of the industrial revolution began, associated with the replacement of water engines with steam engines. Thanks to accelerated industrial development, the use of new technologies, the capture of new markets and raw materials in the colonies, England is gradually becoming the "workshop of the world" and the main world arbiter.

The industrial revolution stimulated the development of science, increased the demand for engineering and technical personnel, and the general literacy of the population brought the era of mass culture closer.

In the 18th century the formation of the analytical foundations of the technical sciences of the mechanical cycle takes place. At the end of the 18th century. technology arises as a discipline that systematizes knowledge about production processes: "Introduction to Technology, or On Knowledge of Workshops, Factories and Manufactories ..." (1777) and "General Technology" (1806) by I. Beckmann.

In 1794, the Paris Polytechnic School was opened as a prototype of the scientific education of engineers.

In the 19th century classical technical sciences are being formed - applied mechanics, heat engineering, electrical engineering, major changes have taken place in the means of communication. In 1825, the first railway opened in Great Britain. By the end of the century, the steam fleet finally defeated the sailing fleet, the internal combustion engine was invented, which subsequently led to the rapid growth of the automotive industry.

Discoveries in physics have led to dramatic changes in communications. Morse invented the telegraph alphabet. Bell created the telephone, supplemented in 1877 by the microphone of his compatriot D. Hughes. In the second half of the century, the tram and subway, photography and cinema, as well as many other technical innovations, appeared. Mechanical engineering is turning into an industry that has increasingly determined the development of all industry, transport and agriculture. The mechanization of production resulted in an increase in the demand for energy. There is a gradual transition (in the most developed countries) from coal to oil as a fuel.

Summary: in the 17th century a modern type of classical science was created, which existed throughout the entire period of the New Age (XVII - XIX centuries), which is characterized by the desire for a complete system of knowledge, fixing the truth in its final form. This is due to the orientation towards classical mechanics, which represents the world in the form of a giant mechanism, clearly functioning on the basis of the eternal and unchanging laws of mechanics. Knowledge must be as cleansed as possible from the influence of human subjective characteristics that introduce errors and distortions into the truth. The growth of scientific knowledge, the needs of rapidly developing capitalism, increasing domestic consumption and increasing demand for industrial goods led to the creation of new technical devices - working machines. This began the process of transition from manufacturing to industrial production. In modern times, science and engineering are being institutionalized and engineering education is becoming established.

Literature:

1. Gaidenko, P. P. On the problem of the formation of modern European science // Questions of philosophy. – 2009. – No. 5. – P. 80-92.

Zaitsev, engineering and technology: Textbook /,; Ed. prof. . – St. Petersburg: Politekhnika, 2007. – 416 p. Kirsanov, revolution of the 17th century. / . – M., 1987. Kosareva, sciences of modern times from the spirit of culture / . – M.: Institute of Psychology RAS, 1997.

5. Nadezhdin, science and technology / . - M.: Phoenix, 2007. - 624 p.

Newton, Isaac. Mathematical principles of natural philosophy / Isaac Newton; [transl. from lat. and com. ; prev ]. – M.: Nauka, 1989. – 688 p.

7. Chesnokov, rationalism in the history of philosophy and science of modern times // Social and humanitarian knowledge. – 2008. – No. 6. – P. 66-77.

Lecture four. World science and technology in the twentieth century. and at the beginning XXIV.

1. Development of science and technology at the end of the 19th century. - first half of the twentieth century. Non-classical science.

2. Science and technology at the end of the twentieth century. – beginning XXI century Post-non-classical science.

1. Development of science and technology at the end of the 19th century. - first half of the twentieth century. Non-classical science.

In 1901, the Nobel Prizes were established according to the bequest of a Swedish chemical engineer. These are international prizes awarded annually on December 10 for outstanding work in the field of physics, chemistry, medicine and physiology, economics (since 1969), literature, and for activities to strengthen peace.

Non-classical science is the science of the era of the crisis of classical rationality (late 19th - 60s of the 20th century). At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. A series of discoveries followed that did not fit into the existing picture of the world of classical science:

In 1895, K. Roentgen discovered “x-rays”.

In 1896, A. Becquerel discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity (natural).

In 1897, J. Thomson discovered the electron.

In 1898, Marie Curie () and Pierre Curie (1) discovered a new chemical element - radium.

. In 1900, M. Planck proposed the theory of quanta.

In 1 E. Rutherford (1 and F. Soddy (1) created the theory of radioactivity as the spontaneous decay of atoms and the transformation of some elements into others (the beginning of nuclear physics).

. In 1905, A. Einstein created the special theory of relativity.

In 1911, E. Rutherford experimentally discovered the atomic nucleus.

. In A. Einstein created the general theory of relativity.

. In 1913, N. Bohr created the quantum planetary theory of the structure of the atom.

In the 1920s, a series of models of atomic structure were developed.

. In 1927 he discovered the uncertainty principle.

