Terminology in biology. What do you need to know for the OGE in biology in order to pass it? By thematic section
You can read everything you need to know about the OGE in biology in 2019 - how to prepare, what to pay attention to, why points can be deducted, what the participants of the OGE from last year advise.
Subscribe to us in contact and stay up to date with the latest news!
Biology(from Greek bios- life, logo- word, science) is a complex of sciences about living nature.
The subject of biology is all manifestations of life: the structure and functions of living beings, their diversity, origin and development, as well as interaction with the environment. The main task of biology as a science is to interpret all phenomena of living nature on a scientific basis, taking into account that the whole organism has properties that are fundamentally different from its components.
The term “biology” is found in the works of the German anatomists T. Roose (1779) and K. F. Burdach (1800), but only in 1802 it was first used independently by J. B. Lamarck and G. R. Treviranus to denote the science that studies living organisms.
Biological Sciences
Currently, biology includes a number of sciences that can be systematized according to the following criteria: by subject and predominant research methods and by the level of organization of living nature being studied. According to the subject of study, biological sciences are divided into bacteriology, botany, virology, zoology, and mycology.
Botany is a biological science that comprehensively studies plants and the Earth's vegetation cover. Zoology- a branch of biology, the science of the diversity, structure, life activity, distribution and relationship of animals with their environment, their origin and development. Bacteriology- biological science that studies the structure and activity of bacteria, as well as their role in nature. Virology- biological science that studies viruses. The main object of mycology is mushrooms, their structure and characteristics of life. Lichenology- biological science that studies lichens. Bacteriology, virology and some aspects of mycology are often considered as part of microbiology - a branch of biology, the science of microorganisms (bacteria, viruses and microscopic fungi). Systematics or taxonomy, is a biological science that describes and classifies into groups all living and extinct creatures.
In turn, each of the listed biological sciences is divided into biochemistry, morphology, anatomy, physiology, embryology, genetics and systematics (plants, animals or microorganisms). Biochemistry is the science of the chemical composition of living matter, the chemical processes occurring in living organisms and underlying their life activity. Morphology- biological science that studies the form and structure of organisms, as well as the patterns of their development. In a broad sense, it includes cytology, anatomy, histology and embryology. Distinguish between the morphology of animals and plants. Anatomy is a branch of biology (more precisely, morphology), a science that studies the internal structure and shape of individual organs, systems and the organism as a whole. Plant anatomy is considered as part of botany, animal anatomy is considered as part of zoology, and human anatomy is a separate science. Physiology- biological science that studies the life processes of plant and animal organisms, their individual systems, organs, tissues and cells. There is physiology of plants, animals and humans. Embryology (developmental biology)- a branch of biology, the science of the individual development of an organism, including the development of the embryo.
Object genetics are the laws of heredity and variability. Currently, it is one of the most dynamically developing biological sciences.
According to the level of organization of living nature being studied, molecular biology, cytology, histology, organology, biology of organisms and superorganismal systems are distinguished. Molecular biology is one of the youngest branches of biology, a science that studies, in particular, the organization of hereditary information and protein biosynthesis. Cytology, or cell biology, is a biological science, the object of study of which is the cells of both unicellular and multicellular organisms. Histology- biological science, a branch of morphology, the object of which is the structure of tissues of plants and animals. The field of organology includes the morphology, anatomy and physiology of various organs and their systems.
Organismal biology includes all sciences that deal with living organisms, e.g. ethology- the science of behavior of organisms.
The biology of supraorganismal systems is divided into biogeography and ecology. Studies the distribution of living organisms biogeography, whereas ecology- organization and functioning of supraorganismal systems at various levels: populations, biocenoses (communities), biogeocenoses (ecosystems) and the biosphere.
According to the prevailing research methods, we can distinguish descriptive (for example, morphology), experimental (for example, physiology) and theoretical biology.
Identifying and explaining the patterns of structure, functioning and development of living nature at various levels of its organization is a task general biology. It includes biochemistry, molecular biology, cytology, embryology, genetics, ecology, evolutionary science and anthropology. Evolutionary doctrine studies the causes, driving forces, mechanisms and general patterns of evolution of living organisms. One of its sections is paleontology- a science whose subject is the fossil remains of living organisms. Anthropology- a section of general biology, the science of the origin and development of humans as a biological species, as well as the diversity of modern human populations and the patterns of their interaction.
Applied aspects of biology are included in the field of biotechnology, breeding and other rapidly developing sciences. Biotechnology is the biological science that studies the use of living organisms and biological processes in production. It is widely used in the food (baking, cheese-making, brewing, etc.) and pharmaceutical industries (production of antibiotics, vitamins), for water purification, etc. Selection- the science of methods for creating breeds of domestic animals, varieties of cultivated plants and strains of microorganisms with properties necessary for humans. Selection is also understood as the process of changing living organisms, carried out by humans for their needs.
The progress of biology is closely related to the successes of other natural and exact sciences, such as physics, chemistry, mathematics, computer science, etc. For example, microscopy, ultrasound (ultrasound), tomography and other methods of biology are based on physical laws, and the study of the structure of biological molecules and processes occurring in living systems would be impossible without the use of chemical and physical methods. The use of mathematical methods makes it possible, on the one hand, to identify the presence of a natural connection between objects or phenomena, to confirm the reliability of the results obtained, and on the other hand, to model a phenomenon or process. Recently, computer methods, such as modeling, have become increasingly important in biology. At the intersection of biology and other sciences, a number of new sciences arose, such as biophysics, biochemistry, bionics, etc.
Achievements of biology
The most important events in the field of biology, which influenced the entire course of its further development, are: the establishment of the molecular structure of DNA and its role in the transmission of information in living matter (F. Crick, J. Watson, M. Wilkins); deciphering the genetic code (R. Holley, H. G. Korana, M. Nirenberg); discovery of gene structure and genetic regulation of protein synthesis (A. M. Lvov, F. Jacob, J. L. Monod, etc.); formulation of cell theory (M. Schleiden, T. Schwann, R. Virchow, K. Baer); study of patterns of heredity and variability (G. Mendel, H. de Vries, T. Morgan, etc.); formulation of the principles of modern systematics (C. Linnaeus), evolutionary theory (C. Darwin) and the doctrine of the biosphere (V. I. Vernadsky).
“ mad cow disease" (prions).
Work on the Human Genome program, which was carried out simultaneously in several countries and was completed at the beginning of this century, led us to the understanding that humans have about 25–30 thousand genes, but information from most of our DNA is never read , since it contains a huge number of regions and genes encoding traits that have lost significance for humans (tail, body hair, etc.). In addition, a number of genes responsible for the development of hereditary diseases, as well as drug target genes, have been deciphered. However, the practical application of the results obtained during the implementation of this program is postponed until the genomes of a significant number of people have been deciphered, and then it will become clear what their differences are. These goals have been set for a number of leading laboratories around the world working on the implementation of the ENCODE program.
Biological research is the foundation of medicine, pharmacy, and is widely used in agriculture and forestry, the food industry and other branches of human activity.
It is well known that only the “green revolution” of the 1950s made it possible to at least partially solve the problem of providing the rapidly growing population of the Earth with food and livestock with feed through the introduction of new plant varieties and advanced technologies for their cultivation. Due to the fact that the genetically programmed properties of agricultural crops have already been almost exhausted, a further solution to the food problem is associated with the widespread introduction of genetically modified organisms into production.
The production of many food products, such as cheeses, yoghurts, sausages, baked goods, etc., is also impossible without the use of bacteria and fungi, which is the subject of biotechnology.
Knowledge of the nature of pathogens, the processes of many diseases, mechanisms of immunity, patterns of heredity and variability have made it possible to significantly reduce mortality and even completely eradicate a number of diseases, such as smallpox. With the help of the latest achievements of biological science, the problem of human reproduction is also being solved.
A significant part of modern medicines is produced on the basis of natural raw materials, as well as thanks to the successes of genetic engineering, such as, for example, insulin, so necessary for patients with diabetes, is mainly synthesized by bacteria to which the corresponding gene has been transferred.
Biological research is no less important for preserving the environment and the diversity of living organisms, the threat of extinction of which calls into question the existence of humanity.
The greatest significance among the achievements of biology is the fact that they even form the basis for the construction of neural networks and genetic code in computer technology, and are also widely used in architecture and other industries. Without a doubt, the 21st century is the century of biology.
Methods of knowledge of living nature
Like any other science, biology has its own arsenal of methods. In addition to the scientific method of cognition used in other fields, methods such as historical, comparative-descriptive, etc. are widely used in biology.
The scientific method of cognition includes observation, formulation of hypotheses, experiment, modeling, analysis of results and derivation of general patterns.
Observation- this is the purposeful perception of objects and phenomena using the senses or instruments, determined by the task of the activity. The main condition for scientific observation is its objectivity, that is, the ability to verify the data obtained through repeated observation or the use of other research methods, such as experiment. The facts obtained as a result of observation are called data. They can be like quality(describing smell, taste, color, shape, etc.), and quantitative, and quantitative data is more accurate than qualitative data.
Based on observational data, it is formulated hypothesis- a presumptive judgment about the natural connection of phenomena. The hypothesis is tested in a series of experiments. An experiment is called a scientifically conducted experiment, observation of the phenomenon being studied under controlled conditions, allowing one to identify the characteristics of a given object or phenomenon. The highest form of experiment is modeling- study of any phenomena, processes or systems of objects by constructing and studying their models. Essentially, this is one of the main categories of the theory of knowledge: any method of scientific research, both theoretical and experimental, is based on the idea of modeling.
The experimental and simulation results are subject to careful analysis. Analysis called a method of scientific research by decomposing an object into its component parts or mentally dismembering an object through logical abstraction. Analysis is inextricably linked with synthesis. Synthesis is a method of studying a subject in its integrity, in the unity and interconnection of its parts. As a result of analysis and synthesis, the most successful research hypothesis becomes working hypothesis, and if it can withstand attempts to refute it and still successfully predicts previously unexplained facts and relationships, then it can become a theory.
Under theory understand a form of scientific knowledge that gives a holistic idea of the patterns and essential connections of reality. The general direction of scientific research is to achieve higher levels of predictability. If no facts can change a theory, and the deviations from it that occur are regular and predictable, then it can be elevated to the rank of law- necessary, essential, stable, repeating relationship between phenomena in nature.
As the body of knowledge increases and research methods improve, hypotheses and well-established theories can be challenged, modified, and even rejected, since scientific knowledge itself is dynamic in nature and constantly subject to critical reinterpretation.
Historical method reveals patterns of the appearance and development of organisms, the formation of their structure and function. In a number of cases, with the help of this method, hypotheses and theories that were previously considered false gain new life. This, for example, happened with Charles Darwin’s assumptions about the nature of signal transmission in a plant in response to environmental influences.
