Presentation on the topic "cold war". Cold War: global confrontation between the USSR and the USA
Since 1946 a new major period in the history of the twentieth century, which took almost half a century, ending in the early 1990s. The main content of this period is the confrontation between the 2 world systems and the formation of the 3rd force as a result of the collapse of the colonial system. The alignment of socio-political forces on the world stage and within countries has changed. If at the previous stage 3 centers of world politics were formed and fought among themselves - fascism, socialism and the countries of Western democracies, and the last two united to crush the first, now the line of confrontation ran between the capitalist system, led by the USA, and the socialist, led by the USSR. The latter included the European countries of the so-called people's democracy (those states of Eastern Europe where, not without the help of the USSR, pro-Soviet governments came to power - Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Albania, East Germany), then China, North Korea, Vietnam and Cuba.
It is generally accepted that the beginning of the "cold war" * laid the speech
W. Churchill in Fulton (USA, March 1946). Recognizing that military victories had propelled the USSR to the ranks of world leaders, and stating that Moscow was striving for the unlimited dissemination of its ideas and doctrines, the former British Prime Minister proposed talking to the USSR from a position of strength, up to using the American atomic weapons. Churchill's statement in February 1947 was specified by US President G. Truman in his message to Congress (the "Truman Doctrine"). In relation to the USSR, 2 strategic tasks were defined: at least - to prevent further expansion of the sphere of influence of the USSR and its communist ideology, as a maximum - to force socialism to leave its pre-war borders. The countries of Europe were provided with large-scale economic assistance in order to tie them more tightly to the United States (the "Marshall plan"), and in 1949 a military-political alliance of these countries headed by the United States - NATO** was created. The deployment of US military bases (Greece, Turkey) began near the borders of the USSR.
The measures taken by the USSR were adequate to those of the United States, although less effective. The forces were unequal, primarily because the USSR emerged from the war economically weakened, the United States - strengthened. The Soviet Union launched economic assistance to countries where socialist governments were established, creating for this purpose a special organization - the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) in 1949. In 1955, some of them united in a military-political union - the Warsaw Pact Organization (OVD). The first serious action of the Department of Internal Affairs was the suppression of the anti-socialist uprising in Hungary (1956). The USSR actively assisted the communist parties and the labor movement in the capitalist countries, contributed to the growth of the national liberation movement, the collapse of the colonial system and the creation of countries of "socialist orientation".
The symbol of the split of the world into two opposing systems was the split of Germany into two states - the FRG (1948) and the GDR (1949). The core of the confrontation in the Cold War era was the Soviet-American confrontation.
The nuclear arms race, local wars and conflicts put the world on the brink of a third world war, nuclear war(The US atomic bomb was tested in 1945 in Japan, the USSR - in 1949 in Kazakhstan, at the test site near Semipalatinsk). The world was especially close to catastrophe during the war in North Korea (1950-1953)*, the Caribbean (Cuban or missile, 1962) crisis**, the Vietnam (1964-1972) and Afghan (1979-1988) wars. Despite repeated attempts to defuse tensions, periods of warming in international relations(beginning of the reign of N.S. Khrushchev, “Helsinki process ***”, “new thinking” by M.S. Gorbachev) the “cold war” continued until the early 1990s. Its end is connected with the collapse of the socialist system (“velvet” (bloodless, with the exception of Romania) revolutions in the countries of the Eastern Bloc), the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact organization, the Soviet Union. The confrontation between the two political systems ceased, in 1991, B. Clinton, the President of the United States, congratulated the American people on their victory in the Cold War.
During the period under review, the socio-political situation also changed within the countries. Democratic regimes were established in Italy, the FRG, Japan, and in many liberated countries (India and others). There were islands of semi-fascist regimes (Portugal, Paraguay, Chile, Spain, etc.), but they found themselves isolated and abandoned extreme forms of dictatorship. In the socialist countries, after the death of Stalin (March 5, 1953), the regime of the party-state dictatorship softened, mass repressions ceased (with the exception of China during the Great Leap Forward period).
The appearance of the 20th century and the outcome of the competition between the two world systems largely determined the scientific and technological revolutions that unfolded in the developed countries of the world. The first scientific and technological revolution began in the 1950s and 60s. It was based on 3 scientific and technical areas:
Mastering the energy of the atom
Electronics
Cybernetics and computer technology.
The dizzying successes of the first scientific and technological revolution, the pinnacle of which was space exploration, also had negative sides:
Creation of weapons of mass destruction;
Enormous pollution of the environment.
The unprecedented involvement of natural (primarily raw materials) production resources accelerated their depletion so much that in the 1970s a technological, energy and economic crisis erupted in the world. The material basis for overcoming it was the second scientific and technological revolution, which unfolded in the last quarter of the twentieth century and marked the beginning of the transition to a post-industrial technological mode of production. Its main areas were:
Microelectronics;
Biotechnology;
Informatics.