These discoveries refuted the principles of classical mechanics (the indivisibility of the atom, the immutability of mass) and created a new understanding of space and time; quantum theory did not fit into the mainstream of 19th century physics. and demanded a new method of thinking. The idea of ​​the qualitative identity of the laws of development of the macrocosm and the microcosm collapsed. Three-dimensional space and one-dimensional time have become relative manifestations of the four-dimensional space-time continuum. The principle of uncertainty fundamentally undermined and supplanted Laplacean determinism.

If in classical science the picture of the world should be a picture of the object being studied in itself, then the non-classical scientific method of description necessarily includes, in addition to the objects being studied, the instruments used to study them, as well as the act of measurement itself. According to this approach, the Universe is viewed as a network of interconnected events. Any property of a particular section of this network is not absolute, but depends on the properties of other sections of the network.

In 1932, the composition of the nucleus was discovered: D. Chadwick discovered the neutron, E. Fermi published the theory of beta decay, and the positron was discovered (K. Anderson and S. Neddermeyer, 1936). In 1934, Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie discovered artificial radioactivity. From the very beginning, the achievements of nuclear physics had a significant impact on other sciences - the concepts and methods developed in the study of the microworld were assimilated and applied in astronomy and biology, chemistry and medicine, in all branches of natural science.

In the 20th century Astrophysics emerged as an independent scientific discipline. American astronomer E. Hubble in 1929 experimentally established the fact of the expansion of the Universe. Gamow's student developed this theory, which he called Big Bang Cosmology. Later it received experimental confirmation and became generally accepted.

The continuation of the revolution was the mastery of atomic energy in the 40s of the 20th century. and subsequent research, which is associated with the birth of electronic computers and cybernetics. Also during this period, along with physics, chemistry, biology and the cycle of earth sciences began to lead.

During the period of non-classical science, genetics also developed (primarily in Russia), the doctrine of the noosphere appeared, new medicines, methods of diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases were discovered (the first antibiotic was discovered in 1929 by A. Fleming), mass production of technical equipment developed (communications, railway and road transport, etc.), aviation appears (in 1903, the Americans Wright brothers flew an airplane into the sky), computers appear.

From the middle of the 20th century. Science finally merged with technology, leading to the modern scientific and technological revolution.

2. Science and technology at the end of the twentieth century. – beginning XXI century Post-non-classical science.

Post-non-classical science(term) – the modern stage of the development of science, which began in the 70s. XX century. The author of the concept is an academician. One of the features of the new stage is interdisciplinarity, serving the utilitarian needs of industry, and further introducing the principle of evolutionism. A typical example of post-non-classical science is synergetics, which studies the processes of self-organization.

Post-non-classical science as a whole is characterized by a situation of unity physics, chemistry, biology. Such unity is visible at all levels - subject, methodological, terminological and conceptual. At the same time, living and nonliving things in nature have lost their “incompatibility.”

1. Open non-equilibrium systems capable of spontaneous sharp complication of their shape (structure) with a slow and smooth change in parameters.

2. Stochastic behavior of system elements.

3. The fundamental meaning of irreversibility.

4. Transition to nonlinear thinking.

The areas of synergetic research are:

theory dissipative structures (I. Prigogine);

· synergetics (G. Haken);

· deterministic chaos And fractals(B. Mandelbrot);

· catastrophe theory (R. Tom, W. Arnold);

· study non-stationary dissipative structures, instability in moments of exacerbation ( A. Samarsky, S. Kurdyumov, G. Malinetsky);

information processes and reality, dynamic information theory (D. Chernavsky).

The basis of modern civilization is information technology, which plays a large role in the globalization of socio-economic processes, as well as in production, business, management, etc. Characterized by the intensive use of scientific knowledge in almost all spheres of social life, a change in the nature of scientific activity associated with a revolution in the ways of storing and obtaining knowledge (computerization of science, complex expensive instrument systems, etc.).

Development structural design principle And production process management, its spread to technological complexes marked the beginning of the synthesis of heterogeneous technologies with the aim of forming a unified and organic metatechnical system. But at the same time, material technology continues its intensive development towards deeper levels of the structure of matter. This is manifested primarily in microtechnology, on which the entire computer science hardware base is based, in genetic engineering, in works aimed at their synthesis within the framework of programs molecular electronics And nanotechnology.

Under the influence of endless technical innovations, modern life is changing at great speed. Concrete facts of the adverse consequences of scientific achievements are alarming: pollution of water, air, soil of the planet, harmful effects on animal and plant life, extinction of countless species, fundamental disturbances in the ecosystem of the entire planet. In connection with the danger of man-made disasters, there is a need for public control over the development of scientific and technological progress.

Summary: At the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. There is a revolution in natural science that changes the picture of the world of classical science. Quantum-relativistic, non-classical science includes probability (the laws of nature are fulfilled with a certain degree of probability), as well as objective randomness. During the period of non-classical science (late 19th - 60s of the 20th century), the development of genetics, the creation of cybernetics, the emergence of nuclear physics, the use of atomic energy, the emergence of aviation, computers, etc. took place.

