Kind of activity. Human activities, its main forms

Take a close look at the things that surround you. The apartment you live in, the clothes you wear, the mobile phone you talk to, the books you read, and many other things didn’t appear “at your command, according to your will,” but were created by people in the process activities.

That is, we can say that the activity - This is a deliberate occupation of a person aimed at meeting their needs, achieving their goals.

Simply put, need- it is a lack of something, a need for something.

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The American sociologist Abraham Maslow even developed a whole pyramid of human needs. According to Maslow, physiological needs, security needs, the need for belonging and love, the need for respect and reverence, as well as the need for self-fulfillment can be attributed to human needs.

It is human needs that serve as the motive for the beginning of any activity. For example, if you want to drink, then at least you need to open the tap and pour a glass of water, maximum - dig a well. In any case, the choice of solving this problem is yours.

Indeed, unlike animals, which are characterized by instinctive behavior, embedded in them by nature, human activity is always meaningful and diverse.

For example, bees can build honeycombs only of a certain geometric shape, ants can only build anthills, beavers build dams only from wood, every year birds fly away only to the south and so on.

Moreover, many representatives of the animal world are not able to survive alone, without their hive or herd, while a person, even left alone, is able to engage in a variety of activities that help him survive.

Take, for example, Robinson Crusoe, who, thanks to his activities, not only survived on a desert island, but was also able to return home.

Therefore, it is still customary to talk about human activity as a change and transformation of the world in the interests of man, the creation of what is not in nature. Radio, car, train, computer, phone - this list goes on and on. It is not for nothing that scientists call the modern man Homo sapiens - "Homo sapiens".

It can also be said that in the process of activity it is human nature to change; the formation and change of his personal qualities takes place. Indeed, in order to achieve results in his activities, a person must show will, determination, the ability to overcome difficulties and organize his life.

For example, the Russian commander Alexander Suvorov was such a weak and painful child that, contrary to the customs of the time, his father did not register his son in the regiment.

But the future generalissimo dreamed of a military career. Suvorov began to temper and engage in physical exercises. Using his father’s richest library, he studied artillery, fortification, and military history. He enlisted as a simple soldier and, thanks to his will and determination, was able to become the only military man in the Russian army who went from a simple soldier to a generalissimo.

As the ancient Greek philosopher Democritus said: "More from exercise than from nature become good people."

It is customary to single out the following forms of human activity: play, teaching, work, communication.

The very first form of activity that a person encounters is a game. Any games to one degree or another teach some kind of mental or physical activity, help to master various skills, knowledge, skills.

For example, many parents make a fairly simple toy for their children.

Various latches, calls, buttons, switches, pens, sockets, toggle switches and so on are attached to the wooden board. The child not only considers all these details, but also tries to open, click, click. During such a game, the child has fun and learns a lot of new and useful things: she learns to open the latches, turn the knobs, and turn on the light. Indeed, in any game situation, reality is simulated.

Sometimes, as it may turn out, such innocent games can change the course of history.

For example, it would seem that children's games in the war with the amusing regiments of the future Russian emperor Peter the Great laid not only the foundations of a professional Russian army, but also led to a complete reform of the country as a whole.

The next type of human activity can be called a doctrine, the purpose of which is the acquisition by a person of knowledge, skills.

Unlike a game that is voluntary, learning is your compulsory activity. This obligation is assigned to you, as citizens, in the Constitution of our country.

But teaching is not only attending school. These are playing sports, reading books, watching movies and TV shows, though not all programs can teach anything.

And, of course, self-education, that is, independent purposeful cognitive activity of a person.

As noted in the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language by Sergei Ozhegov: "Self-education is the acquisition of knowledge through independent studies without the help of a teacher."

Surely many of you are not limited to studying the school curriculum, but also read books on your own or solve math problems at your leisure, even if no one asked them to do them.

By the way, self-education can also be passive, that is, take place unconsciously throughout a person’s life. For example, you switched channels and accidentally heard a recipe in a cooking show or found out some interesting historical fact and remembered it.

The main form of human activity is labor.

The teacher teaches children, the driver carries passengers, the pastry chef bakes delicious cakes, the writer writes books. Your help to parents in housework or in a personal plot can also be attributed to work.

In general, labor is commonly understood as meaningful, conscious human activity aimed at satisfying one's needs and the needs of society.

Without participation in the labor process, it is quite difficult for a person to do in everyday life.

“Well, this is how to look,” you say, “because you can indulge in idleness for hours. Sit and look at your ceiling. What could be simpler? ”Actually, everything is not so simple. Do not believe?