Comparative-descriptive method provides for anatomical and morphological analysis of research objects. It underlies the classification of organisms, identifying patterns of emergence and development of various forms of life.
Monitoring is a system of measures for observing, assessing and forecasting changes in the state of the object under study, in particular the biosphere.
Carrying out observations and experiments often requires the use of special equipment, such as microscopes, centrifuges, spectrophotometers, etc.
Microscopy is widely used in zoology, botany, human anatomy, histology, cytology, genetics, embryology, paleontology, ecology and other branches of biology. It allows you to study the fine structure of objects using light, electron, X-ray and other types of microscopes.
Organism is an integral system capable of independent existence. Based on the number of cells that make up organisms, they are divided into unicellular and multicellular. The cellular level of organization in unicellular organisms (amoeba vulgaris, green euglena, etc.) coincides with the organismal level. There was a period in the history of the Earth when all organisms were represented only by single-celled forms, but they ensured the functioning of both biogeocenoses and the biosphere as a whole. Most multicellular organisms are represented by a collection of tissues and organs, which in turn also have a cellular structure. Organs and tissues are adapted to perform specific functions. The elementary unit of this level is the individual in its individual development, or ontogenesis, therefore the organismal level is also called ontogenetic. An elementary phenomenon at this level is changes in the body in its individual development.
Population-species level
Population- this is a collection of individuals of the same species, freely interbreeding with each other and living separately from other similar groups of individuals.
In populations there is a free exchange of hereditary information and its transmission to descendants. A population is an elementary unit of the population-species level, and the elementary phenomenon in this case is evolutionary transformations, such as mutations and natural selection.
Biogeocenotic level
Biogeocenosis is a historically established community of populations of different species, interconnected with each other and the environment by metabolism and energy.
Biogeocenoses are elementary systems in which the material-energy cycle occurs, determined by the vital activity of organisms. Biogeocenoses themselves are elementary units of a given level, while elementary phenomena are flows of energy and cycles of substances in them. Biogeocenoses make up the biosphere and determine all the processes occurring in it.
Biosphere level
Biosphere- the shell of the Earth inhabited by living organisms and transformed by them.
The biosphere is the highest level of organization of life on the planet. This shell covers the lower part of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the upper layer of the lithosphere. The biosphere, like all other biological systems, is dynamic and is actively transformed by living beings. It itself is an elementary unit of the biosphere level, and the processes of circulation of substances and energy that occur with the participation of living organisms are considered as an elementary phenomenon.
As mentioned above, each of the levels of organization of living matter makes its contribution to a single evolutionary process: in the cell, not only the embedded hereditary information is reproduced, but also its change occurs, which leads to the emergence of new combinations of characteristics and properties of the organism, which in turn are subject to the action of natural selection at the population-species level, etc.
Biological systems
Biological objects of varying degrees of complexity (cells, organisms, populations and species, biogeocenoses and the biosphere itself) are currently considered as biological systems.
A system is a unity of structural components, the interaction of which gives rise to new properties compared to their mechanical totality. Thus, organisms consist of organs, organs are formed by tissues, and tissues form cells.
The characteristic features of biological systems are their integrity, the level principle of organization, as discussed above, and openness. The integrity of biological systems is largely achieved through self-regulation, operating on the feedback principle.
TO open systems include systems between which the exchange of substances, energy and information occurs between them and the environment, for example, plants, in the process of photosynthesis, capture sunlight and absorb water and carbon dioxide, releasing oxygen.
One of the fundamental concepts in modern biology is the idea that all living organisms have a cellular structure. Science studies the structure of a cell, its life activity and interaction with the environment. cytology, now more commonly referred to as cell biology. Cytology owes its appearance to the formulation of the cell theory (1838–1839, M. Schleiden, T. Schwann, supplemented in 1855 by R. Virchow).
Cell theory is a generalized idea of the structure and functions of cells as living units, their reproduction and role in the formation of multicellular organisms.
Basic principles of cell theory:
A cell is a unit of structure, vital activity, growth and development of living organisms - there is no life outside the cell. A cell is a single system consisting of many elements naturally interconnected with each other, representing a certain integral formation. The cells of all organisms are similar in their chemical composition, structure and functions. New cells are formed only as a result of the division of mother cells (“cell from cell”). The cells of multicellular organisms form tissues, and organs are made up of tissues. The life of an organism as a whole is determined by the interaction of its constituent cells. Cells of multicellular organisms have a full set of genes, but differ from each other in that different groups of genes work in them, which results in morphological and functional diversity of cells - differentiation.
Thanks to the creation of the cellular theory, it became clear that the cell is the smallest unit of life, an elementary living system, which has all the signs and properties of living things. The formulation of the cell theory became the most important prerequisite for the development of views on heredity and variability, since the identification of their nature and inherent patterns inevitably suggested the universality of the structure of living organisms. The identification of the unity of the chemical composition and structure of cells served as an impetus for the development of ideas about the origin of living organisms and their evolution. In addition, the origin of multicellular organisms from a single cell during embryonic development has become a dogma of modern embryology.
About 80 chemical elements are found in living organisms, but only 27 of these elements have their functions in the cell and organism established. The remaining elements are present in small quantities and, apparently, enter the body with food, water and air. The content of chemical elements in the body varies significantly. Depending on their concentration, they are divided into macroelements and microelements.
The concentration of each macronutrients in the body exceeds 0.01%, and their total content is 99%. Macroelements include oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, calcium, sodium, chlorine, magnesium and iron. The first four of the listed elements (oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen) are also called organogenic, since they are part of the main organic compounds. Phosphorus and sulfur are also components of a number of organic substances, such as proteins and nucleic acids. Phosphorus is essential for the formation of bones and teeth.
Without the remaining macroelements, normal functioning of the body is impossible. Thus, potassium, sodium and chlorine are involved in the processes of cell excitation. Potassium is also necessary for the functioning of many enzymes and the retention of water in the cell. Calcium is found in the cell walls of plants, bones, teeth, and mollusk shells and is required for muscle cell contraction and intracellular movement. Magnesium is a component of chlorophyll, a pigment that ensures photosynthesis occurs. It also takes part in protein biosynthesis. Iron, in addition to being part of hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in the blood, is necessary for the processes of respiration and photosynthesis, as well as for the functioning of many enzymes.
Microelements are contained in the body in concentrations of less than 0.01%, and their total concentration in the cell does not reach 0.1%. Microelements include zinc, copper, manganese, cobalt, iodine, fluorine, etc. Zinc is part of the molecule of the pancreatic hormone - insulin, copper is required for the processes of photosynthesis and respiration. Cobalt is a component of vitamin B12, the absence of which leads to anemia. Iodine is necessary for the synthesis of thyroid hormones, which ensure normal metabolism, and fluoride is associated with the formation of tooth enamel.
Both deficiency and excess or disturbance of the metabolism of macro- and microelements lead to the development of various diseases. In particular, a lack of calcium and phosphorus causes rickets, a lack of nitrogen - severe protein deficiency, a deficiency of iron - anemia, and a lack of iodine - a violation of the formation of thyroid hormones and a decrease in metabolic rate. A decrease in fluoride intake from water and food largely determines the disruption of tooth enamel renewal and, as a consequence, a predisposition to caries. Lead is toxic to almost all organisms. Its excess causes irreversible damage to the brain and central nervous system, which is manifested by loss of vision and hearing, insomnia, kidney failure, seizures, and can also lead to paralysis and diseases such as cancer. Acute lead poisoning is accompanied by sudden hallucinations and ends in coma and death.
The lack of macro- and microelements can be compensated by increasing their content in food and drinking water, as well as by taking medications. Thus, iodine is found in seafood and iodized salt, calcium is found in eggshells, etc.
Plant cells
Plants are eukaryotic organisms, therefore, their cells necessarily contain a nucleus at at least one of the stages of development. Also in the cytoplasm of plant cells there are various organelles, but their distinctive property is the presence of plastids, in particular chloroplasts, as well as large vacuoles filled with cell sap. The main storage substance of plants - starch - is deposited in the form of grains in the cytoplasm, especially in storage organs. Another essential feature of plant cells is the presence of cellulose cell walls. It should be noted that in plants, cells are usually called formations whose living contents have died off, but the cell walls remain. Often these cell walls are impregnated with lignin during lignification, or with suberin during suberization.
Plant tissues
Unlike animals, the cells of plants are glued together by a carbohydrate middle plate; between them there may also be intercellular spaces filled with air. During life, tissues can change their functions, for example, xylem cells first perform a conducting function, and then a supporting one. Plants have up to 20–30 types of tissues, uniting about 80 types of cells. Plant tissues are divided into educational and permanent.
Educational, or meristematic, tissues take part in plant growth processes. They are located at the tops of shoots and roots, at the bases of internodes, form a layer of cambium between the phloem and wood in the stem, and also underlie the plug in woody shoots. The constant division of these cells supports the process of unlimited plant growth: the educational tissues of the shoot and root tips, and in some plants, the internodes, ensure the growth of plants in length, and the cambium in thickness. When a plant is damaged, wound tissues are formed from cells on the surface that fill the resulting gaps.
Permanent tissues plants specialize in performing certain functions, which is reflected in their structure. They are incapable of dividing, but under certain conditions they can regain this ability (with the exception of dead tissue). Permanent tissues include integumentary, mechanical, conductive and basal tissues.
Integumentary tissues plants protect them from evaporation, mechanical and thermal damage, penetration of microorganisms, and ensure the exchange of substances with the environment. The integumentary tissues include the skin and cork.
Skin, or epidermis, is a single-layer tissue devoid of chloroplasts. The skin covers the leaves, young shoots, flowers and fruits. It is penetrated by stomata and can bear various hairs and glands. The top skin is covered cuticle of fat-like substances that protects plants from excessive evaporation. Some hairs on its surface are also intended for this purpose, while glands and glandular hairs can secrete various secretions, including water, salts, nectar, etc.
Stomata- these are special formations through which water evaporates - transpiration. In stomata, guard cells surround the stomatal fissure, and there is free space underneath them. The guard cells of stomata are most often bean-shaped and contain chloroplasts and starch grains. The inner walls of the guard cells of the stomata are thickened. If the guard cells are saturated with water, then the inner walls stretch and the stomata opens. The saturation of guard cells with water is associated with the active transport of potassium ions and other osmotically active substances in them, as well as the accumulation of soluble carbohydrates during photosynthesis. Through the stomata, not only water evaporation occurs, but also gas exchange in general - the entry and removal of oxygen and carbon dioxide, which penetrate further through the intercellular spaces and are consumed by cells in the process of photosynthesis, respiration, etc.