Post-non-classical science is the modern stage of the development of science, which began in the 70s. XX century, which is characterized by interdisciplinarity, the development of synergetics, information technology, etc.

Literature:

Bazhenov , value status of science at the turn of the 21st century / . – St. Petersburg: Publishing house RKhGI, 1999. Dyatchin, technology development: Textbook. manual for universities / . – Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2007. – 320 p. Zaitsev, engineering and technology: Textbook /, ; Ed. prof. . – St. Petersburg: Politekhnika, 2007. – 416 p. Lecture classical and non-classical. 2nd ed. / . – M.: Editorial URSS, 2006. – 256 p. Prigogine, I. Order out of chaos: a new dialogue between man and nature / I. Prigogine. – 3rd ed. - M .: Editorial URSS, 2001. Stepin, V. S. From classical to post-non-classical science (change in foundations and value orientations) / // Value aspects of the development of science /, etc. - M .: Nauka, 1990. - P. 152-166. Hawking, S. The shortest history of time / S. Hawking, L. Mlodinov; [transl. from English B. Oralbekova; edited by ]. - St. Petersburg. : TID Amphora, 2007. – 180 p.

Lecture five. Russian science and technology in XVIIIV.

Russian science of the 18th century. Achievements of domestic technical thought of the XVIII century.

1. Russian science XVIIIV.

Before Peter's reforms, science in the modern sense of the word did not exist in Russia; there were no universities and technical educational institutions. It was the needs of the country's development, its accelerated growth that forced Peter I to accept the Western cultural tradition, literally by force planting rational science hitherto unknown in Russia. And although throughout the XVIII century. Russian science lagged far behind Western Europe, this intellectual gap was quite successfully overcome thanks to the active participation of the state, attracting the best scientific personnel from abroad, etc.

Under Peter I, in 1714, the first public library was opened in St. Petersburg. It was based on the personal library of Peter I, books from other collections. In 1719, the Kunstkamera (from German Kunstkammer - cabinet of rarities) was opened, the first Russian natural science museum.

The transformations in civil life and scientific and technological development of the country, carried out by Peter I, required the training of specialists of various professions. In 1707, by decree of Peter I, the first medical "hospital" school was opened in Moscow. By 1733, medical schools were organized in St. Petersburg and Kronstadt. Since 1714, preparatory "digital" (primary general education) schools have been organized in the provincial centers.

The creation of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences is the final link in the chain of cultural transformations of the Peter I era. In 1724, the Senate issued a decree establishing the Academy, a state scientific institution whose purpose was to meet the scientific and technical needs of the country. It included the Kunstkamera, a physics office (1725), an observatory (1730s), a geographical department (1739), and a chemical laboratory (1748, on the initiative). Since 1803 - the Imperial Academy of Sciences, since February 1917 - the Russian Academy of Sciences, since 1925 - the USSR Academy of Sciences, then since 1991 - again the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS).

In the 18th century The first universities in the history of our country are opened - St. Petersburg (1725) and Moscow (1755).

For the eighteenth century characterized by the growth of the printing press. The first popular science magazine was a supplement to the newspaper "St. Petersburg Gazette", published monthly in 1727–1742. During 1761–1770 1,050 books were published.

Contribution to world science of the 18th century. contributed by such Russian scientists as L. Euler, etc.

(1711 - 1765) - Russian scientist-naturalist of world importance, the main subject of whose scientific work was the natural sciences (chemistry, physics, metallurgy, physical geography), since 1745 the first Russian academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. On Lomonosov's initiative, Moscow University was founded (1755), now bearing his name. The scientist’s research in the humanitarian direction of his work was connected with literature, history, and the national language. He created “Russian Grammar” (1756), “Ancient Russian History” (1766). He became the founder of a new science - physical chemistry. Lomonosov investigated the phenomena of crystallization from solutions, the dependence of solubility on temperature and other phenomena. All his theoretical conclusions were based on the laws of constancy of matter and motion.

He became the first Russian mathematician teacher (1669–1739). From 1701 he taught mathematics at the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences in Moscow. In 1703, his main work “Arithmetic, that is, the science of numbers” was published - for its time an encyclopedia of mathematical knowledge. It summarizes data on mathematics (“digital counting wisdom”), astronomy, and navigation. “Arithmetic” retained its scientific and methodological significance for at least half a century.

The development of physical and mathematical sciences in the 18th century in Russia was most influenced by L. Euler(1707–1783), mathematician, mechanic, physicist and astronomer. Swiss by origin, in 1727 he accepted an invitation to work and moved to St. Petersburg. During his first stay at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1727–1741), he prepared more than 75 scientific papers and was engaged in teaching activities. Having learned Russian, he spoke and wrote fluently in Russian. Living in Germany during 1741–1766, he did not stop communicating with the St. Petersburg Academy and was its foreign honorary member. In 1766 he returned to Russia and lived here until the end of his life. In total, scientists wrote about 850 works and a huge number of letters on various scientific topics.