Then here is an example. In one of the Japanese companies, an employee constantly turned to the boss with a request to increase his salary. After another refusal, he told his boss that for such a penny he would just sit on a chair and do nothing. The boss liked the idea of \u200b\u200bhis subordinate so much that from the next day sitting in a chair was the only work of this employee, for which he received a bonus to his salary. Moreover, he could only sit and not be distracted by reading newspapers, the Internet, talking on the phone. Just sit for ten hours a day with lunch and weekend breaks.

Within a few days, the employee asked the boss to transfer him to his former place of work with a decrease in wages. Do not believe? And you yourself try to sit and do nothing like this. Let's see if you last long enough.

Many scientists consider communication an important activity.

Communication is understood as the type of activity in which an exchange of ideas and emotions takes place - joy, suffering, surprise, anger, fear, interest, and so on.

Indeed, it is almost impossible to imagine any activity without communication. For example, before starting to treat a patient, the doctor must ask what his pain is.

Historically, communication between people arose and took shape primarily in the course of joint work.

To combine their efforts and organize joint activities, people needed to understand its meaning, their place and their role in it, and also skillfully collaborate with its other participants.

And this was possible only through communication with partners using words, gestures, facial expressions and means of communication.

Human activity is always conscious, a person consciously puts forward the goals of activity, thinks out the most appropriate ways to achieve them, and sometimes tries to predict the results and consequences.

Human activity is productive, it is always aimed at obtaining a result.

The transforming nature of activity is that a person constantly changes the world around him.

And since a person in the process of activity enters into various relationships with other people, it is of a social nature.

Nature has laid in us the main differences from animals - reason and activity. Constant inaction inevitably leads to degradation of the individual, therefore, activity is the most important development tool. The types and forms of human activity today are quite diverse - this is a game, teaching and work. The game has the function of entertainment and relaxation. Learning helps in the acquisition of skills and knowledge. And labor contributes to the formation and growth of personality. Activities play a major role in human life. And in order to know where to direct our energy, we will figure out what types of activities exist in nature.

Human cognitive activities

Doctrine or cognitive activity refers to the spiritual spheres of human life and society. There are four types of cognitive activity:

mundane - is the exchange of experience and those images that people carry in themselves and share with the outside world;
scientific - is characterized by the study and use of various laws and laws. The main goal of scientific cognitive activity is to create an ideal system of the material world;
artistic cognitive activity consists in an attempt by creators and artists to give an assessment of the surrounding reality and find shades of beauty and ugliness in it;
religious. Her subject is the man himself. His actions are evaluated in terms of being pleasing to God. This also includes moral standards and moral aspects of actions. Considering that all human life consists of actions, spiritual activity plays an important role in their formation.

Types of human spiritual activity

The spiritual life of man and society corresponds to such activities as religious, scientific and creative. Knowing the essence of scientific and religious activity, it is worth considering in more detail the types of creative activity of a person. This includes art or music, literature and architecture, directing and acting. Every person has the makings of creativity, however, in order to reveal them, you need to work long and hard.

Human activities

In the process of labor, the worldview of a person and his life principles develop. Labor requires personality and planning. Types of labor are both mental and physical. There is a stereotype in society that physical labor is much more complicated than mental. Although the work of the intellect does not manifest itself, in reality these types of labor activity are almost equal. Once again, this fact proves the diversity of existing professions.

Types of professional activity of a person

In the broad sense, the concept of profession means a diverse form of activity performed for the benefit of society. Simply put, the essence of professional activity is that people work for people and for the benefit of the whole society. There are 5 types of professional activities.

Man nature.The essence of this activity is in interaction with living beings: plants, animals and microorganisms.
Man-man.This type includes professions in one way or another related to interaction with people. The activity here is to educate, guide people, and their information, trade and domestic services.
Human Technique.A type of activity characterized by the interaction of man and technical structures and mechanisms. This includes everything related to automatic and mechanical systems, materials and types of energy.
Man is a sign system. This type of activity consists in interacting with numbers, signs, natural and artificial languages.
Man is an artistic image. This type includes all creative professions related to music, literature, acting, and visual arts.

Types of economic activity of people

Human economic activity has recently been severely contested by environmentalists, since it is based on natural reserves, which will soon exhaust themselves. Types of human economic activity include mining, such as oil, metals, stones, and everything that can benefit a person and harm not only nature, but the entire planet.

Types of human information activities

An integral part of human interaction with the outside world is information. The types of information activities include the receipt, use, distribution and storage of information. Information activities often become a threat to life, because there are always people who do not want third parties to know and disclose any facts. Also, this type of activity can be of a provocative nature, and also be a means of manipulating the consciousness of society.

Mental activity affects the state of the personality and the productivity of his life. The simplest form of mental activity is reflex. These are habits and skills established through constant repetition. They are almost invisible, in comparison with the most complex type of mental activity - creativity. It is characterized by constant diversity and originality, originality and uniqueness. Therefore, creative people are so often emotionally unstable, and professions related to creativity are considered the most difficult. That is why creative people are called talents that can transform this world and instill cultural skills into society.