Cells traffic jams, which mainly covers lignified shoots, are saturated with a fat-like substance suberin, which, on the one hand, causes cell death, and on the other, prevents evaporation from the surface of the plant, thereby providing thermal and mechanical protection. In the cork, as in the skin, there are special formations for ventilation - lentils. Cork cells are formed by division of the cork cambium underlying it.
Mechanical fabrics plants perform supporting and protective functions. These include collenchyma and sclerenchyma. Collenchyma is a living mechanical tissue that has elongated cells with thickened cellulose walls. It is characteristic of young, growing plant organs - stems, leaves, fruits, etc. Sclerenchyma- this is dead mechanical tissue, the living contents of the cells of which die off due to lignification of the cell walls. In fact, all that remains of the sclerenchyma cells are thickened and lignified cell walls, which is the best way for them to perform their respective functions. Mechanical tissue cells are most often elongated and are called fibers. They accompany conductive tissue cells in bast and wood. Single or in groups stony cells round or star-shaped sclerenchymas are found in unripe fruits of pear, hawthorn and rowan, in the leaves of water lilies and tea.
By conductive tissue transport of substances throughout the plant body occurs. There are two types of conducting tissue: xylem and phloem. Part xylem, or wood, includes conductive elements, mechanical fibers and cells of the main tissue. The living contents of the cells of the conducting elements of the xylem - vessels And tracheid- dies early, leaving only lignified cell walls, as in sclerenchyma. The function of xylem is the upward transport of water and mineral salts dissolved in it from the root to the shoot. Phloem, or bast, is also a complex tissue, since it is formed by conductive elements, mechanical fibers and cells of the main tissue. Cells of conducting elements - sieve tubes- alive, but the nuclei disappear in them, and the cytoplasm mixes with cell sap to facilitate the transport of substances. The cells are located one above the other, the cell walls between them have numerous holes, which makes them look like a sieve, which is why the cells are called sieve-like. Phloem transports water and organic substances dissolved in it from the aboveground part of the plant to the root and other plant organs. Loading and unloading of sieve tubes is ensured by adjacent companion cells. Main fabric not only fills the gaps between other tissues, but also performs nutritional, excretory and other functions. The nutritional function is performed by photosynthetic and storage cells. For the most part this parenchyma cells, i.e. they have almost the same linear dimensions: length, width and height. The main tissues are located in leaves, young stems, fruits, seeds and other storage organs. Some types of basic tissue are capable of performing an absorptive function, such as the cells of the hairy layer of the root. The secretion is carried out by various hairs, glands, nectaries, resin ducts and containers. A special place among the main tissues belongs to lacticifers, in the cell sap of which rubber, gutta and other substances accumulate. In aquatic plants, the intercellular spaces of the main tissue may grow, resulting in the formation of large cavities through which ventilation is carried out.
Plant organs
Vegetative and generative organs
Unlike animals, the body of plants is divided into a small number of organs. They are divided into vegetative and generative. Vegetative organs support the vital functions of the body, but do not participate in the process of sexual reproduction, whereas generative organs perform exactly this function. Vegetative organs include the root and shoot, and generative organs (in flowering plants) include the flower, seed and fruit.
Root
Root is an underground vegetative organ that performs the functions of soil nutrition, anchoring the plant in the soil, transport and storage of substances, as well as vegetative propagation.
Root morphology. The root has four zones: growth, absorption, conduction and root cap. Root cap protects the cells of the growth zone from damage and facilitates the movement of the root among solid soil particles. It is represented by large cells that can mucus and die over time, which facilitates root growth.
Growth zone consists of cells capable of dividing. Some of them, after division, increase in size as a result of stretching and begin to perform their inherent functions. Sometimes the growth zone is divided into two zones: divisions And stretching.
IN suction zone There are root hair cells that perform the function of absorbing water and minerals. Root hair cells do not live long, sloughing off 7–10 days after formation.
IN venue area, or lateral roots, substances are transported from the root to the shoot, and root branching also occurs, i.e., the formation of lateral roots, which contributes to the anchoring of the plant. In addition, in this zone it is possible to store substances and lay buds, with the help of which vegetative reproduction can occur.
Page 1 of 2
Dictionary of basic biological terms and concepts
A
ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENT - a set of inorganic conditions (factors) for the habitat of organisms. These include the composition of atmospheric air, the composition of sea and fresh waters, soils, air and soil temperatures, lighting and other factors.
AGROBIOCENOSIS - a set of organisms living on lands occupied by crops and plantings of agricultural crops. In Africa, the vegetation cover is created by man and usually consists of one or two cultivated plants and accompanying weeds.
AGROECOLOGY is a branch of ecology that studies the patterns of organization of artificial plant communities, their structure and functioning.
NITROGEN FIXING BACTERIA - bacteria capable of assimilating nitrogen from the air to form nitrogen compounds available for use by other organisms. Among A.b. there are both freely living in the soil and coexisting with mutual benefit with the roots of higher plants.
ANTIBIOTICS are specific chemical substances produced by microorganisms and capable, even in small quantities, of exerting a selective effect on other microorganisms and malignant tumor cells. In a broad sense, A. also includes antimicrobial substances in the tissues of higher plants (phytoncides). The first A. was obtained in 1929 by Fleming (although penicillium was used by Russian doctors much earlier). The term "A." proposed in 1942 by Z. Waksman.
ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS - factors of human influence on the environment. Human influence on plants can be both positive (plant cultivation, pest control, protection of rare species and biocenoses) and negative. The negative impact of humans can be direct - deforestation, collection of flowering plants, trampling of vegetation in parks and forests, indirect - through environmental pollution, destruction of pollinating insects, etc.
B
BACTERIA is the kingdom of living organisms. They differ from organisms of other kingdoms in their cell structure. Single-celled or grouped microorganisms. Fixed or mobile - with flagella.
BACTERICIDALITY - the ability of plant juices, animal blood serum and some chemicals to kill bacteria.
BIOINDICATORS - organisms whose developmental features or quantity serve as indicators of natural processes or anthropogenic changes in the environment. Many organisms can exist only within certain, often narrow limits of changes in environmental factors (chemical composition of soil, water, atmosphere, climatic and weather conditions, the presence of other organisms). For example, lichens and some conifers serve to maintain air purity. Aquatic plants, their species composition and numbers determine the degree of water pollution.
BIOMASS - the total mass of individuals of a species, group of species or community of organisms. It is usually expressed in units of mass (grams, kilograms) per unit area or volume of habitat (hectare, cubic meter). About 90% of the entire biosphere consists of terrestrial plants. The rest is accounted for by aquatic vegetation.
BIOSPHERE is the area of distribution of life on Earth, the composition, structure and energy of which are determined by the joint activity of living organisms.
BIOCENOSIS is a set of plants and animals formed in the process of evolutionary development in the food chain, influencing each other during the struggle for existence and natural selection (plants, animals and microorganisms inhabiting a lake, river valley, pine forest).
IN
SPECIES is the basic unit in the taxonomy of living organisms. A set of individuals that have a number of common characteristics and are capable of interbreeding to form fertile offspring, inhabiting a certain territory.
GERMINATION - the ability of seeds to produce normal seedlings within a specified period under certain conditions. Germination is expressed as a percentage.
HIGHER PLANTS are complex multicellular organisms with well-defined vegetative organs, adapted, as a rule, to life in a terrestrial environment.
G
GAMETE - sex cell. Ensures the transmission of hereditary information from parents to descendants.
GAMETOPHYTE - the sexual generation in the life cycle of plants that develop with alternating generations. Formed from a spore, produces gametes. In higher plants, the plant is represented only by mosses as leaf-stemmed plants. In others it is poorly developed and short-lived. In mosses, horsetails, and ferns, G. is a prothallus that produces both male and female gametes. In angiosperms, the female embryo is the embryo sac, and the male is pollen. They grow along river banks, in swamps and wet fields (reed, cattail).
GENERATIVE ORGANS - organs that perform the function of sexual reproduction. Flowering plants have flowers and fruits, or more precisely, a speck of dust and an embryo sac.
HYBRIDIZATION - combining the hereditary material of different cells into one. In agriculture, crossing different varieties of plants. See also Selection.
HYGROPHYTES - plants of humid habitats. They grow in swamps, in water, and in tropical rainforests. Their root system is poorly developed. Wood and mechanical tissues are poorly developed. Can absorb moisture over the entire surface of the body.
HYDROPHYTES - aquatic plants attached to the ground and immersed in water only with the lower part. Unlike hygrophytes, they have well-developed conductive and mechanical tissues and a root system. But there are many intercellular spaces and air cavities.
GLYCOGEN - carbohydrate, polysaccharide. Its branched molecules are built from glucose residues. Energy reserve of many living organisms. When it breaks down, glucose (sugar) is formed and energy is released. Found in the liver and muscles of vertebrates, in fungi (yeast), in algae, and in the grain of some varieties of corn.
GLUCOSE - grape sugar, one of the most common simple sugars. In green plants, it is formed from carbon dioxide and water as a result of photosynthesis. Participates in many metabolic reactions.
Gynosperms are the most ancient of seed plants. Most are evergreen trees and shrubs. Representatives of gymnosperms are conifers (spruce, pine, cedar, fir, larch).
MUSHROOMS are the kingdom of living organisms. They combine the characteristics of both plants and animals, and also have special characteristics. There are both unicellular and multicellular fungi. The body (mycelium) consists of a system of branching threads.
HUMUS (HUMUS) is a complex of specific dark-colored organic soil substances. Obtained as a result of the transformation of organic residues. To a large extent determines soil fertility.
Biological terms of cytology
Homeostasis(homo - identical, stasis - state) - maintaining the constancy of the internal environment of a living system. One of the properties of all living things.
Phagocytosis(phago - devour, cytos - cell) - large solid particles. Many protozoans feed by phagocytosis. With the help of phagocytosis, immune cells destroy foreign microorganisms.
Pinocytosis(pino - drink, cytos - cell) - liquids (together with dissolved substances).
Prokaryotes, or prenuclear (pro - do, karyo - nucleus) - the most primitive structure. Prokaryotic cells do not have formalized, no, genetic information is represented by one circular (sometimes linear) chromosome. Prokaryotes lack membrane organelles, with the exception of photosynthetic organelles in cyanobacteria. Prokaryotic organisms include Bacteria and Archaea.
Eukaryotes, or nuclear (eu - good, karyo - nucleus) - and multicellular organisms that have a formed nucleus. They have a more complex organization compared to prokaryotes.
Karyoplasm(karyo - nucleus, plasma - contents) - the liquid contents of the cell.
Cytoplasm(cytos - cell, plasma - contents) - internal environment of the cell. Consists of hyaloplasm (liquid part) and organoids.
Organoid, or organelle(organ - instrument, oid - similar) - a permanent structural formation of a cell that performs certain functions.