Not quantitative, but qualitative indicators of growth become decisive in the development of national economies and the competition between the two systems. The backlog of the USSR in the field of scientific and technological progress predetermined the defeat of socialism in competition with the countries of Western democracies.
In the post-war period, three serious attempts were made in the USSR to overcome the crisis of socialism. The first - after the death of Stalin. During the life of the “leader of the peoples”, hopes for the liberalization of public life were not destined to come true. Such expectations during the war and immediately after it were characteristic primarily of the intelligentsia, but society as a whole was to some extent liberated during the war years. After the victory over fascism, it seemed that the worst was over. However, the Stalinist leadership took a course on "tightening the screws", since a totalitarian regime cannot exist without maintaining fear in society. Decrees of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks 1946 - 1948 on cultural issues were a "warning" of the intelligentsia. The struggle for the "communist ideology" of creativity resulted in 1949 in a broad campaign against cosmopolitanism·· and "servile worship of the West." Genetics and cybernetics were declared bourgeois sciences, and the theory of relativity was declared “reactionary Einsteinianism”. Spiritual terror was accompanied by physical terror. In 1949-51. the "Leningrad case" was fabricated, in 1952-53. - "the case of doctors." The leaders of Leningrad were accused of trying to destroy the USSR by opposing Russia to the USSR, and Leningrad to Moscow. More than 2 thousand leaders who ever worked in Leningrad were repressed, over 200 of them were executed. The “doctors' case”, in which the doctors of the Kremlin hospital were accused of killing the leaders of the party and state, was not brought to an end in connection with the death of Stalin. By the end of the Stalin era, according to N.S. Khrushchev, there were about 10 million people in concentration camps and exile.
In the postwar years, two contradictory courses were closely intertwined in Soviet society: the course towards the actual strengthening of the repressive role of the state and the course towards formal democratization. political system. The latter manifested itself in the abolition of emergency bodies created during the war, in the re-elections of Soviets at all levels (1946-48), and the resumption of congresses of public and socio-political organizations of the USSR after a long break. In 1949, the 10th Congress of Trade Unions and the 11th Congress of the Komsomol were held (17 and 13 years later, respectively, after the previous ones). In 1952, after a 13-year break, the XIX Party Congress took place, which decided to rename the CPSU (b) into the CPSU.
The restoration of the national economy after the war proceeded rapidly, primarily in the priority sectors of industry - electric power, metallurgy, and the coal industry. In general, industry was restored already in 1947. It reached the level of 1940. Particular attention was paid to the defense industry, primarily the creation of atomic weapons. By the end of the first post-war five-year plan (1946-50), 6,200 restored and newly built enterprises were put into operation. Light and food industry the plan was not carried out. The situation in agriculture, as before the war, remained difficult. The state increased non-economic coercion of the peasants, but the plan of the 4th five-year plan for the development of agriculture was not fulfilled, although, according to official data, in 1950 the level of agricultural production almost reached the pre-war level of 1940.
important events the first post-war years were the abolition of the rationing system for food and industrial goods (1947) and the monetary reform (1947). Money was exchanged in a limited amount and at the rate of 10:1. This confiscation measure strengthened the financial system, although it caused popular discontent.
On March 5, 1953, Stalin died, and with him an entire era was fading into the past. After the funeral of the general secretary (he was buried in a mausoleum next to Lenin, taken out of there after the XXII Congress of the CPSU in 1961), a struggle for power began, in which N.S. Khrushchev (1894-1971). He managed to destroy the all-powerful L.P. Beria and push out of power such many experienced politicians as V.M. Molotov, G.M. Malenkov, L.M. Kaganovich.
In the summer of 1953, after returning from Berlin, where he led the suppression of the anti-Soviet uprising, Beria was arrested. He and his closest associates were accused of organizing mass repressions during the years of Stalin's life and preparing a coup d'état after his death. This was the last major trial of "enemies of the people" of such a high rank. The initiators of the elimination of the all-powerful Beria were the Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU Khrushchev and the Minister of Defense N.A. Bulganin. The capture group was led by Bulganin's deputy Marshal G.K. Zhukov. After a closed trial, Beria was executed.
In the summer of 1953, the first actions of the post-Stalin leadership reflected an attempt to work out a new political line. At the July (1953) plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, G.M. Malenkov raised the question of the cult of Stalin. But this did not go beyond the walls of the Kremlin; for the rest, Stalin remained the leader until the 20th Congress.
The 20th Congress of the CPSU opened in February 1956. At the opening of the Congress, the delegates honored the memory of I.V. Stalin. At the last, closed session of the congress, Khrushchev made a report on Stalin's personality cult and its consequences. The report in the USSR was published 33 years later, in 1989.