Culture includes all types of transformative activities of man. There are only two types of this activity - creation and destruction. The second, unfortunately, is more common. Many years of human transformative activity in nature have led to troubles and catastrophes. Only creativity can come to the rescue here, which means, at a minimum, restoration of natural resources.

Activities distinguish us from animals. Some of its types benefit the development and formation of personality, others are destructive. Knowing what qualities are inherent in us, we can avoid the deplorable consequences of our own activities. This will not only benefit the world around us, but also allow us to deal with our beloved things with a clear conscience and consider ourselves people with a capital letter.

Under the activity refers to the activity of a living organism, aimed at meeting the needs and regulating a conscious goal. The goal, which can be a real object created by a person, certain knowledge, skills, creative result, acts as the final result of activity. The motive is the motive for the activity. It is the motive that gives the activity a certain specificity in relation to the choice of means and methods of achieving the goal. Motives can be a variety of needs, interests, attitudes, habits, emotional states. The diversity of human activity generates a variety of motives. Depending on motives, people have different attitudes towards their activities. The purpose of the activity is not equivalent to its motive, although sometimes the motive and purpose coincide. The structure of the activity: action, operation, psychophysiological functions. Actions are a process aimed at realizing a goal. Objective actions are actions aimed at changing the state or properties of objects of the external world. Mental actions - various human actions performed in the internal plane of consciousness. Mental activity is divided into:

perceptual, through which an integral image of the perception of objects or phenomena is formed;

mnemonic, which is part of the activity of memorization, retention and recall of any material;

mental, with the help of which the solution of mental tasks; impressive (from image - image), i.e. the activity of the imagination in the process of creativity.

Every activity includes both internal and external components. By its origin, internal (mental, mental) activity is derived from external (objective). Initially, objective actions are performed, and only then, as experience accumulates, a person acquires the ability to perform the same actions in the mind, ultimately directed outward, to transform objective reality, they themselves undergo a reverse transformation (exteriorization). The next level of activity structure is operations, each an action consists of a system of movements or operations subordinate to a specific goal. Operations characterize the partial side of the execution of actions, they are little realized or not realized at all. Operations can arise as a result of adaptation, direct imitation or by automation of actions. There are various structural elements of activity - skills, habits. Skills are ways to successfully complete an action that are consistent with the goals and conditions of the activity. Skills are always based on knowledge. A skill is a fully automated action component formed during an exercise. Skills and skills, as modes of action, are always included in specific activities. They can be divided into educational, sports, hygiene, etc.

In the formation of the skill there are three main stages: analytical, synthetic and the automation stage.

Skills acquired by a person influence the formation of new skills. This effect can be either positive (transfer) or negative (interference).

A skill can be formed in different ways: through a simple show; through explanation; through a combination of display and explanation.

Habits are a component of an action that is based on need. They can be consciously controlled to a certain degree, but they are far from always being rational and useful (bad habits).

All the diversity of human activity can be reduced to three main types: labor, teaching, play.

Initially, a simple impulsive behavior is manifested in a child after birth. Then, during the first year, research behavior begins to develop. After the first year, as a result of upbringing and imitation of the child, objective-practical behavior begins to take shape. At the same time, the child begins to develop communicative and verbal behavior. At preschool age, moral behavior begins to manifest.

The simplest, most affordable type of activity is a game. In the game, the child realizes the need for activity and knowledge of the world around him. Game actions of the child are carried out on the basis of the assimilation of human ways of using things and human forms of behavior.

A more challenging activity is teaching. The teaching is aimed at the assimilation of scientific knowledge and the acquisition of educational skills.

Learning can be passive and active.

The most important type of human activity is work, which provides not only the existence of human society, but is also a condition for its continuous development. There are two main types of labor: subject-practical and abstract-theoretical, or the first is often called physical, and the second - mental. Each type of labor can have both a reproductive and a productive, creative character.

Activity is a specific type of human activity aimed at creative transformation, improvement of reality and oneself. Activity is a form of realization of the subject’s relationship to the world of objects; one can distinguish different types of such relations, realized in different forms of activity: practical, cognitive, aesthetic, etc. Practical activity is primarily aimed at transforming the world in accordance with human goals. Cognitive activity serves the purpose of understanding the objective laws of the existence of the world, without which the accomplishment of practical tasks is impossible. Aesthetic activity associated with the perception and creation of works of art, involves the translation (transmission) of meanings, which are determined by the value orientations of a particular society and individual. All these are types of human activity.

Within each type of activity, individual types of activity can be distinguished by the difference in their objects - motives: communication, play, teaching and labor.

Communication is the first type of activity that occurs in the process of individual development of a person, followed by game, teaching and work. All these activities are developing in nature, i.e. when a child is included and actively participates in them, his intellectual and personal development takes place.