(1686–1750) - Russian historian, statesman, author of the first generalizing fundamental work on the history of Russia, on which he worked for more than twenty years (submitted to the Academy of Sciences in 1739) - “Russian History from ancient times with tireless labors after thirty years collected and described by the late Privy Councilor and Astrakhan Governor Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev." He is also known for his works on geography and ethnography. Tatishchev compiled the first Russian encyclopedic dictionary - “Lexicon of Russian Historical, Geographical, Political and Civil” (1793, up to the letter “K”).

Throughout the XVIII century. Geographical, botanical, zoological, and ethnographic materials valuable for Russian and world science were collected.

In the Laptev cousins ​​(Dmitry Yakovlevich (1701–1767) and Khariton Prokofievich (1700–1763/64)), Russian navigators, participants in the Great Northern Expedition, explored the coast of the Arctic Ocean between the Lena River and Cape Bering, bringing a variety of information about the nature of the region, its geography, population, wildlife and vegetation, coastline. One of the seas of the Arctic Ocean is named after them.

The polar explorer's expedition (c. 1700–1764) reached a cape on the Taimyr Peninsula on May 7, 1742. The cape discovered by him is known on all maps of the world as Cape Chelyuskin.

One of the results of the 2nd Kamchatka (Great Northern) expedition was the book “Flora of Siberia” (1747–1769); (1711–1755) (founder of Russian scientific ethnography) described the distant part of Siberia in his work “Description of the Land of Kamchatka” (1756).

In 1768–1774 academic expeditions took place that studied the geological structure of Russia: the expedition routes (1740–1802) covered the Volga region, the Urals, and the north of European Russia; the expedition (1741–1811) explored the Middle Volga region, Orenburg region, Siberia to Chita and compiled a description of the structure of mountains, hills, and plains; the expedition (1709–1755) reached through the Astrakhan region to Derbent and Baku, etc.

2. Achievements of domestic technical thoughtXVIIIV.

(1693 – 1756) – inventor who prepared the transition from handicraft production to factory production. His main invention was a mechanical lathe support, which made it possible to produce standard parts, as well as a lifting screw for adjusting the elevation angle, a mechanism for raising the Tsar Bell and many other mechanisms.

(1728–1766) – Russian heating engineer. In 1763 he developed a project for a universal steam engine (20 years earlier than J. Watt). But this project was not implemented. The principle of combining the work of several cylinders on one shaft, put forward by scientists, was first discovered at the end of the 19th century. Widely used in internal combustion engines.

(1735–1818) – Russian mechanic-inventor. From 1749, for more than 30 years, he headed the mechanical workshop of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. He developed a project for a 300-meter single-arch bridge across the Neva with wooden lattice forms (1772). In the last years of his life, he made a lantern-spotlight with a reflector from the smallest mirrors, a river “machine” vessel moving against the current, a mechanical carriage with a pedal drive. He became famous as the author of an amazing watch made as a gift to Empress Catherine II, which had the appearance of an Easter egg.

In the first quarter of the 18th century. More than 200 manufacturing-type enterprises were created in Russia, of which over a third were metallurgical and metalworking plants. In total, under Peter I, 15 state-owned and 30 private iron foundries and weapons factories were built. For example, in 1724, 1,165 thousand pounds of pig iron were smelted at Russian blast furnace factories. By the end of the 18th century. in Russia there were about 190 mining plants, and the total number of industrial enterprises reached 1160.

7. Transport and space systems;

8. Energy efficiency, energy saving, nuclear physics.

Summary: At the beginning of the twentieth century. Higher education, science and technology continue to develop in Russia, but there is a lag behind European countries in the field of primary and secondary education. The main trends in the development of science and technology in Russia during the Soviet period: international recognition, overcoming illiteracy of the population, the problem of relations between the authorities and the scientific community, the priority of technical and natural sciences (achievements in mathematics, physics, military equipment, astronautics, energy, electronics, etc. ), ideologization of the humanities.

The main features of Russian science and technology at the end of the 20th – beginning of the 21st centuries: interdisciplinarity, development of synergetics, information technologies, nanotechnologies, etc.

Literature Alekseev V.P., Pershits A.I. History of primitive society. M., Virginsky V.S., Khoteenkov V.F. Essays on the history of science and technology from ancient times to the mid-15th century. M., Larichev V.E. Wisdom of the snake. Primitive man, Moon and Sun. Novosibirsk, Essays on the history of natural science in ancient times. M., The Origin of Things: Essays on Primitive Culture / Ed. E.V. Smirnova. M., Semenov Yu.I. At the dawn of human history. M., Shukhardin S.V. History of science and technology: Textbook. Part 1. M., 1974.