In prophase 1 of meiosis, each of the already twisted bichromatid chromosomes closely approaches its homologous one. This is called conjugation (well, confused with conjugation of ciliates).
A pair of homologous chromosomes that come together is called bivalent.
The chromatid then crosses over with a homologous (non-sister) chromatid on the neighboring chromosome (with which the bivalent is formed).
The place where chromatids intersect is called chiasmata. Chiasmus was discovered in 1909 by the Belgian scientist Frans Alphonse Janssens.
And then a piece of the chromatid breaks off at the site of the chiasm and jumps to another (homologous, i.e., non-sister) chromatid.
Gene recombination has occurred. Result: some genes migrated from one homologous chromosome to another.
Before crossing over, one homologous chromosome possessed genes from the maternal organism, and the second from the paternal one. And then both homologous chromosomes possess the genes of both the maternal and paternal organism.
The meaning of crossing over is this: as a result of this process, new combinations of genes are formed, therefore, there is more heritable variability, and therefore there is a greater likelihood of the emergence of new traits that may be useful.
Mitosis– indirect division of a eukaryotic cell.
The main type of cell division in eukaryotes. During mitosis, there is a uniform, equal distribution of genetic information.
Mitosis occurs in 4 phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase). Two identical cells are formed.
The term was coined by Walter Fleming.
Amitosis– direct, “incorrect” cell division. Robert Remak was the first to describe amitosis. Chromosomes do not spiral, DNA replication does not occur, spindle threads do not form, and the nuclear membrane does not disintegrate. The nucleus is constricted, with the formation of two defective nuclei, with, as a rule, unevenly distributed hereditary information. Sometimes even the cell does not divide, but simply forms a binuclear cell. After amitosis, the cell loses the ability to undergo mitosis. This term was coined by Walter Fleming.
- ectoderm (outer layer),
- endoderm (inner layer) and
- mesoderm (middle layer).
Common amoeba –
protozoan of the Sarcomastigophora type (Sarcoflagellates), class Rhizomes, order Amoeba.
The body does not have a permanent shape. They move with the help of pseudopods - pseudopodia.
They feed by phagocytosis.
Ciliate slipper- heterotrophic protozoan.
Type of ciliates. The organelles of movement are cilia. Food enters the cell through a special organoid - the cellular mouth opening.
There are two nuclei in a cell: large (macronucleus) and small (micronucleus).
Yeast- unicellular fungi. Used in cooking and alcohol production
Formed on wet soil or food. It looks like a fluffy white coating, which then turns black from the spores formed. Used to obtain fermentation products.
Consists of processes:
- synthesis (synonyms - anabolism, assimilation), comes with energy absorption.
- decay (synonyms - catabolism, dissimilation) —
Catabolism and dissimilation are reactions of breakdown and oxidation of complex organic substances with the release of energy in the form of heat and ATP.
Three stages:
- preparatory - the breakdown of the polymer components of food into monomers (in higher organisms occurs in the digestive tract, in protozoa - in lysosomes);
- oxygen-free (a name = "Glikoliz">glycolysis, anaerobic respiration, fermentation); goes in the cytoplasm of the cell:
glucose → pyruvic acid (PVA) + 2ATP- oxygen breakdown (aerobic) - occurs on the cristae of mitochondria):
PVC → CO2 + H2O + 36ATPATP— Adenosine triphosphoric acid (adenosine triphosphoric acid is a universal biological energy accumulator. It consists of the nitrogenous base adenine, a five-atomic sugar - ribose and three phosphoric acid residues.
– the process of synthesis of glucose and other organic substances from carbon dioxide and water using the energy of sunlight.
Characteristic of plants and some autotrophic protozoa.
6CO 2 + 6H 2 O -> C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2
Consists of two successive phases:
- light (in the thylakoids of the chloroplast grana) and
- dark (in the stroma of the chloroplast).
Chemosynthesis– one of the methods of autotrophic nutrition.
In chemosynthesis, the energy for the formation of complex molecules is obtained from chemical reactions of oxidation of inorganics. This method is typical for prokaryotes.
<Раздел Биологические термины в разработке — т.е. он будет постоянно пополняться>
Abasia- Loss of the ability to walk, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.
Abbreviation- Loss by a species during evolution or by an individual in the process of ontogenesis of characteristics or phases of development that were present in its ancestors.
Abiogenesis- The emergence of living things from non-living things in the process of evolution.
Aborigine- An indigenous inhabitant of a certain area, who has lived in it since ancient times.
Avitaminosis- A disease caused by a long-term lack of vital vitamins in food.
Autogamy- Self-pollination and self-fertilization in flowering plants.
Autoduplication- The process of synthesis by living organisms or their parts of substances and structures that are completely identical to the original formations.
Autolysis- Self-dissolution, the breakdown of body tissues under the influence of enzymes contained in the same tissues.
Automixis- Fusion of germ cells belonging to the same individual; widely distributed among protozoa, fungi, and diatoms.
Autotomy- The ability of some animals to discard parts of their body; protective device.
Autotroph- An organism that synthesizes organic matter from inorganic compounds using the energy of the Sun or energy released during chemical reactions.
Agglutination- 1) Gluing and precipitation from a homogeneous suspension of bacteria, red blood cells and other cells. 2) Protein coagulation in a living cell, which occurs when exposed to high temperatures, toxic substances and other similar agents.
Agglutinins- Substances formed in the blood serum, under the influence of which proteins coagulate, microbes and blood cells stick together.
Agony- The final moment of life preceding clinical death.
Agranulocyte- Leukocyte that does not contain grains (granules) in the cytoplasm; in vertebrates these are lymphocytes and monocytes.
Agrocenosis- A biotic community of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms created to produce agricultural products and regularly maintained by humans.
Adaptation- A complex of morphophysiological and behavioral characteristics of an individual, population or species, ensuring success in competition with other species, populations and individuals, and resistance to the influence of abiotic environmental factors.
Adynamia- Muscle weakness, impotence.
Azotobacteria- A group of aerobic bacteria capable of fixing nitrogen from the air and thereby enriching the soil with it.
Acclimatization- A set of measures to introduce a species into new habitats, carried out in order to enrich natural or artificial communities with organisms useful to humans.
Accommodation- Adaptation to something. 1) Accommodation of the eye - adaptation to viewing objects at different distances. 2) Physiological accommodation - adaptation of muscle and nervous tissue to the action of a stimulus that slowly increases in strength.
Accumulation- Accumulation in organisms of chemicals found in the environment in lower concentrations.
Acromegaly- Excessive, disproportionate growth of the limbs and facial bones due to dysfunction of the pituitary gland.
Alkalosis- Increased content of alkalis in the blood and other tissues of the body.
Allele- Different forms of the same gene located in the same loci of homologous chromosomes.
Allogenesis
Albinism- Congenital absence of pigmentation that is normal for this type of organism.
Algology- The scientific branch of botany that studies algae.
Amensalism- Suppression of one organism by another without a reverse negative impact from the suppressed.
Amitosis- Direct cell division.
Anabiosis- A temporary state of the body in which life processes are so slow that all visible manifestations of life are almost completely absent.
Anabolism- Plastic exchange.
Analysis cross- Crossing the test organism with another that is a recessive homozygote for a given trait, which makes it possible to establish the genotype of the test subject.
Similar bodies- Organs that perform the same functions, but have different structures and origins, the result convergence.
Anatomy- A group of scientific branches that study the shape and structure of individual organs, their systems and the entire organism as a whole.
Anaerobe- An organism capable of living in an oxygen-free environment.
Angiology- Section of anatomy that studies the circulatory and lymphatic systems.
Anemia- A group of diseases characterized by a decrease in the number of red blood cells, their hemoglobin content or total blood mass.
Aneuploidy- Multiple changes in the number of chromosomes; an altered set of chromosomes in which one or more chromosomes from the normal set are either missing or are represented by additional copies.
Antheridium- Male reproductive organ.
Antigen- A complex organic substance capable of causing an immune response when entering the body of animals and humans - formation antibodies.
Anticodon- A section of a tRNA molecule consisting of 3 nucleotides that specifically binds to an mRNA codon.
Antibody- Immunoglobulin in the blood plasma of humans and warm-blooded animals, synthesized by lymphoid tissue cells under the influence of various antigens.
Anthropogenesis- The process of human origin.
Anthropology- An interdisciplinary discipline that studies the origin and evolution of man as a special sociobiological species.
Apomixis- Formation of an embryo from an unfertilized female reproductive cell or from cells of the germ or embryo sac; asexual reproduction.
Arachnology- Branch of zoology that studies arachnids.
Area- Area of distribution of the species.
Arogenesis
Aromorphosis- Evolutionary direction, accompanied by the acquisition of major structural changes; complication of organization, rise to a higher level, morphophysiological progress.
Arrhenotokia- Parthenogenetic birth of offspring consisting exclusively of males, for example, the development of drones from unfertilized eggs laid by the queen bee.
Archegonium- The female reproductive organ in mosses, ferns, horsetails, mosses, some gymnosperms, algae and fungi, containing an egg.
Assimilation- One of the aspects of metabolism, the consumption and transformation of substances entering the body or the deposition of reserves, due to which energy is accumulated.
Astasia- Loss of the ability to stand, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.
Astrobiology- A scientific branch that deals with the detection and study of signs of life in the Universe, in space and on planets.
Asphyxia- Cessation of breathing, suffocation, oxygen starvation. Occurs when there is a lack of aeration, including when plants get wet.
Atavism- The appearance in some individuals of a given species of characteristics that existed in distant ancestors, but were then lost in the process of evolution.
Atony- Intravital reduction in the size of organs and tissues, replacement of their functioning cells with connective tissue, fat, etc. Accompanied by disruption or even cessation of their functions.
Outbreeding- Crossing of individuals of the same species that are not directly related leads to the phenomenon of heterosis.
Autosome- Any non-sex chromosome; humans have 22 pairs of autosomes.
Acidosis- Accumulation of negatively charged ions (anions) of acids in the blood and other tissues of the body.
Aerobe- An organism capable of living only in an environment containing free molecular oxygen.
Aeroponics- Growing plants without soil in moist air thanks to periodic spraying of the roots with nutrient solutions. It is used in greenhouses, conservatories, on spaceships, etc.
Aerotaxis- Movement of unicellular and some multicellular lower organisms to a source of oxygen or, conversely, from it.
Aerotropism- The growth of plant stems or roots in the direction from which oxygen-rich air comes, for example, the growth of roots in mangroves towards the soil surface.
Bacteriology- The branch of microbiology that studies bacteria.
Bacterial carriage
Bacteriophage- A bacterial virus that can infect a bacterial cell, multiply in it and cause its dissolution.
Bacteriocide- Antibacterial substance (proteins) produced by bacteria of a certain type and suppressing the vital activity of bacteria of other types.