Communication is considered as a type of activity aimed at the exchange of information between communicating people. It also aims at establishing mutual understanding, good personal and business relations, providing mutual assistance and educational influence of people on each other. Communication can be direct and indirect, verbal and non-verbal. In direct communication, people are in direct contact with each other.

A game is a type of activity that does not result in the production of any material or ideal product (with the exception of business and design games for adults and children). Games often have the character of entertainment, aiming to get rest. Sometimes games serve as a means of symbolic relaxation of tensions arising under the influence of a person’s actual needs, which he is not able to weaken in another way.

Games are: individual (one person is involved in the game), group (with several people), subject (related to the inclusion of any objects in the game), story (unfold according to the scenario, in the main details), role-playing (in the game themselves according to the role they assume) and games with rules (governed by a system of rules). Games are of great importance in people's lives. For children, games are of developing importance, while for adults, they are disruptive.

Teaching is a type of activity, the purpose of which is the acquisition by a person of knowledge, skills. Teaching may be organized (in special educational institutions) and unorganized (in other activities as a secondary, additional result). Educational activity serves as a means of psychological development of the individual.

Labor occupies a special place in the system of human activity. Thanks to work, man built a modern society, created objects of material and spiritual culture, transformed the conditions of his life in such a way that he discovered for himself the prospects for further, almost unlimited development. With labor, first of all, is the creation and improvement of tools. They, in turn, were a factor in increasing labor productivity, the development of science, industrial production, technical and artistic creativity. These are the main characteristics of activities.

At school A.N. Leont'ev distinguish two forms of subject activity (by the nature of its openness to observation): external and internal. External activity usually refers to various forms of subject-practical activity (for example, hammering a nail, working on a machine, manipulating toys in young children, etc.), where the subject interacts with an object clearly presented for external observation. Internal activity is the subject’s activity hidden from direct observation with images of objects (for example, the scientist’s theoretical activity in solving a mathematical problem, the actor’s work on the role, proceeding in the form of internal deliberation and experiences, etc.). The ratio of external and internal components is not constant. As the activity develops and transforms, a systematic transition from external to internal components takes place. It is accompanied by their internalization and automation. If there are any difficulties in the activity, when it is restored, associated with violations of internal components, the reverse transition occurs - exteriorization: shortened, automated components of the activity unfold, manifest themselves outward, internal ones again become external, consciously controlled.

Activity differs from behavior (behavior is not always purposeful, does not imply the creation of a certain product, is often passive) and has the following main characteristics: motive, goal, object, structure, means. We talked about motives and goals in paragraph 1.1., So we immediately turn to the third characteristic - the subject of activity. The subject of activity is everything that it directly deals with. So, for example, the subject of cognitive activity is information, educational - knowledge, skills, labor - created material product.

Activities have a complex hierarchical structure. It consists of several "layers", or levels. These are special activities (or special activities); then the level of action; the next is the level of operations; finally, the lowest is the level of psychophysiological functions. Special types of activity: game, educational, labor activity.

Action is the basic unit of activity analysis. Action is one of the main "generators" of activity. In this concept, as in a drop of water, the basic starting points or principles of the theory of activity are reflected, new in comparison with previous concepts.

1. Consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself: it must be brought into the activity of the subject ("opening" the circle of consciousness).

2. Behavior cannot be considered in isolation from human consciousness. When considering behavior, consciousness should not only be preserved, but also defined in its fundamental function (the principle of the unity of consciousness and behavior).

3.Activity is an active, focused, process (principle of activity).

4. Human actions are objective; they realize social — production and cultural — goals (the principle of the objectivity of human activity and the principle of its social conditioning).

The goal sets the action, the action ensures the implementation of the goal. Through the characterization of the goal, one can characterize the action. There are large goals that are divided into smaller, private goals, those, in turn, can be split into even more private goals, etc. Accordingly, any sufficiently large action is a sequence of actions of a lower order with transitions to different "floors" hierarchical system of actions. This can be demonstrated by any example.

Suppose a person wants to call another city. In order to carry out this action (I order), he needs to perform a number of private actions (II order): go to the call center, find a suitable machine, take a queue, purchase telephone tokens, etc. When he gets into the booth, he must perform the following action in this row: connect to the subscriber. But for this, he will have to perform a number of even smaller actions (of the third order): lower the coin, press the button, wait for the beep, dial a certain number, etc.

Now we turn to operations, which form the next, underlying level with respect to actions.

An operation is a method of performing an action. You can multiply two two-digit numbers in your mind and in writing, solving the example "in a column". These will be two different ways of performing the same arithmetic operation, or two different operations. As you can see, operations characterize the technical side of the action, and what is called "technique", dexterity, dexterity, refers almost exclusively to the level of operations. The nature of the operations depends on the conditions of the action. If the action meets the goal itself, then the operation meets the conditions in which this goal is given. Moreover, by “conditions” are meant both external circumstances and opportunities, or internal means, of the acting entity itself.