Beginning of tool making. Origin of Man In 1959, Louis Leakey found very primitive stone tools made from pebbles in the Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania); in 1960, in the same place, along with pebble tools, the remains of a creature were discovered, which L. Leakey considers the creator of these tools and therefore called him “homo habilis” (“skillful man”).

Homo habilis, judging by the found remains dating back to 2.5 million years ago, existed for more than half a million years. Homo habilis - apparently, the first creature that consciously made tools for labor and hunting: the first still roughly processed stone pebbles (tools of the Olduvai culture) - were repeatedly found along with the remains of this creature.

Acheulean culture (1.7 - 0.1 million years ago) Tools of the Acheulean type became smaller and more elegant than those of Abbeville. Acheulean “masters” began to process the stone with numerous small, light and frequent blows (retouching), giving the working part of the hand ax a smoother surface. It is assumed that representatives of the Acheulian culture already maintained fire 700 thousand years ago, but did not yet know how to make it.

Mousterian era or Middle Paleolithic (Neanderthals) The emergence of the Mousterian culture dates back to about 300 thousand years ago, the decline of the culture is associated with cooling and the disappearance of the Neanderthals about 30 thousand years ago. The Mousterian technique of stone processing is characterized by disc-shaped and single-platform cores (cores), from which fairly wide flakes were broken off, which were transformed by beating along the edges into various tools (scrapers, points, drills, knives, etc.).

Improving technology Along with impact retouching, which was used in the Acheulean period, counter impact retouching was invented in the Mousterian era. The new method consisted in the fact that the tool being made was rested on a stone or bone base (anvil), and it was struck with a wooden mallet. The blow transmitted through the tool to the anvil was returned to the tool, and stone flakes flew off from its processed part facing the anvil. As a result, thin and careful retouching appeared on the blades of the guns.

Hunting These data are based on counting the bones of animals killed 55 thousand years ago and found at the summer camp site of Salzgitter-Lebenstadt in Germany: a - Reindeer, 72%. b - Mammoth, 14%. c - Bison, 5.4%. d - Horse, 4.6%. e - Woolly rhinoceros, 2%. e - Other animals, 2%.

Neanderthal burials a - The body of the deceased in a sleeping position. b - The body is oriented in the east-west direction. c - The head is turned in a southerly direction. g - Stone pillow. e - Burnt bones. e - Tools made of stone. g - Forest horsetail bedding. h - Flowers.

The Late Paleolithic 35 - 12 thousand years ago is the most severe phase of the last Würm glaciation, when modern people settled throughout the Earth. After the appearance of the first modern people in Europe (the Cro-Magnons), there was a relatively rapid growth of their cultures, the most famous of which are the Chatelperonian, Aurignacian, Solutrean, Gravettian and Magdalenian archaeological cultures.

Technological innovations of this era included significant changes in the production of stone tools, which led to the introduction of stone blades. They were used to process leather, bone and horn. In addition to heavy spears, light throwing darts and harpoons appeared. The fishhook was invented for fishing, and needles with an eye were invented for making clothes.

Stone processing using the pressing method By pressing a pointed tool against the outer edge of a flint blank, small flakes were broken off from its lower side. a - A sharpened stick or bone. b - Product being processed. c - Layer of bark on a stone work plate (anvil). a - Silicon knife, the back side of which is processed by pressing. b - Silicon scraper, rounded on one side by pressing. c - Chisel-shaped cutter for processing horn, bone or wood. d - A small drill for making holes in leather, wood, bone or antler. d - Bone needle with an eye pierced with a small drill.

Hunting 1. This is how a Cro-Magnon hunter (left) used a spear thrower. a - Spear thrower. b - Spear. 2. The right picture shows how much this increased the range of javelin throwing. a - Usually a hunter can throw a long spear 64 m; in fact, the distance at which you can hit prey is 13.7 m. b - The spear thrower helps to throw a spear at 137 m; with its help you can hit a victim at a distance of 27.4

Art The art of the Cro-Magnons went through four stages of development. The first period (32-25 thousand years ago) was characterized by images of animals and other objects, mostly poorly drawn on small objects that people carried with them. The second period (25-19 thousand years ago) includes early cave art, including handprints, as well as engraved and painted silhouettes of animals with arched backs. The third period (19-15 thousand years ago) was the pinnacle of cave art, as can be seen in the beautifully executed, dynamic drawings of horses and aurochs in the Lascaux cave in southwestern France and in other examples of relief sculpture. The fourth period (15-10 thousand years ago) is especially characterized by images on small objects, as well as symbolic signs and superbly executed in a realistic manner images of animals in the caves of Altamira in Northern Spain and Font-de-Gaume in France.

Mesolithic About 15 thousand years ago the Ice Age ended. Climate change has led to the extinction of many species of animals (mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, musk ox, etc.), which were previously hunted by humans. As a result, people were forced to hunt comparatively smaller animals and birds.