Baroreceptors- Sensitive nerve endings in the walls of blood vessels that sense changes in blood pressure and reflexively regulate its level.
Bacillus- Any bacteria that is rod-shaped.
Bivalent- Two homologous chromosomes formed during division of the cell nucleus.
Bilaterality- Bilateral symmetry in organisms.
Biogeography- A scientific branch that studies the general geographical patterns of the organic world of the Earth: the distribution of plant cover and animal populations in various parts of the globe, their combinations, floristic and faunal divisions of land and ocean, as well as the distribution of biocenoses and their species of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms .
Biogeochemistry- A scientific discipline that studies the role of living organisms in the destruction of rocks and minerals, circulation, migration, distribution and concentration of chemical elements in the biosphere.
Biogeocenosis- An evolutionarily established, spatially limited, long-term self-sustaining homogeneous natural system in which living organisms and their surrounding abiotic environment are functionally interconnected, characterized by relatively independent metabolism and a special type of use of the energy flow coming from the Sun.
Biology- A complex of knowledge about life and a set of scientific disciplines that study living nature.
Biometrics- A set of techniques for planning and processing biological research data using mathematical statistics methods.
Biomechanics- A branch of biophysics that studies the mechanical properties of living tissues, organs and the body as a whole, as well as the mechanical processes occurring in them.
Bionics- One of the areas of cybernetics that studies the structure and vital activity of organisms in order to use the identified patterns in solving engineering problems and building technical systems similar in characteristics to living organisms and their parts.
Biorhythm- Rhythmic-cyclic fluctuations in the intensity and nature of biological processes and phenomena, giving organisms the opportunity to adapt to environmental changes.
Biosphere- The shell of the Earth populated by living organisms.
Biotechnology- A section of game science that studies ways to increase the biological productivity and economic productivity of hunting lands.
Biotechnology- A scientific discipline and field of practice bordering biology and technology that studies ways and methods of changing the natural environment around humans in accordance with their needs.
Biophysics- A scientific discipline that studies physical and physicochemical processes in living organisms, as well as the physical structure of biological systems at all levels of their organization - from molecular and subcellular to cells, organs and the organism as a whole.
Biochemistry- A scientific discipline that studies the chemical composition of living beings, chemical reactions in them and the natural order of these reactions, ensuring metabolism.
Biocenosis- An interconnected collection of microorganisms, plants, fungi and animals inhabiting a more or less homogeneous area of land or body of water.
Bifurcation- Dividing something into two branches.
Blastula- Single-layer embryo.
Botany- A complex of scientific disciplines exploring the kingdom of Plants.
Bryology- Scientific branch that studies mosses.
Vaccine- A preparation made from living or dead microorganisms used for immunization of humans and animals for prophylactic or therapeutic purposes.
Virology- Scientific discipline that studies viruses.
Virus carriage- Residence and reproduction of pathogens of infectious or invasive diseases in the body of humans and animals in the absence of signs of disease.
Gamete- Sexual, or reproductive, cell with a haploid set of chromosomes.
Gametogenesis- The process of formation and development of sex cells - gametes.
Gametophyte- Representative of the sexual generation or stage of the plant life cycle from spore to zygote.
Haploid- A cell or individual with a single set of unpaired chromosomes, formed as a result of reduction division.
Gastrula- Phase of embryonic development of multicellular animals, two-layer embryo.
Gastrulation- The process of gastrula formation.
Heliobiology- A branch of biophysics that studies the influence of solar activity on terrestrial organisms and their communities.
Hemizygote- A diploid organism that has only one allele of a given gene or one chromosome segment instead of the usual two. For organisms in which the heterogametic sex is male (as in humans and all other mammals), almost all genes associated with the X chromosome are hemizygous, since males normally have only one X chromosome. The hemizygous state of alleles or chromosomes is used in genetic analysis to find the location of genes responsible for a particular trait.
Hemolysis- Destruction of red blood cells with the release of hemoglobin into the environment.
Hemophilia- A hereditary disease characterized by increased bleeding, which is explained by a lack of blood clotting factors.
Hemocyanin- The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of some invertebrate animals, which ensures the transport of oxygen in their bodies, is a copper-containing protein that gives the blood a blue color.
Hemerythrin- The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of a number of invertebrate animals, this is an iron-containing protein that gives the blood a pink tint.
Genetics- A discipline that studies the mechanisms and patterns of heredity and variability of organisms, methods of controlling these processes.
Genome- A set of genes contained in a haploid (single) set of chromosomes.
Genotype- The totality of all genes received from parents.
Gene pool- A set of genes of a group of individuals of a population, a group of populations or a species, within which they are characterized by a certain frequency of occurrence.
Geobotany- A scientific branch that studies plant communities, their composition, development, classification, dependence on the environment and influence on it, features of the phynocoenotic environment.
Geotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of gravity.
Geotropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of gravity.
Geophilia- The ability of shoots or roots of some perennial plants to retract or grow into the soil to overwinter.
Hermaphroditism- The presence of male and female reproductive systems in one animal.
Herpetology- Branch of zoology that studies amphibians and reptiles.
Heterozygote- An individual that produces different types of gametes.
Heterosis- “hybrid vigor”, accelerated growth, increased size, increased vitality and fertility of first-generation hybrids compared to the parental forms of plants or animals.
Heteroploidy- Multiple changes in the number of chromosomes.
Gibberellin- A substance that stimulates plant growth.
Hybrid- An organism resulting from crossing.
Gigantism- The phenomenon of abnormal growth of a person, animal, plant, exceeding the norm characteristic of the species.
Hygiene- Science that studies the impact of living and working conditions on human health and develops disease prevention measures.
Hygrophiles- Terrestrial animals adapted to living in conditions of high humidity.
Hygrophytes- Terrestrial plants adapted to living in conditions of excess humidity.
Hygrophobes- Terrestrial animals that avoid excess moisture in specific habitats.
Hydrolysis- The third stage of energy metabolism, cellular respiration.
Hydroponics- Growing plants without soil in aqueous solutions of minerals.
Hydrotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of humidity.
Hypertension- A disease caused by high blood pressure.
Physical inactivity- Lack of physical activity.
Hypoxia- Reduced oxygen content in the tissues of the body, observed with a lack of oxygen in the air, certain diseases and poisoning.
Hypotension- A disease caused by low blood pressure.
Histology- A branch of morphology that studies the tissues of multicellular organisms.
Glycolysis- An oxygen-free process of carbohydrate breakdown.
Holandric trait- A trait found only in men (XY).
Homozygote- An individual that produces one type of gametes.
Homeotherm- An animal with a constant body temperature, practically independent of the ambient temperature (warm-blooded animal).
Homologous organs- Organs that are similar to each other in structure and origin, but perform different functions, the result divergence.
Hormone- A biologically active substance produced in the body by specialized cells or organs and having a targeted effect on the activity of other organs and tissues.
Granulocyte- A leukocyte containing grains (granules) in the cytoplasm protects the body from bacteria.
Colorblindness- Hereditary inability to distinguish between certain colors, most often red and green.
Degeneration
Deletion- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which a section of the chromosome in its middle part is lost; a gene mutation that results in the loss of a section of the DNA molecule.
Demecology- A branch of ecology that studies the relationship of populations with their environment.
Dendrology- A branch of botany that studies woody and shrubby plants.
Depression- Decrease in the number of individuals of a population, species or group of species caused by intrapopulation, biocenotic or abiotic reasons associated with human activity; depressed, painful state of the individual; general decrease in vitality.
Definition- Chromosomal mutation, which results in the loss of the end sections of chromosomes (lack).
Divergence- Divergence of signs.
Dihybrid cross- Crossing individuals according to two pairs of traits.
Dissimilation
Dominant trait- Predominant sign.
Donor- A person who donates blood for transfusion or organs for transplantation.
Genetic drift- Change in the genetic structure of the population as a result of any random reasons; genetic-automatic process in a population.
Splitting up- The process of division of the zygote without the growth of blastomeres.
Duplication- Chromosomal mutation in which any part of the chromosome is repeated.
Eugenics- The doctrine of human hereditary health and ways of its preservation and improvement. The basic principles of the doctrine were formulated in 1869 by the English anthropologist and psychologist F. Galton. F. Galton proposed studying factors that improve the hereditary qualities of future generations (genetic prerequisites for mental and physiological health, mental abilities, talent). But some ideas of eugenics were distorted and used to justify racism, genocide; the presence of social inequality, mental and physiological inequality of people. In modern science, the problems of eugenics are considered within the framework of human genetics and ecology, especially the fight against hereditary diseases.
Reserve- A section of territory or water area within which certain forms of human economic activity are permanently or temporarily prohibited to ensure the protection of certain types of living beings.
Reserve- A specially protected area, completely excluded from any economic activity in order to preserve natural complexes intact, protect living species and monitor natural processes.
Zygote- Fertilized egg.
Zoogeography- A scientific branch that studies the patterns of geographical distribution of animals and their communities on the globe.
Zoology- A scientific discipline that studies the animal world.
Idiomatic adaptation- The path of evolution without increasing the general level of organization, the emergence of adaptations to specific environmental conditions.
Insulation- A process that prevents individuals of different species from interbreeding and leads to divergence of characteristics within the same species.
Immunity- Immunity, resistance of the body to infectious agents and foreign substances. There are natural (congenital) or artificial (acquired), active or passive immunity.
Imprinting- Strong and quick fixation in the animal’s memory of the signs of an object.
Inbreeding- Inbreeding.
Inversion- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which its part rotates 180°.
Insertion- A gene mutation that results in the insertion of a segment of a DNA molecule into the gene structure.
Interferon- A protective protein produced by the cells of mammals and birds in response to infection by viruses.
Intoxication- Poisoning of the body.
Ichthyology- Branch of zoology that studies fish.
Carcinogen- A substance or physical agent capable of causing or contributing to the development of malignant neoplasms.
Karyotype- A diploid set of chromosomes in the somatic (non-reproductive) cells of the body, a typical set of their characteristics for a species: a certain number, size, shape and structural features, constant for each species.
Carotenoids- Red, yellow and orange pigments found in plant and some animal tissues.
Catabolism- Energy metabolism, breakdown of substances, ATP synthesis.
Catagenesis- The path of evolution associated with the transition to a simpler habitat and leading to a simplification of the structure and lifestyle, morphophysiological regression, the disappearance of active life organs.
Tenancy- Close cohabitation (coexistence) of organisms of different species, in which one of the organisms benefits for itself (uses the organism as an “apartment”) without causing harm to the other.
Kyphosis- Curvature of the spine, convexity facing backwards.
Clone- Genetically homogeneous offspring of one cell.
Commensalism- Permanent or temporary cohabitation of individuals of different species, in which one of the partners derives unilateral benefit from the other without causing harm to the owner.