The most accurate psychological sign that distinguishes actions and operations - awareness / unconsciousness, in principle, can be used, however, not always. It stops working just in the border zone, near the border that separates the layer of actions and operations. The farther from this boundary, the more reliable is the self-observation data: the subject usually does not doubt the representation (or non-representation) in the consciousness of very large or very small acts. But in the border zone, the situational dynamics of the activity process becomes significant. And here, the very attempt to determine the awareness of an act can lead to its awareness, i.e., disrupt the natural structure of activity.

The only way that is now being seen is the use of objective indicators, i.e., behavioral and physiological signs, of the active level of the current process.

Let's move on to the last, lowest level in the structure of activity - psychophysiological functions. Psychophysiological functions in the theory of activity are understood as physiological support of mental processes. These include a number of abilities of our body, such as the ability to feel, to form and fix traces of past influences, motor ability, etc. Accordingly, they speak of sensory, mnemonic, motor functions. Congenital mechanisms, fixed in the morphology of the nervous system, and those that mature during the first months of life also belong to this level. Psychophysiological functions form the organic foundation of activity processes. Without reliance on them, not only the execution of actions and operations would be impossible, but also the formulation of the tasks themselves.

Let us return to the characteristics of the activity, and the last characteristic is the means of carrying out the activity. These are the tools that a person uses when performing certain actions and operations. The development of means of activity leads to its improvement, as a result of which it becomes more productive and of high quality.

And in conclusion, we emphasize the main differences between human activities and animal activities:

1. Human activities are productive, creative, creative in nature. Animal activity has a consumer basis, it as a result of nothing new in comparison with what is given by nature does not produce and does not create.

2. Human activities are associated with objects of material and spiritual culture that are used by him either as tools, or as objects of satisfying needs, or as means of his own development. For animals, human tools and means of satisfying needs as such do not exist.

3. The activity of man transforms himself, his abilities, needs, living conditions. The activity of animals practically does not change anything either in themselves or in external living conditions.

4. Human activity in its various forms and means of realization is a product of history. The activity of animals appears as a result of their biological evolution.

5. Subject activity of people from birth is not given to them. It is “set” in the cultural purpose and way of using the surrounding objects. Such activities must be formed and developed in training and education. The same applies to the internal, neurophysiological and psychological structures governing the external side of practical activity. The activity of animals was initially set, genotypically determined, and unfolded as the body naturally matched anatomically and physiologically.

The essence of motivation. Motive and incentive. The main theory of motivation.

Motivation is a certain process of encouraging oneself or others to work and achieve certain goals. Incentive, stimulation also includes the material side, it is a kind of promise of reward, reward, which also serves as an impetus to activity, achievement of goals. Motivation is an internal process. Stimulation is external. Motive implies the internal motivation or desire of the individual to behave in a certain way to satisfy needs. And the stimulus also captures the material aspect. Theories of motivation: Substantive: A. Maslow's motivation model based on a hierarchy of needs: primary, social, respect and self-expression, self-realization through their consistent implementation; D. McClelland's motivation model using the needs of power, success and recognition in the group, involvement in it; Herzberg’s motivation model using hygienic factors (working conditions, interpersonal relationships, etc.) in combination with the “enrichment” of the labor process itself: a sense of success, promotion, recognition from others, responsibility, increased opportunities; Procedural: a model of motivation based on V. Wram’s theory of expectations: a person directs his efforts to achieve a goal when he is confident in satisfying his needs. Motivation is a function of the expectation factor according to the scheme: "labor costs -\u003e results -" reward "; model of motivation based on the theory of justice: people compare personal efforts spent with remuneration, comparing it with the remuneration of others for similar work. If labor is underestimated, efforts are reduced.

The concepts of "leadership" and "leadership", especially these forms of influence.

Leadership is a deliberate impact on led people and their community, which leads to their conscious and active behavior and activities, in accordance with the intentions of the leader. Leadership is the process of the psychological influence of one person on others during their joint life, which is carried out on the basis of perception, imitation, suggestion, understanding of each other. Leadership is based on the principles of free communication, mutual understanding and voluntary submission. The leader is characterized by: the ability to perceive the general needs and problems of the team and take on a certain share in solving these problems; the ability to be the organizer of joint activities: he formulates a task that excites the majority of the team members, plans to work together taking into account the interests and capabilities of each team member; sensitivity and insight, trust in people, he is an exponent of the positions of its members common to the collective. The main differences between leadership and leadership: leadership provides for the organization of all group activities, and leadership characterizes the psychological relationships that arise in a group “vertically,” that is, in terms of dominance and submission relationships; Leadership is a natural and necessary element of the process of the emergence of an official organization, while leadership arises spontaneously as a result of the interaction of people; leadership acts as a process of legal organization and management of joint activities of members of organizations, and leadership as a process of internal socio-psychological organization and management of communication and activities; the leader is the mediator of social control and power, and the leader is the subject of group norms and expectations, which are spontaneously formed in personal relationships. The leader-leader does not command, does not call, and does not “press” workers, but lead people to solve common problems for this team.