Insert tools The transition to hunting small animals and birds required the creation of more advanced tools. During the Mesolithic period, insert tools were invented and became widespread. The base of the insert tools was made of wood or bone, and the working part was made up of a set of small stone, most often flint, plates, called microliths.

Microliths Microliths were made from small plates (sometimes from small flakes). Plates 7-10 cm long and about 0.5 cm wide were chipped from prismatic or conical cores with proper protection. The edges of the plates were often so sharp that they could be used without additional processing - retouching.

Bow and arrows The first composite and rather complex insert weapon was the bow and arrows. The most ancient simple bows were made from a single bent stick, the ends of which were tied together with a bowstring made from animal tendons. At one end of the bow the string was attached with a knot, at the other it was put on with a loop.

Fishing Along with hunting, fishing is intensively developing. The most effective way was to catch fish using a net, which appeared during this period. The nets were woven from threads made from the bark of fibrous plants. The nets were purse seines.

Domestication The most important achievement of the Mesolithic was the domestication of animals. Dogs were used for hunting and home guarding. By 10-7 thousand years BC. e. in Iran, Iraq and the Southern Caspian region, the population began to move to the domestication of sheep, goats, rams and cattle. By the end of the Mesolithic (9-7 thousand years BC), the population of the Near and Middle East began to switch to agriculture. People began to domesticate and eat barley, wheat and other grains growing wild in these areas. With the increase in grain reserves, the problem of preserving the crop from rodents became very acute. For this purpose, man tamed a wild cat.

New knowledge New knowledge about the world around us is accumulated, skills that help us survive are developed and improved. Thus, people needed to know the features of the feeding area, the habits of animals, the properties of plants and natural minerals. The first experience in treating injuries received during hunting, dislocations, abscesses, snake bites, etc. appeared. The first surgical operations were carried out: tooth extraction, limb amputation.

On the verge of the Lower and Upper Paleolithic, about 40 - 30 thousand years ago, a difficult to explain radical leap physically and, most importantly, intellectual development emerging man: a modern type of man appears - and has hardly changed since then - Homo sapiens, the history of human society begins. The history of "material production" of primitive man is not very rich. Inventions such as inserted stone tools, bow, arrows, traps, mastery of fire were made for the first time, labor may not have created man, but ensured its survival in changing natural conditions.

Sources for studying primitive knowledge and technologies include the following: archaeological - buildings, sites, burials, remains, etc.; written- significant symbols left on the walls of caves, tools; ethnographic- study of primitive tribes and nationalities living in the modern world; anthropological- bone remains of people, muscle structure of animals and birds, etc.; linguistic - study of the stages of language formation, onomastics. Qualitatively new archaeological the material that appears along with the new biological species of man are images - sculptural, graphic, pictorial geometric signs, as well as images created in the likeness of objects existing in nature. Mastering this new type of activity - artistic creativity - is the greatest discovery of man. The creation of the first "works of art" was not artificial imitation of labor activity, but it was caused by the need for self-expression.

With ancient art, through pictograms , tie up the emergence of writing, the development of speech, all forms of socialization and communication. Primitive art, like all primitive culture in general, was syncretic and the image was organically included in other forms of life: myth, ritual, dance, economic activity . At the same time, the cognitive function (in addition to other functions), due to the specificity of the image, is most adequately represented precisely in the visual arts of primitive man. First of all, the images indicate that from the very beginning of human history, in addition to (beyond, before, etc.) science, concepts of the world arise highly symbolic and the result of abstract thinking, described in language in mythopoetic form.

It is believed that primitive art begins with the first naturalistic images on the walls paleolithic caves- impressions of a human hand and random interweaving of wavy lines pressed into damp clay by the fingers of the same hand ("pasta" and "meanders"). In parallel with this, schematic tendencies appear, which become dominant in the last period of Paleolithic art, primarily in the form geometric drawings. In monumental Paleolithic cave art mineral paints(mainly in the red-yellow region of the spectrum) were used to apply similarly grouped counting-calendar principle a series of spots within the contours of their figures. A clear indication of this is the cave complexes with polychrome paintings. Altamira(in northern Spain) Lascaux(France), the absolute age of which is determined by radiocarbon analysis at 15 millennia.

In the Upper (or Late) Paleolithic of people of the modern type, the development of fine arts had a number of features that make it possible to identify rather complex patterns reflected in them. plots of myths about people, animals, heavenly bodies. The development of solar symbolism during this period is evidenced by bone and stone circles and disks with radially diverging rays, circles with a dot in the center. Sometimes solar circles alternate with crescents as elements of a carved ornament on semicircular baguettes made of reindeer antler. Paleolithic ornaments and frescoes in their "cosmobiological" motifs clearly reveal a calendar subtext. Works of primitive art developed from simple geometric notches and patterns on guns up to ritual figurines. During Mesolithic place of animal the center of attention of the primitive artist is Human . There, the object dominates everything, its weight, materiality, its color and volume, here all the attention absorbed in action, movement . Rock painting compositions become multi-figured. In the Neolithic, the tendency for the development of pictorial forms from reproduction, imitation and understanding of living, individual, natural forms and specific situations to phenomena of a general order, to a general dry scheme and, ultimately, to sign.