Khrushchev's criticism of the past gave a serious impetus to the process of social renewal. The congress condemned Stalin's personality cult. On the basis of Khrushchev's report, a resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU of June 30, 1956 "On overcoming the personality cult and its consequences" was adopted. It did not contain the terrible facts that were cited at the congress *, but there was an attempt to understand the causes of the cult and its consequences.
The 20th Congress marked the beginning of a broad process of rehabilitation of those repressed in the 1930s and early 1950s. If from the spring of 1953 rehabilitation concerned a narrow circle of party leaders, then it concerned millions of ordinary citizens of the USSR, even entire peoples repressed during the war years - Kalmyks, Chechens, Ingush, Karachays, Balkars (1957). their national statehood was restored, they were allowed to return to their homeland. In 1964, the Decree of the Presidium of the USSR Armed Forces of August 28, 1941 was canceled in relation to the Soviet Germans, in the part that contained accusations of complicity with the invaders. In 1967, a similar charge was dropped from the Crimean Tatars.
The 20th Congress became an important stage in the life of the country. But the first wave of impressions connected with the discussion of the materials of the congress was more like an external reaction: what to do with the portraits of Stalin? Is Stalin now a classic of Marxism? Is it possible to quote Stalin? These and other similar questions spoke about the predominantly ritual significance of the initial stage of the de-Stalinization of society. The realization that the cult of personality is not only and not so much Stalin, but a whole complex of social relations, the essence of the totalitarian system, came later.
The process of democratization that began in society could not be painless. Especially when de-Stalinization began to go beyond criticism of Stalin's personality, raising the question not only of responsibility for the mistakes of past years, but also of the foundations of socialism. Therefore, soon after the communists, and after them the rest of the public, began to acquaint themselves with the content of Khrushchev's closed report, it was decided to stop reading. The main reason for this decision was the scope of critical speeches related to the discussion of the published facts.
“After the 20th Congress, when active actions unfolded, we were not prepared ... to fight back,” admitted the then 1st Secretary of the ICG CPSU, E.A. Furtseva. Were not prepared - ie. did not know how to respond to criticism from below, where is the limit of "permissible"? The party leadership did not know how to deal with the sharp rise in the critical wave. Is it good or bad? Socialist or not?
In the 1950s, the leadership faced a choice: 1) to direct public activity towards deepening the adopted political course, or 2) to take the path of "curbing" the initiative, guided by the principle "whatever happens." The first path led to the originally stated goals, the second was a step back.
In the 50s, the second, easier path was chosen, because the pressure and pressure mechanism was more familiar.
The lack of confidence in whether the processes developing in the country were of a socialist nature or not made the course of de-Stalinization unsustainable. A strong influence was also exerted by an external factor, primarily the Hungarian events of 1956. For a long time they were interpreted by us as k / roar. rebellion, but this, in fact, for the Hungarians was what we call perestroika in our country. The Hungarian events were understood mainly as the "costs" of democracy, and became a strong trump card in the hands of domestic conservative forces. As a result, a struggle against revisionism began in the USSR*.
The situation became even more aggravated when it became clear that a power crisis was brewing. The forces opposed to Khrushchev - Molotov, Malenkov, Kaganovich, Voroshilov and others (those who "inherited" the most under Stalin) got a real chance to achieve a change in leadership. Having achieved an arithmetic majority in the Presidium of the Central Committee, they demanded Khrushchev's resignation in June 1957.
The majority of the Central Committee at the June (1957) Plenum nevertheless followed Khrushchev. Molotov, Malenkov, Kaganovich and other Stalinists were qualified as an anti-party group of Molotov - Malenkov - Kaganovich. It was not so much a personal victory for Khrushchev as a victory for the course of the 20th Congress.
Having achieved the elimination of opponents, Khrushchev, it would seem, untied his hands. In fact, it turned out differently: the struggle for power at this stage subjugated the fate of progressive transformations. Not only opponents were eliminated from the leadership, but also some of the most powerful, from the point of view of possible “competitors”, comrades-in-arms: thus, by decision of the plenum of the Central Committee in October 1957, Marshal G.K. Zhukov was removed from party and government posts. There was also a well-known adjustment of the general political course, the meaning of which was the practical rejection of further democratization.
What was the political course of the leadership of N.S. Khrushchev? A more or less integral concept of social restructuring did not take shape. Theoretical vacuum - the reality of the 1950s. It resulted in miscalculations in determining the prospects for the development of Soviet society. The 21st Congress of the CPSU (1959) concluded that socialism in the USSR had won a complete and final victory, and the 22nd Congress of the CPSU (1961) adopted a new, third program of the party ·· - the construction of communism. The 1961 program is one of the testimonies of Khrushchev's adventurism, the theoretical weakness and conservatism of the then leadership. In essence, it repeated the main guidelines of the draft program of the CPSU(b) of 1948, making only an adjustment for time: it was proposed to build the material and technical base of communism by 1980. The program ended with the words: "The Party solemnly proclaims: the current generation of Soviet people will live under communism!"