General and special functions of management activities.

Management functions - this is the direction or types of managerial activity, based on the separation and cooperation in management, and characterized by a separate set of tasks and performed by special techniques and methods. Any management function includes the collection of information, its transformation, decision-making, shaping and communicating to performers. General management features:- implemented in each organization and at each level of management; - inherent in the management of any organization; - divide the content of management activities into types of work based on the sequence of their implementation in time; - are relatively independent and at the same time closely interact. To such functions, in particular, management include: planning, organization, motivation and control. Concrete (specific) functions- represent the result of the division of managerial labor. Such functions include various activities that differ in purpose and method of implementation. Concrete functions do not affect the entire organization, but its specific sides or parts. Each specific management function in the organization is complex in content and includes common functions: planning, organization, motivation and control. Special Features - are subfunctions of a particular function (for example, the special function of managing the main production is the operational-calendar planning of the main production).

The main categories of PU are activities and labor. Activity - activity that realizes human needs, its characteristic is the external side (used tools, technologies, social roles, languages, norms and values), the internal side (expressed in the condition of the psyche by past experience, needs, motives and goals). has a complex genetic, functional and structural nature. It has its origins, “causes” and a more or less defined structural and functional organization. Its composition is multicomponent. In its implementation, mental processes, states and personality traits of different levels of complexity are involved. Depending on the goals, this activity can last for years or even a lifetime. However, no matter how complicated it may be, no matter how long it may take, it can be described using universal units, which reflect not a meaningful, but a structural-level approach to its description. The units of activity, representing its smaller fragments, but at the same time preserving the specifics of its psychological content, are those elements that are fixed in the concepts of action and operation. Purposeful activity associated with the achievement of private goals in the implementation of a broader activity is commonly called psychology in action. An operation is that specific set and sequence of movements that is determined by the specific conditions of interaction with objects in the process of carrying out actions (for example, physical properties of an object, location, spatial orientation, accessibility, etc.). Simply put - an operation is a way of performing an action. Operations are formed through imitation (copying) and by automating actions. Unlike actions, operations are unrecognizable.

The principle of unity of the psyche and activity; two-stage study of the psychology of activity.

The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity is a fundamental principle of the activity approach in psychology. Activity is not a combination of reflex and impulsive reactions to external stimuli, since it is regulated by the mind and reveals it. In this case, consciousness is considered as a reality not directly given to the subject in his self-observation: it can be known only through a system of subjective relations, incl. through the activity of the subject, in the process of which consciousness is formed and develops. The psyche, consciousness “lives” in the activity that makes up their “substance”, the image is an “accumulated movement”, i.e. collapsed actions, which at first were fully developed and “external”, ie consciousness is not just “manifested and formed” in activity as a separate reality - it is “embedded” in activity and inextricable with it. The principle of two-stage psychological study of activity. According to him, the analysis of activity should include two successive stages - analysis of its content and analysis of its psychological mechanisms. The first stage is associated with the characteristic of the objective content of the activity, the second - with the analysis of the subjective, actually psychological content.

The main functions of management: planning, motivation, etc.

Currently, there is a widespread process approach to management, which considers management as a process consisting of a number of defined sequential steps. Most people plan their activities for the day (month, year, etc.), then organize the resources that will be required to fulfill their plan. Those. management must be seen as a cyclical process ^ The main types of managementPlanning - the process of preparing for the future decisions on what should be done, how, when, what and how much resources should be used. The planning function answers three questions: · where is the organization currently located; · Where she wants to move; · How the organization is going to do this. ^ Organization. Stages: 1. structural organization (includes the structure of authority and the structure of communications; 2. organization of the production process (includes the organization of personnel work, work in time, work in space). Motivation - maximum satisfaction of the needs of the organization’s employees in exchange for their effective work. Stages: 1. determination of the needs of employees; 2. enabling the employee to meet these needs through good work. The control - the process of ensuring that the organization has truly achieved its goal. Stages: 1. setting standards; 2. measuring what has actually been achieved and comparing what has been achieved with the intended standards; 3. determination of the sources of discrepancy and actions necessary for the correction of plans.

Basic psychological requirements for an effective manager.