Aesthetic, cognitive and other functions of art are gradually receding into the background, giving way to communicative, ideological, memorial. Since the end of the Neolithic, art has been enriched with more and more new subjects, at the same time its visual language, becoming more general and capacious, loses its expressiveness, sharpness, and emotionality. One of the cycles of the process of comprehending the surrounding world ends: “When the spirit is captured, the image is discarded.”

Human society in primitive ideas appears as a complex combination of elements with cosmological teleology. For the primitive consciousness everything cosmologized , because everything is included Space, which forms the highest value within mythopoetic universe. Essentially, only that which is sacralized (sacredly marked) is real, and only that which is part of the Cosmos is sacralized. This all-sacredness and “non-existence” constitute one of the characteristic features mythopoetic model of the world . People didn't differentiate themselves from surrounding them nature. The feeding area, plants, animals and the tribe itself are one whole. Human properties were attributed to nature, up to a consanguineous organization and a dualistic division into two mutually married halves. Characteristic for people properties of nature, up to the reproduction of natural phenomena. With ancient art, through pictograms, associate the appearance writing, speech development, all forms of socialization and communication. The entire primitive culture as a whole was syncretic and the images were organically included in other forms of life: myth, ritual, dance, economic activity. At the same time educational function (in addition to other functions), due to the specifics of the image, is most adequately represented precisely in the visual arts of primitive man. The sign, symbolic system arose as a need for systematization and transmission of knowledge, emotions, and also as a manifestation of magical and religious activity.

Meaning of life and man saw its goal precisely in ritual, the main social and economic activity of the human collective. Here you need to understand the so-called pragmatism of primitive man, which is focused on values ​​of the sign order to a much greater extent than on material values, if only due to the fact that the latter are determined by the former, but not vice versa. The pragmatism of the ritual is explained primarily by the fact that it is the main operation for preserving “one’s” Cosmos, managing it, checking the effectiveness of its connections with cosmological principles(degree of conformity). From here - the primary role of ritual in the mythopoetic model of the world, installation on operationalism for those who use this model. Only in ritual is the highest level of sacredness achieved and at the same time a feeling of the most intense experience of existence, a special fullness of life, and one’s own rootedness in a given universe is acquired.

Collective forms of work tribal farming, the construction of “ancestral” dwellings, family dwellings, leads to the need redistribution of food products, tools , etc. Starts to be created structural-organizational model of society .

Achievements in economic life- receiving surplus food, the emergence of new types of tools and the construction of settled settlements - made man independent from the surrounding nature. During the period lasting from the 10th to the 3rd millennium BC. There have been fundamental changes in the material and spiritual life of people, which made it possible to single out this stage and call it - neolithic revolution. Neolithic Revolution characterized by a transition from hunting To cattle breeding, from gathering To agriculture , mastering new technological operations, with formation of new social relations in society. In progress domestication plants and animals, man adapted them to his needs and at the same time changed his activities, i.e. after gathering period And hunting It's time agriculture and animal husbandry. With the breeding of animals began the period mixed agricultural activity. During this period, people were divided into farmers and pastoralists, who created different cultures. The development of technology and social life in agricultural cultures led to the emergence first civilizations. Surplus agricultural products made it possible to develop specialization and cooperation within the team, which led to division of labor, inevitable when performing hard work beyond the strength of one family. To the main steps ancient society can be attributed to: emergence, accumulation and specialization simple tools; use and receipt fire; Creation ; invention bow and arrow; division of labor into hunting, fishing, cattle breeding, agriculture ; manufacturing clay products and roasting in the sun and fire; the birth of the first crafts: carpentry, pottery, basket weaving ; metal smelting and alloys first copper then bronze and iron; production of tools from them; Creation wheels and carts; usage animal muscle power for moving; Creation river and sea simple vehicles (rafts, boats), and then ships.

Summarizing the main achievements in the pre-civilization period, it can be argued that people possessed: the technology of basic forms of activity that ensure the maintenance of life ( hunting, gathering, herding, farming, fishing); knowledge animal habits and selectivity in choice fruits; natural history knowledge ( properties of stone, their changes with heating, types of wood, orientation by stars) ; medical knowledge(simple methods of healing wounds, surgical operations, treatment of colds, bloodletting, intestinal lavage, stopping bleeding, using balms, ointments, treating bites, cauterization with fire, psychotherapeutic actions); elementary counting system, measurement distances using body parts (nail, elbow, hand, arrow flight, etc.); elementary time measurement system using the comparison of the positions of stars, the division of seasons, knowledge of natural phenomena; transmission of information over distances (smoke, light and sound signals).