Complementarity- Spatial complementarity of molecules or their parts, leading to the formation of hydrogen bonds.
Convergence- Convergence of signs.
Competition- Rivalry, any antagonistic relationship determined by the desire to achieve a goal better and faster than other members of the community.
Consumer- Organism-consumer of finished organic substances.
Conjugation- Bringing chromosomes together during meiosis; a sexual process consisting of a partial exchange of hereditary information, for example, in ciliates.
Copulation- The process of fusion of sex cells (gametes) into a zygote; the union of individuals of the opposite sex during sexual intercourse.
Crossbreeding- Interbreeding of domestic animals.
Crossing over- Exchange of sections of homologous chromosomes.
Xanthophylls- A group of yellow coloring pigments contained in the buds, leaves, flowers and fruits of higher plants, as well as in many algae and microorganisms; in animals - in the liver of mammals, chicken yolk.
Xerophile- An organism adapted to life in dry habitats, in conditions of moisture deficiency.
Xerophyte- A plant of arid habitats, common in steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts.
Lability- Instability, variability, functional mobility; high adaptability or, conversely, instability of the body to environmental conditions.
Latent- Hidden, invisible.
Leukoplasts- Colorless plastids.
Lysis- Destruction of cells through their complete or partial dissolution, both under normal conditions and during the penetration of pathogenic organisms.
Lichenology- Branch of botany that studies lichens.
Locus- The region of the chromosome in which the gene is localized.
Lordosis- Curvature of the spine, convexity facing forward.
Macroevolution- Evolutionary transformations that occur at the supraspecific level and determine the formation of increasingly larger taxa (from genera to types and kingdoms of nature).
Mediator- A substance whose molecules are capable of reacting with specific receptors of the cell membrane and changing its permeability to certain ions, causing the occurrence of an action potential - an active electrical signal.
Mesoderm- Middle germ layer.
Metabolism- Metabolism and energy.
Metamorphosis- The process of transformation of a larva into an adult animal.
Mycology- Scientific branch that studies mushrooms.
Mycorrhiza- Mushroom root; symbiotic habitation of fungi on (or in) the roots of higher plants.
Microbiology- Biological discipline that studies microorganisms - their systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, etc.
Microevolution- Evolutionary transformations within a species at the population level, leading to speciation.
Mimicry- Imitation of non-poisonous, edible and unprotected species by poisonous and well-protected animals from attack by predators.
Modeling- A method of studying and demonstrating various structures, physiological and other functions, evolutionary, ecological processes through their simplified imitation.
Modification- Non-hereditary change in the characteristics of an organism that occurs under the influence of environmental conditions.
Monitoring- Tracking any objects or phenomena, including those of a biological nature; a multi-purpose information system, the main tasks of which are observation, assessment and forecast of the state of the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic influence in order to warn about emerging critical situations that are harmful or dangerous to human health, the well-being of other living beings, their communities, natural and man-made objects, etc. d.
Monogamy- Monogamy, the mating of a male with one female for one or more seasons.
Monohybrid cross- Crossing individuals based on one pair of traits.
Monospermia- Penetration of only one sperm into the egg.
Morganida- A unit of distance between two genes in the same linkage group, characterized by the crossover frequency in %.
Morula- Early stage of embryo development, which is an accumulation of a large number of blastomere cells without a separate cavity; In most animals, the morula stage is followed by the blastula stage.
Morphology- A complex of scientific branches and their sections that studies the form and structure of animals and plants.
Mutagenesis- The process of mutation occurrence.
Mutation- Abrupt changes in genes under the influence of physical, chemical and biological factors.
Mutualism- A form of symbiosis in which one partner cannot exist without the other.
Heredity- The property of organisms to repeat similar characteristics and properties over a series of generations.
Freeloading- One of the forms of beneficial-neutral relationships between organisms, when one organism receives nutrients from another without causing harm to it.
Neyrula- Stage of development of the embryo of chordates, at which the formation of the neural tube plate (from the ectoderm) and axial organs occurs.
Neutralism- Lack of mutual influence of organisms.
Noosphere- Part of the biosphere in which human activity manifests itself, both positive and negative, the sphere of “mind”.
Nucleoprotein- Complex of proteins with nucleic acids.
Obligate- Required.
Metabolism- Consistent consumption, transformation, use, accumulation and loss of substances and energy in living organisms during life, allowing them to self-preserve, grow, develop and self-reproduce in environmental conditions, as well as adapt to it.
Ovulation- Release of eggs from the ovary into the body cavity.
Ontogenesis- Individual development of the body.
Fertilization- Fusion of germ cells.
Organogenesis- The process of formation and development of organs during ontogenesis.
Ornithology- Branch of zoology that studies birds.
Paleontology- A scientific discipline that studies fossil organisms, their living conditions and burial conditions.
Natural monument- A separate rare or remarkable object of animate or inanimate nature, worthy of protection due to scientific, cultural, educational and historical memorial significance.
Parallelism- Independent acquisition by organisms during evolution of similar structural features based on features (genome) inherited from common ancestors.
Parthenogenesis- Development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg, virgin reproduction.
Pedosphere- The shell of the Earth formed by the soil cover.
Pinocytosis- Absorption of substances in dissolved form.
Pleiotropy- Dependence of several traits on one gene.
Poikilotherm- An organism that is unable to maintain internal body temperature, and therefore changes it depending on the temperature of the environment, for example, fish, amphibians.
Polygamy- Polygamy; mating of a male with many females during the breeding season.
Polymerism- Dependence of the development of one and the same trait or property of an organism on several genes independent in action.
Polyploidy- Multiple increase in the number of chromosomes.
Breed- A set of domestic animals of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and appearance.
Protistology- The branch of biology that studies protozoa.
Processing- Chemical modification of substances (fermins and hormones) that are synthesized in the EPS channels in an inactive form.
Radiobiology- A branch of biology that studies the effects of all types of radiation on organisms and ways to protect them from radiation.
Regeneration- Restoration by the body of lost or damaged organs and tissues, as well as restoration of the whole organism from its parts.
Decomposer- An organism that converts organic substances into inorganic ones in the course of its life.
Rheotaxis- The movement of some lower plants, protozoa and individual cells towards the flow of liquid or the position of the body parallel to it.
Rheotropism- The property of the roots of multicellular plants, when they grow in a flow of water, to bend in the direction of this current or towards it.
Retrovirus- A virus whose genetic material is RNA. When a retrovirus enters a host cell, the process of reverse transcription occurs. As a result of this process, DNA is synthesized from viral RNA, which is then integrated into the host DNA.
Reflex- The body's response to external irritation through the nervous system.
Receptor- Sensitive nerve cell that perceives external stimuli.
Recipient- An organism that receives a blood transfusion or organ transplant.
Rudiments- Underdeveloped organs, tissues and characteristics that were present in a developed form among the evolutionary ancestors of a species, but lost their significance in the process phylogeny.
Selection- Breeding new and improving existing varieties of plants, animal breeds, strains of microorganisms through artificial mutagenesis and selection, hybridization, genetic and cellular engineering.
Symbiosis- Type of relationship between organisms of different systematic groups: coexistence, mutually beneficial, often obligatory, cohabitation of individuals of two or more species.
Synapse- The place where nerve cells come into contact with each other.
Synecology- A branch of ecology that studies biological communities and their relationships with their environment.
Taxonomy- A section of biology devoted to the description, designation and classification into groups of all existing and extinct organisms, establishing related relationships between individual species and groups of species.
Scoliosis- Curves of the spine, facing to the right or left.
Variety- A set of cultivated plants of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and structural characteristics.
Spermatogenesis- Formation of male reproductive cells.
Splicing- The process of editing mRNA, in which some labeled sections of mRNA are cut out, and the remaining ones are read into one strand; occurs in the nucleoli during transcription.
Succulent- A plant with succulent, fleshy leaves or stems, easily tolerates high temperatures, but does not withstand dehydration.
succession- Consistent change of biocenoses (ecosystems), expressed in changes in species composition and community structure.
Serum- The liquid part of the blood without formed elements and fibrin, formed during the process of their separation during blood clotting outside the body.
Taxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of a unilaterally acting stimulus.
Teratogen- Biological effects, chemicals and physical factors that cause the development of deformities in organisms during the process of ontogenesis.
Thermoregulation- A set of physiological and biochemical processes that ensure the constancy of body temperature in warm-blooded animals and humans.
Thermotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of temperature.
Thermotropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of heat.
Textile- A collection of cells and intercellular substance that performs a specific role in the body.
Tolerance- The ability of organisms to tolerate deviations of environmental factors from optimal ones.
Transcription- Biosynthesis of mRNA on a DNA matrix is carried out in the cell nucleus.
Translocation- Chromosomal mutation, which results in the exchange of sections of non-homologous chromosomes or the transfer of a section of a chromosome to the other end of the same chromosome.
Broadcast- Synthesis of the polypeptide chain of protein is carried out in the cytoplasm on ribosomes.
Transpiration- Evaporation of water by the plant.
Tropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of some stimulus.
Turgor- Elasticity of plant cells, tissues and organs due to the pressure of the cell contents on their elastic walls.
Phagocyte- A cell of multicellular animals (humans), capable of capturing and digesting foreign bodies, in particular microbes.
Phagocytosis- Active capture and absorption of living cells and non-living particles by unicellular organisms or special cells of multicellular organisms - phagocytes. The phenomenon was discovered by I. I. Mechnikov.
Phenology- A body of knowledge about seasonal natural phenomena, the timing of their occurrence and the reasons that determine these timings.
Phenotype- The totality of all internal and external signs and properties of an individual.
Enzyme- A biological catalyst, by its chemical nature, is a protein that is necessarily present in all cells of a living organism.
Physiology- Biological discipline that studies the functions of a living organism, the processes occurring in it, metabolism, adaptation to the environment, etc.
Phylogenesis- Historical development of the species.
Photoperiodism- Reactions of organisms to the change of day and night, manifested in fluctuations in the intensity of physiological processes.
Phototaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of light.
Phototropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of light.
Chemosynthesis- The process of formation by some microorganisms of organic substances from inorganic ones due to the energy of chemical bonds.
Chemotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of chemicals.
Predation- Feeding on animals that were alive up to the moment of their transformation into a food object (with their capture and killing).
Chromatid- One of two nucleoprotein strands formed during the doubling of chromosomes during cell division.
Chromatin- A nucleoprotein that forms the basis of a chromosome.
Cellulose- A carbohydrate from the group of polysaccharides, consisting of residues of glucose molecules.
Centromere- A section of a chromosome that holds its two strands (chromatids) together.
Cyst- A form of existence of unicellular and some multicellular organisms, temporarily covered with a dense shell, which allows these organisms to survive unfavorable environmental conditions.