Many existing approaches to determining the normative model of an effective leader can be combined into 3 main groups:

1. Situational;

2. Personal;

3. Situational.

1. The functional approach. The main point for developing requirements for

an effective manager is defining his functions. At the same time, the main structure for the separation of functions is the managerial activity structure.

In most cases, the functional characteristics of managers' activities are related to the awareness and formulation of the organization’s mission, goal setting, resource management, process control in the external and internal environment of the organization.

We can name 12 functions reflecting the structure and specifics of the professional activity of the manager:

1. Cognition - knowledge of a person, group, organization, its environment, current management situation;

2. Forecast - determination of the main directions and dynamics of the development of controlled variables;

3. Design - the definition of the mission, goals and objectives of the organization, programming and planning activities;

4. Communicative and informational - the formation, structuring, preservation of communication networks, the collection, transformation and direction into communication networks necessary for managing information;

5. Motivation - a rational impact on the totality of external and internal conditions that cause activity and determine the direction of activity of the subject and the control object;

6. Guides - taking responsibility for the proposed decisions and their consequences on the basis of regulations or agreements within organizations;

7. Organization - the implementation of management goals and objectives;

8. Training - the transfer of necessary knowledge, skills, and abilities to staff;

9. Development - an appropriate change in the psychological variables of an individual and a group;

10. Assessments - the formation and application of norms and standards of activity;

11. Control - a reflection of the relevance of the current state of organizations to management objectives;

12. Corrections - making the necessary changes to the goals and programs of management.

When conducting professional selection procedures for managers from the perspective of a functional approach, the applicants' readiness is evaluated to effectively perform precisely those functions that are characteristic of the proposed position.

2. The personal approach. It is based on the assumption that effective managerial activity is associated with the possession by the manager of some many personality traits.

The profile of an effective manager, according to which a successful leader is characterized by the following features:

Search for opportunities and initiative; perseverance and perseverance;

Focus on efficiency and quality; involvement in work contacts;

Purposefulness;

Awareness

The ability to persuade and make connections; independence and self-confidence.

3. Situational (behavioral) approach. Successful leadership depends on:

1. expectations and needs of executives;

2. group structure and situation specifics;

3. The cultural environment in which the group is included;

4. the history of the organization in which the leadership is carried out;

5. age and experience of the leader, his experience;

6. The psychological climate in the group;

7. personal characteristics of subordinates.

The situational approach allows us to highlight a number of personality characteristics of the manager, which indicate the manager’s readiness for productive activity in a wide range of situations. These include, in particular, the ability to flexibly change leadership styles, resistance to uncertainty, and the absence of rigid stereotypes.

Thus, we can conclude that the over-task of the professional selection of managers is to establish the correspondence of the personality characteristics of the applicant to the organization’s features, the structure and functions of the activity, the current and predicted state of the professional environment.

The essence of managerial activity, two main plan of its characteristics.

Activity is defined as a form of the subject’s active attitude towards reality, aimed at achieving consciously set goals and associated with the creation of socially significant values \u200b\u200band the development of public experience. The subject of the psychological study of activity is the psychological components that induce, direct and regulate the subject's labor activity and realize it in performing actions, as well as personality traits through which this activity is realized. The main psychological properties of activity are activity, awareness, focus, objectivity and systematic structure. The basis of an activity is always some motive (or several motives). An activity involves two main planes of characterization - external (objective-effective) and internal (psychological). The external characteristic of the activity is carried out through the concepts of the subject and the object of labor, subject, means and conditions of activity. The subject of labor is the totality of things, processes, phenomena with which the subject in the process of work must mentally or practically operate. Means of labor - a set of tools capable of enhancing a person's ability to recognize the characteristics of the subject of labor and influence it. Working conditions - a system of social, psychological and sanitary-hygienic characteristics of the activity. The internal characteristic of the activity involves a description of the processes and mechanisms of its mental regulation, its structure and content, the operational means of its implementation.

The mechanism for the implementation of decisions and its role in management. Decision-making model as a circular process, its stages.

Stages of the decision-making process: 1) Identification of a problem - the primary distinction in a particular conflicting situation of a problem that needs to be resolved. The discovered discrepancy between the real and the desired state of the organization. 2) Analysis, diagnosis of the problem based on the collection of factual material related to the problem. Having discovered a problem, you need to correctly qualify it, which is the second task of the development of a managerial solution. Diagnosis is designed to establish the nature of the problem, its relationship with other problems, the degree of its danger, the collection and analysis of facts. 3) Determining the nature of the problem, its main content. At this stage, the results of the analysis are used to develop solutions. There should be many such options, so that by comparing them one can choose the best, most justified. 4) Choosing the best solution and bringing its content to the performers. This choice involves the consideration of all options for the proposed solution and the exclusion of subjective moments in its content. The best option will be the one that best takes into account the nature of the problems encountered, is acceptable in terms of the amount of expenses necessary for its implementation and is most reliable from the point of view of the possibility of its implementation. 5) Practical implementation under the supervision of the head by using the feedback mechanism. Implementation of the decision includes all the main phases of the management cycle - planning, organization, motivation and control.