To the main achievements material and technical progress ancient society can be attributed to: the use and receipt fire ; Creation complex, composite tools; invention bow and arrow ; manufacturing clay products and roasting in the sun and fire; the emergence of the first crafts; metal smelting and alloys; Creation simplest vehicles.

Goals and objectives of the history of science as a discipline: in scientific research; in the educational process; in creating a museum (historical) exhibition. The place of the history of science in the system, both humanities, natural sciences, and technical ones. Understanding new knowledge in the history of science. Subject of the history of science. Methods of the history of science. Source base for the history of science and technology. Monuments of science and technology. Limits of rational reconstruction. The history of science as empathy, as immersion. New information environment for the history of science and technology. The relationship between the history of science and science studies. Significance of the works of V. Vernadsky, A. Bogdanov, K. Popper, I. Lakatos, T. Kuhn, P. Feyerabend, A. Koire, M. Foucault, R. Merton, M. Polanyi for science studies.

Part II. Science and technology in their historical development

Topic 1. Knowledge and technological capabilities of the period of pre-civilizational development of mankind

The inadequacy of the classical scheme of the history of the emergence of man and society The role of knowledge in traditional society. Mythological forms of knowledge. Modern research approaches to the analysis of myth. The concept of structural anthropology of K. Lévi-Strauss. From structural anthropology to poststructuralism. Modern traditional societies as a “historical laboratory”. Possibilities of dating and reconstructing the appearance of complex tools. Neolithic revolution. Mastering the first technological processes; modern assessment of their effectiveness. The evolution of simple and complex tools.

Topic 2. Knowledge about the world and man, the level of technical and technological development in ancient civilizations

Source base for studying the history of scientific and technical knowledge of ancient civilizations. Problems with confident dating. Existing chronologies and periodizations. Conceptual models of the world characteristic of ancient civilizations. The sacredness of knowledge, the sacredness of power. Knowledge as a path, as revelation, as initiation. The comprehension of knowledge. Knowledge coding systems, mechanisms for its transmission. The possibility of modern interpretation of ancient knowledge. Reconstruction of the canons of ancient civilizations. Geometric version of the “golden ratio”. The “suddenness” of ancient Egyptian and Babylonian knowledge and technology. The problem of language: origin, development, understanding. Modern versions of the reconstruction of knowledge and individual technological solutions (pyramids, ziggurats, irrigation, etc.). Specifics of knowledge and technological level of development of ancient civilizations. Understanding time; cyclicality as a form of life. The special role of the calendar. Calendar types. The uniqueness of the Mayan calendar. Predictions of astronomical and natural phenomena in ancient times are the highest form of rational knowledge.

Topic 3. Scientific and technical culture of antiquity

Periodization of antiquity. Main centers of culture and science. A fundamentally new conceptual vision of the world: “lowering the level” of sacredness and “raising the level” of personality. Pantheon of ancient gods. Culture hero. Semantic load of the myth about Prometheus. Basic codes and sign system of antiquity. Transition from Myth to Logos. A fixed process of development of scientific ideas is the appearance of history proper. Source base for the history of science in antiquity. The main feature of the intellectual life of antiquity is a new culture of thinking and substantiation of knowledge. The relationship between polis democracy and the emergence of science. Desacralization of knowledge, its evidence. Fundamentality of the ancient understanding of manifestation. The concept of harmony, the forms of its manifestation in the world and man, methods of its search as the meaning of existence. Problems of the relationship of Greek science with the knowledge of the East, characteristic motives and forms of borrowingsMain ancient schools, thinkers, scientific directions and achievements. Milesian school. Thales. Anaximander. Anaximenes. "Pythagorean Union". Fundamental pairs of opposites. Heraclitus: the idea of ​​universal variability. Empedocles: the concept of the four elements and the ether. Evolutionary cosmology and “structure of the cosmos”. The theory of matter and cosmology among atomists. The role of the principle of causality. The concept of multiple worlds. Plato and his picture of the world. Athens Academy. Principles of ancient education. Aristotle's system. The universality of scientific synthesis in the humanities and natural sciences in the writings of Aristotle The extraordinary stability of the Aristotelian paradigm in the history of science and philosophy. The doctrine of matter and form, Creation of classification as a scientific principle. Doxography and the emergence of the history of science. Alexandria School; museum, library. Features of Hellenistic science as a whole.

The emergence of early forms of research in the public sphere. Similarities and differences between the Greek states, as well as between them and other regions of the ancient world. Reformative thought of Solon.

social studies. The conditional nature of the application of the concept of "discipline" to the history of ancient social thought.

The views of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle in the field of social structure, economics, the theory of the historical process, pedagogy, theory of art and literature, management and law. Statement of theoretical issues of jurisprudence in ancient Greek thought as an example of early scientific thinking.

Scientific knowledge and technological achievements of Rome. Decline of science in Rome compared to Hellas. The development of methods of medical observation and the opening of the human body in the writings of Galen and his school; description of the muscular, digestive and other systems of the human body.