Cytology- Cell Science.
Schizogony- Asexual reproduction by dividing the body into a large number of daughter individuals; characteristic of sporozoans.
Strain- A pure single-species culture of microorganisms, isolated from a specific source and possessing specific physiological and biochemical characteristics.
Exocytosis- The release of substances from the cell by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of membrane-surrounded vesicles.
Ecology- A field of knowledge that studies the relationships of organisms and their communities with the environment.
Ectoderm- Outer germ layer.
Embryology- A scientific discipline that studies the embryonic development of an organism.
Endocytosis- Absorption of substances by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of membrane-surrounded vesicles.
Endoderm- Inner germ layer.
Ethology- The science of animal behavior in natural conditions.
Biology Glossary
Abiogenesis is the development of living things from non-living matter in the process of evolution (a hypothetical model of the origin of life).
Acarology is the science that studies mites.
Allele is one of the specific states of a gene (dominant allele, recessive allele).
Albinism is the lack of pigmentation of the skin and its derivatives, caused by a violation of the formation of the melanin pigment. The causes of albinism are varied.
The aminoacial center is the active center in the ribosome where contact between the codon and anticodon occurs.
Amitosis is a direct cell division in which there is no uniform distribution of hereditary material between daughter cells.
Amniotes are vertebrates in which a provisional organ, the amnion (water membrane), is formed during embryogenesis. The development of amniotes occurs on land - in the egg, or in utero (reptiles, birds, mammals, humans).
Amniocentesis is the collection of amniotic fluid containing the cells of the developing fetus. Used for prenatal diagnosis of hereditary diseases and sex determination.
Anabolia (Superstructure) - the appearance of new characteristics in the later stages of embryonic development, leading to an increase in the duration of ontogenesis.
Analogous organs are organs of animals of different taxonomic groups, similar in structure and the functions they perform, but developing from different embryonic rudiments.
Anamnia is the stage of mitosis (meiosis), in which chromatids separate to the poles of the cell. In anaphase I of meiosis, it is not the chromatids that separate, but the whole chromosomes, consisting of two chromatids, as a result of which each daughter cell ends up with a haploid set of chromosomes.
Developmental anomalies are a violation of the structure and function of organs in the process of individual development.
Antigens are protein substances that, when they enter the body, cause an immunological reaction with the formation of antibodies.
An anticodon is a triplet of nucleotides in a tRNA molecule that contacts an mRNA codon in the aminoacial center of the ribosome.
Antimutagens are substances of various natures that reduce the frequency of mutations (vitamins, enzymes, etc.).
Antibodies are immunoglobulin proteins produced in the body in response to the penetration of antigens.
Anthropogenesis is the evolutionary path of human origin and development.
Anthropogenetics is a science that studies issues of heredity and variability in humans.
Aneuploidy is a change in the number of chromosomes in the karyotype (heteroploidy).
Arachnology is the science that studies arachnids.
Aromorphosis is an evolutionary morphofunctional transformation of general biological significance that increases the level of organization of animals.
Archallaxis is changes that occur at different stages of embryonic development and direct phylogeny along a new path.
Archanthropes are a group of ancient people united into one species - homo erectus (straightened man). This species includes Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Heidelberg man and other related forms.
Atavism is the complete development of a rudimentary organ, not typical for a given species.
Autophagy is the process of digestion by a cell of irreversibly changed organelles and areas of the cytoplasm with the help of hydrolytic enzymes of lysosomes.
Twins:
Monozygotic - twins that develop from one egg fertilized by one sperm (polyembryony);
Dizygotic (polyzygotic) – twins that develop from two or more eggs fertilized by different sperm (polyovulation).
Hereditary - diseases caused by a violation of the structure and function of hereditary material. There are genetic and chromosomal diseases;
Molecular – diseases caused by gene mutations. In this case, the structure of structural proteins and enzyme proteins may change;
Chromosomal – diseases caused by a violation of the structure or number of chromosomes (autosomes or sex chromosomes) due to chromosomal or genomic mutations;
Wilson-Konovalov (hepatocerebral degeneration) is a molecular disease associated with impaired copper metabolism, which leads to damage to the liver and brain. Inherited in an autosomal recessive manner;
Galactosemia is a molecular disease associated with impaired carbohydrate metabolism. Inherited in an autosomal recessive manner;
Sickle cell anemia is a molecular disease based on a gene mutation that leads to a change in the amino acid composition of the hemoglobin B chain. Inherited by the type of incomplete dominance;
Phenylketonuria is a molecular disease caused by a disorder in the metabolism of amino acids and phenylalanine. Inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.
Basal body (kinetosome) - A structure at the base of a flagellum, or cilium, formed by microtubules.
Biogenesis – The origin and development of organisms from living matter.
Developmental biology is a science that arose at the intersection of embryology and molecular biology and studies the structural, functional and genetic foundations of individual development, mechanisms for regulating the vital functions of organisms.
Blastoderm is a collection of cells (blastomeres) that form the wall of the blastula.
Brachydactyly - short fingers. Inherited in an autosomal dominant manner.
Genetic vectors are DNA-containing structures (viruses, plasmids) used in genetic engineering to attach genes and introduce them into a cell.
Viruses are non-cellular life forms; capable of living cells and multiplying in them. They have their own genetic apparatus, represented by DNA or RNA.
Vital staining (intravital) is a method of staining other structures using dyes that do not have a toxic effect on them.
Inclusions are unstable components of the cytoplasm of cells, represented by secretory granules, reserve nutrients, and end products of metabolism.
Degeneracy of the genetic code (redundancy) is the presence in the genetic code of several codons corresponding to one amino acid.
Gametogenesis is the process of formation of mature germ cells (gametes): female gametes - oogenesis, male gametes - spermatogenesis.
Gametes are sex cells with a haploid set of chromosomes.
Haploid cells – cells containing a single set of chromosomes (n)
Gastrocoel is a cavity in a two- or three-layer embryo.
Gastrulation is a period of embryogenesis in which the formation of a two- or three-layer embryo occurs.
Biohelminths are helminths in the life cycle of which there is a change of hosts or the development of all stages occurs within one organism without exiting into the external environment;
Geohelminths are helminths whose larval stages develop in the external environment (roundworm, roundworm);
Contact-transmitted - helminths, the invasive stage of which can enter the host’s body through contact with a patient (dwarf tapeworm, pinworm).
Hemizygous organism is an organism that has a single allele of the gene being analyzed due to the absence of a homologous chromosome (44+XY).
Hemophilia is a molecular disease linked to the X chromosome (recessive type of inheritance). Manifests itself with a blood clotting disorder.
Gene – Structural unit of genetic information:
Allelic genes are genes localized in identical loci of homologous chromosomes and determining different manifestations of the same trait.
Non-allelic genes - localized in different loci of homologous chromosomes or in non-homologous chromosomes; determine the development of various characteristics;
Regulatory – controlling the work of structural genes, their function is manifested in interaction with enzyme proteins;
Structural – containing information about the polypeptide structure of the chain;
Mobile – capable of moving throughout the cell genome and inserting into new chromosomes; they can change the activity of other genes;
Mosaic - eukaryotic genes consisting of informative (exons) and non-informative (introns) sections;
Modulators are genes that enhance or weaken the action of basic genes;
Mandatory (“housekeeping” genes) – genes encoding proteins synthesized in all cells (histones, etc.);
Specialized (“luxury genes”) – encoding proteins synthesized in individual specialized cells (globins);
Holandric - localized in areas of the Y chromosome that are non-homologous to the X chromosome; determine the development of traits inherited only through the male line;
Pseudogenes – having similar nucleotide sequences to functioning genes, but due to the accumulation of mutations in them, are functionally inactive (part of the alpha and beta globin genes).
Genetics is the science of heredity and variability of organisms. The term was introduced into science in 1906. English geneticist V. Batson.
A genetic map is a conventional image of chromosomes in the form of lines with gene names printed on them and observing the distances between genes, expressed as a percentage of crossing over - morganids (1 morganid = 1% crossing over).
Genetic analysis is a set of methods aimed at studying the heredity and variability of organisms. Includes a hybridological method, a method of accounting for mutations, cytogenetic, population-statistical, etc.
Genetic load is the accumulation in the gene pool of a population of recessive alleles, which in the homozygous state lead to a decrease in the viability of individual individuals and the population as a whole.
The genetic code is a system for “recording” genetic information in the form of a sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule.
Genetic engineering is a targeted change in the hereditary program of a cell using molecular genetics methods.
Genocopies are the similarity of phenotypes that have different genetic natures (mental retardation in some molecular diseases).
Genome – the number of genes in a haploid cell, characteristic of a given type of organism.
Genotype is a system of interacting alleles of genes characteristic of a given individual.
Gene pool is the totality of genes of individuals that make up a population.
Geriatrics is a branch of medicine that deals with the development of treatments for older people.
Gerontology is a science that studies the aging processes of organisms.
Geroprotectors are antimutagenic substances that bind free radicals. Slow down the onset of old age and increase life expectancy.
Genetic heterogeneity of populations is the presence in individuals of a given population of several allelic variants (at least two) of one gene. Causes genetic polymorphism of populations.
A heterozygous organism is an organism whose somatic cells contain different alleles of a given gene.
Heteroplody is an increase or decrease in the number of individual chromosomes in a diploid set (monosomy, trisomy).
Heterotopy is a change in the process of evolution of the location of the anlage in the embryogenesis of a particular organ.
Heterochromatin - regions of chromosomes that maintain a spiral state in interphase, are not transcribed. Heterochronies are changes in the process of evolution of the time of formation in the embryogenesis of a particular organ.
A hybrid is a heterozygous organism formed by crossing genetically different forms.
Hypertrichosis – local – a trait linked to the Y chromosome; manifests itself in increased hair growth on the edge of the auricle; is inherited in a recessive manner.
Embryonic histogenesis is the formation of tissues from the material of the germ layers through cell division, their growth and differentiation, migration, integration and intercellular interactions.
The hominid triad is a combination of three characteristics unique to humans:
Morphological: absolute upright posture, development of a relatively large brain, development of a hand adapted for fine manipulation;
Psychosocial – abstract thinking, second signaling system (speech), conscious and purposeful work activity.
A homozygous organism is an organism whose somatic cells contain identical alleles of a given gene.
Homoothermic animals are organisms capable of maintaining a constant body temperature regardless of the ambient temperature (warm-blooded animals, humans).
Homologous organs are organs that develop from the same embryonic rudiments; their structure may be different depending on the function performed.
Homologous chromosomes are a pair of chromosomes of the same size and structure, one of which is paternal, the other is maternal.
The gonotrophic cycle is a biological phenomenon observed in blood-sucking arthropods, in which the maturation and laying of eggs is closely associated with blood feeding.