Sole and agreed decisions, conditions for their adoption. The need for decision-making arises when the usual, stereotypic reaction to the information received is impossible. The leader can make decisions both individually and in coordination with the labor collective. Individual decisions are made by the leader mainly with a minimum communication space - for example, decisions made in emergency conditions, or decisions whose value is not great. But there are some decisions that are better to make in coordination, taking into account the opinion of the team, or taking into account the opinions of the companies with which the enterprise cooperates, for example, on changing the delivery time of products.

The role of feedback in the management communication system.

Feedback is a quick reaction to what is heard, read or seen; this is information (in verbal and non-verbal format), which is sent back to the sender, indicating a measure of understanding, trust in the message, assimilation and consent to it. Feedback allows the sender not only to know the result of the communication act, but also to adjust the next message to achieve a greater effect. If the result of the transmission of the message is reached, they say that there is a positive feedback; otherwise, negative feedback applies. Establishing feedback in the organization is a rather difficult task. This is especially true for vertical, imperious communications under control through coercion, when the recipient of information is afraid of possible sanctions and specifically distorts the message received through the feedback channels.

Methods of psychological research: general scientific and special; non-experimental and experimental.

Non-experimental methods: observation; questioning; conversation; archival method "or the study of activity products (The object of research when using the method of studying activity products can be a variety of creative products of subjects (poems, drawings, various crafts, diary notes, school essays, subjects, as a result of a certain type of labor activities.) Experimental methods: natural (the conditions are not organized by the experimenter, but by life itself, the natural behavior of a person is evaluated); modeling (the subject acts according to the instructions of the experimenter he knows that he is participating in the experiment as a test subject); laboratory (conducting research in a psychological laboratory equipped with special instruments and appliances. This type of experiment, which is also distinguished by the most artificial experimental conditions, is usually used to study elementary mental functions (sensory and motor reactions , reactions choice.) General scientific methods reflect the scientific apparatus of research, which determines the effectiveness of any type. Specific - these are methods that are born by the specificity of management systems and reflect the peculiarity of managerial activity.

Activities - a way of dealing with the outside world, which consists in transforming and subordinating it to the goals of a person (conscious, productive, transformative and social in nature). one

Activity structure:

An object is what the activity is aimed at.
A subject is one who exercises it. 2
Motive (a set of external and internal conditions that cause the activity of the subject and determine the direction of activity. The motives may include: needs; social attitudes; beliefs; interests; drives and emotions; ideals).
Purpose (this is a conscious image of the result, the achievement of which is directed by the action of man.
Means - used in the course of activities methods, methods of action, objects, etc. Means must be proportionate to the goal, moral; immoral means cannot be justified by the nobility of purpose.
Action is an element of activity that has a relatively independent and conscious task. An activity consists of individual actions. Special forms of actions: actions (actions that have a value-rational, moral value); acts (actions with high positive social significance).
The result is the final result, the state in which the need is satisfied (in whole or in part). The result of the activity may not coincide with the purpose of the activity. The parameters of the result of the activity are quantitative and qualitative indicators, by which the result is compared with the goal. Through activity, human freedom is realized, since in its process he makes his choice. four

Types of Activities:

labor (aimed at achieving a goal, practical utility, skill, personality development, transformation)
game (the game process is more important than its purpose; the dual nature of the game: real and conditional)
learning (learning new things)
communication (exchange of ideas, emotions). 5

Communication classifications:

by means of communication used:

direct (with the help of natural organs - hands, head, vocal cords, etc.);
indirect (with the help of specially adapted or invented means - a newspaper, a CD, a footprint on the ground, etc.);
direct (personal contacts and direct perception of each other);
indirect (through intermediaries that other people can act);

by subjects of communication:

between real subjects;
between a real subject and an illusory partner, who are attributed to the abnormal qualities of a communication subject (these can be pets, toys, etc.);
between a real subject and an imaginary partner, manifests itself in an internal dialogue (“internal voice”), in dialogue with the image of another person;
between imaginary partners - artistic images of works.

Creation:

A special place in the system of activities belongs to creativity. Creative activity is an activity process that creates qualitatively new material and spiritual values \u200b\u200bor the result of the creation of an objectively new one. The main criterion that distinguishes creativity from manufacturing (production) is the uniqueness of its result. Signs of creative activity are originality, unusualness, originality, and its result - inventions, new knowledge, values, works of art.

Each type of activity sets specific goals and objectives, uses a special arsenal of tools, operations and methods to achieve its goals. All types of activities exist in interaction with each other, which determines the systemic nature of all spheres of public life.