A linkage group is a set of genes located on the same chromosome and inherited by linkage. The number of linkage groups is equal to the haploid number of chromosomes. Loss of adhesion occurs during crossing over.
Color blindness is a molecular disease linked to the X chromosome (recessive type of inheritance). Manifested by impaired color vision.
Deviation (deviation) is the appearance of new characters in the middle stages of embryonic development, defining a new path of phylogenesis.
Degeneration is an evolutionary change characterized by a simplification of the body’s structure compared to ancestral forms.
Deletion is a chromosomal aberration in which a section of a chromosome is lost.
Determination is the genetically determined ability of embryonic cells only to a certain direction of differentiation.
Diakinesis is the final stage of prophase I of meiosis, during which the process of separation of homologous chromosomes after conjugation is completed.
Divergence is the formation in the process of evolution of several new groups from a common ancestor.
A diploid cell is a cell containing a double set of chromosomes (2n).
Diplotene - stage of prophase I of meiosis - the beginning of the divergence of homologous chromosomes after conjugation.
Sex differentiation is the process of development of sexual characteristics in ontogenesis.
A dominant trait is a trait that manifests itself in a homo- and heterozygous state.
Donor is an organism from which tissue or organs are taken for transplantation.
The tree of life is a schematic representation of the paths of evolutionary development in the form of a tree with branches.
Genetic drift (genetic-automatic processes) – changes in the genetic structure in small populations, expressed in a decrease in genetic polymorphism and an increase in the number of homozygotes.
Cleavage is a period of embryogenesis in which the formation of a multicellular embryo occurs through successive mitotic divisions of blastomeres without increasing their size.
Duplication is a chromosomal aberration in which a portion of a chromosome is duplicated.
Natural selection is a process in which, as a result of the struggle for existence, the fittest organisms survive.
Gill arches (arterial) are blood vessels passing through the gill septa and undergoing quantitative and qualitative changes during the evolution of the circulatory system of vertebrates.
Life cycle - the time of existence of a cell from the moment of its formation until death or division into two daughters as a result of the transition from the G 0 state to the mitotic cycle.
The embryonic period is, in relation to humans, the period of embryogenesis from the 1st to the 8th week of intrauterine development.
The embryonic organizer is a section of the zygote (gray sickle), which largely determines the course of embryogenesis. When the gray sickle is removed, development stops at the cleavage stage.
Zygotene is the stage of prophase I of meiosis, in which homologous chromosomes are combined (conjugated) into pairs (bivalents).
Idioadaptation (allomorphosis) is morphofunctional changes in organisms that do not increase the level of organization, but make a given species adapted to specific living conditions.
Variability is the property of organisms to change certain characteristics in the process of individual development:
Modification – phenotypic changes caused by the influence of environmental factors on the genotype;
Genotypic – variability associated with quantitative and qualitative changes in hereditary material;
Combinative - a type of variability that depends on the recombination of genes and chromosomes in the genotype (meiosis and fertilization);
Mutational – a type of variability associated with a violation of the structure and function of hereditary material (mutations).
Immunosuppression is the suppression of the body’s protective immunological reactions.
Immunosuppressors are substances that suppress the response of the recipient’s immune system to the transplant, helping to overcome tissue incompatibility and engraftment of the transplanted tissue.
Inversion is a chromosomal aberration in which intrachromosomal breaks occur and the excised section is rotated by 180 0.
Embryonic induction is an interaction between parts of the embryo, during which one part (the inducer) determines the direction of development (differentiation) of the other part.
Initiation is a process that ensures the beginning of template synthesis reactions (translation initiation - binding of the AUG codon to tRNA-methionine in the peptide center of the small ribosomal subunit).
Inoculation is the introduction of a pathogen by a vector into a wound with saliva in the bite.
Interphase is the part of the cell cycle during which the cell prepares to divide.
Intron is an uninformative region of a mosaic gene in eukaryotes.
Karyotype is a diploid set of somatic cells, characterized by the number of chromosomes, their structure and size. Species-specific trait.
Housing is a form of symbiosis in which one organism uses another as a home.
Keylons are protein substances that inhibit the mitotic activity of cells. The kinetoplast is a specialized region of the mitochondrion that provides energy for the movement of the flagellum.
The kinetochore is a specialized region of the centromere, in the area of which short spindle microtubules are formed and connections between chromosomes and centrioles are formed.
Classification of chromosomes:
Denver - chromosomes are grouped based on their size and shape. To identify chromosomes, a solid staining method is used;
Parisian - based on the characteristics of the internal structure of chromosomes, which is revealed using differential staining. The same arrangement of segments is found only in homologous chromosomes.
Gene clusters are groups of different genes with related functions (globin genes).
Cell clone is a collection of cells formed from one parent cell through successive mitotic divisions.
Gene cloning is the production of a large number of homogeneous DNA fragments (genes).
Codominance is a type of interaction of allelic genes (in the presence of multiple alleles), when two dominant genes appear in the phenotype independently of each other (IU blood group).
A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides in a DNA (mRNA) molecule corresponding to an amino acid (sense codon). In addition to sense ones, there are stop and initiation codons.
Colinearity is the correspondence of the order of nucleotides in a DNA (mRNA) molecule to the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.
Colchicine is a substance that destroys spindle microtubules and stops mitosis at the metaphase stage.
Commensalism (freeloading) is one of the forms of symbiosis that is beneficial only for one organism.
Complementarity - strict correspondence of nitrogenous bases to each other (A-T; G-C)
The type of interaction of non-allelic genes, when the development of a trait is determined by two pairs of genes.
Consulting (medical-genetic) – counseling the applicant about the possible inheritance of a certain disease and how to prevent it using the method of genetic analysis.
Contamination is a method of infection using a vector, in which the pathogen enters the body through microtraumas on the skin and mucous membranes or orally with contaminated products.
Conjugation - conjugation in bacteria is a process in which microorganisms exchange plasmids, and therefore cells acquire new properties:
Conjugation in ciliates is a special type of sexual process in which two individuals exchange haploid migrating nuclei;
Chromosome conjugation is the joining of homologous chromosomes into pairs (bivalents) in prophase I of meiosis.
Copulation is the process of fusion of germ cells (individuals) in protozoa.
Correlations are the interdependent, conjugate development of certain structures of the body:
Ontogenetic – consistency of development of individual organs and systems in individual development;
Phylogenetic (coordination) - stable interdependencies between organs or parts of the body, determined phylogenetically (combined development of teeth, intestinal length in carnivores and herbivores).
Crossing over is an exchange of sections of chromatids of homologous chromosomes, which occurs in prophase I of meiosis and leads to recombination of genetic material.
Cultivation of cells and tissues is a method that allows one to maintain the viability of structures when they are grown on artificial nutrient media outside the body to study the processes of proliferation, growth, and differentiation.
Leptotene is the initial stage of prophase I of meiosis, in which the chromosomes in the cell nucleus are visible in the form of thin threads.
Lethal equivalent is a coefficient that allows you to quantify the genetic load of a population. In humans, the equivalent is 3-8 recessive homozygous conditions, leading to the death of the body before the reproductive period.
Ligases are enzymes that connect (“crosslink”) individual fragments of nucleic acid molecules into a single whole (connection of exons during splicing).
Macroevolution is evolutionary processes occurring in taxonomic units above the species level (order, class, phylum).
The marginotomy hypothesis is a hypothesis that explains the aging process by reducing the DNA molecule by 1% after each cell division (shorter DNA - shorter life).
Mesonerphosis (primary kidney) is a type of vertebrate kidney in which the structural and functional elements are the Bowman-Shumlyansky capsules that are beginning to form, associated with capillary glomeruli. It is located in the trunk region.
Meiosis is the division of oocytes (spermatocytes) during maturation (gametogenesis). The result of meiosis is recombination of genes and the formation of haploid cells.
Metagenesis is the alternation of sexual and asexual reproduction in the life cycle of organisms.
Metanephros (secondary kidney) is a type of vertebrate kidney, the structural and functional element of which is the nephron, consisting of specialized sections. It is laid in the phase department.
Metaphase is the stage of mitosis (meiosis), in which maximum spiralization of chromosomes located along the equator of the cell is achieved and the mitotic apparatus is formed.
Genetics methods:
Gemini is a method of studying twins by establishing intra-pair similarities (concordance) and differences (discordance) between them. Allows you to determine the relative role of heredity and the environment for the development of traits in descendants;
Genealogical - a method of compiling pedigrees; allows you to establish the type of inheritance and predict the probability of inheritance of traits in descendants;
Somatic cell hybridization is an experimental method that allows the fusion of somatic cells of different organisms in culture to obtain combined karyotypes;
Hybridological is a method that establishes the nature of inheritance of traits using a system of crossings. It consists in obtaining hybrids, analyzing them over a series of generations using quantitative data;
Modeling of hereditary diseases - the method is based on the law of homological series of hereditary variability. Allows the use of experimental data obtained on animals to study hereditary human diseases;
Ontogenetic (biochemical) method is based on the use of biochemical medicines to identify metabolic disorders caused by an abnormal gene in individual development;
Population-statistical method is based on the study of the genetic composition of populations (Hardy-Weinberg law). Allows you to analyze the number of individual genes and the ratio of genotypes in the population;
Cytogenetic is a method of microscopic study of the hereditary structures of a cell. Used for karyotyping and determination of sex chromatin.
Microevolution is elementary evolutionary processes occurring at the population level.
Mitotic (cellular) cycle is the time of cell existence during the period of preparation for mitosis (G 1, S, G 2) and mitosis itself. The G0 period is not included in the duration of the mitotic cycle.
Mimicry is a biological phenomenon expressed in the imitative similarity of unprotected organisms to unrelated protected or inedible species.
Mitosis is a universal method of division of somatic cells, in which the genetic material is evenly distributed between two daughter cells.
The mitotic apparatus is a division apparatus formed in metaphase and consisting of centrioles, microtubules and chromosomes.
Modification of mRNA is the final stage of processing that occurs after splicing. Modification of the 5' end occurs by attaching a cap structure represented by methylguanine, and a polyadenine tail is attached to the 3' end.
Sauropsid - a type of vertebrate brain in which the leading role belongs to the forebrain, where clusters of nerve cells in the form of islands first appear - the ancient cortex (reptiles, birds);
Ichthyopsid - a type of vertebrate brain in which the leading role belongs to the midbrain (cyclostomes, fish, amphibians);
Mammal - a type of vertebrate brain in which the integrating function is performed by the cerebral cortex, which completely covers the forebrain - the new cortex (mammals, humans).
Genetic monitoring is an information system for recording the number of mutations in populations and comparing mutation rates over a number of generations.
Monomer is a structural element (block) of a polymer chain (in a protein - an amino acid, in DNA - a nucleotide).
Similar articles