Thus, the turn that was long awaited after the war, whose contours were outlined in 1953 and finally took shape in 1956, turned out to be incomplete. Second half of the 1950s and early 1960s passed under the sign of the struggle between democratic and conservative tendencies in the development of society. At the end of this period, the renewal process was interrupted mainly due to the inconsistency of actions from above, the danger of administration and voluntarism increased.
In the absence of a reform program, the method of direct response became predominant during the Khrushchev years. For example:
1) the bureaucratization of the apparatus is progressing - to abolish the sectoral ministries, to create economic councils (1957);
2) there is not enough milk and meat in the country - to withdraw cows from peasants in order to increase the collective farm and state farm livestock (1957-1958);
3) there is not enough feed - to plant corn up to the Arctic Ocean; etc.
Rushing from one to the other, conducting one campaign after another, the political leadership lost a holistic perception of the economic situation and it often got completely out of control. Thus, Khrushchev's agrarian policy ended in 1963-1964. queues for bread and a rationing system, interruptions in the sale of milk and meat.
The October (1964) plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU released N.S. Khrushchev from the duties of 1st Secretary of the Central Committee (1953-1964) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR (1958-1964). The release was carried out in the spirit of those years - through a conspiracy in the party leadership, dissatisfied with Khrushchev's constant restructuring. In the country, the resignation of Nikita Sergeevich was met with understanding - then it seemed that the end of arbitrariness and adventurism was coming. L.I. was elected the first secretary of the Central Committee. Brezhnev (1906-1982), chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR - A.N. Kosygin (1904-1980).
Expectations, as it turned out later, were not justified: the political situation after 1964 was on the whole contrary to the democratic course of the 20th Congress. If Khrushchev had a passion for reform (often ill-conceived), then Brezhnev, on the contrary, was opposed to change. This was presented as the stability of the political course, but resulted in stagnation.
Thus, Khrushchev's valuntarism and administration ended with the strengthening of the administrative-command system. But this did not happen immediately: the processes of democratization by the mid-1960s. gained positive momentum, switched from the political sphere to the economic sphere, more precisely, they continued in the economic sphere.
Economic reform of 1965
The main content of the turn of the mid-1960s was determined by the economic reform. This was the second serious attempt to overcome the crisis of socialism. The society has already matured understanding of the insufficiency of certain amendments in the economy, an understanding of the need for a system of measures. The October (1964) plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU announced a turn towards strengthening the scientific guidance of the national economy, strict consideration of the objective laws of social development. New approaches to the management of the national economy were developed by the March (1965) plenum of the Central Committee (it was devoted to agriculture) and the September (1965) plenum of the Central Committee, which considered the problems of industry. The reform started in January 1966. Its main directions were 1) management, 2) planning, 3) economic stimulation.
The system of industry and construction management has undergone the most significant changes. It was envisaged 1) to expand the scope of self-financing* at enterprises and in industries; 2) the introduction of more effective forms of economic incentives for enterprises: evaluation of the results of work not by the "gross", but by the products sold, the creation of incentive funds, the size of which depended on the profits of enterprises; and etc.; 3) reduction in the number of indicators planned for the enterprise from above (which expanded the independence of enterprises). In 1965, the ministries were restored - they returned to the sectoral production management system.
The largest post-war economic reform was an attempt to turn to an intensive path of economic development··. 8th Five-Year Plan 1966-1970 as a result of the reforms that began, it turned out to be the best in terms of results in post-war Soviet history. But the first successes of the reform served as a kind of justification for the sufficiency of the measures taken. The transformations stopped halfway, before reaching a specific workplace, on the one hand, and without affecting the management echelon, on the other.
Domestic policy, as in the 1950s, was strongly influenced by an external factor. In the mid 1960s. virtually all Eastern Bloc countries have embarked on economic reforms similar to ours. The most radical measures were taken in Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary.
In these countries, the system of directive indicators was almost completely abolished, enterprises were given broad rights in the distribution of income received, a flexible price system was introduced, and so on. In Czechoslovakia, economic contradictions are closely intertwined with political ones. These contradictions resulted in the well-known events of 1968 in Czechoslovakia, in which the Soviet Union and other countries of the Warsaw Pact intervened.
The events in Czechoslovakia, as in their time in Hungary, frightened the Soviet leadership and became an additional incentive to curtail democratic reforms in the economy.
For these reasons, the turn of the mid-60s. has never been able to reach its full potential. Democratic processes, having exhausted the supply of positive inertia of the 1950s, in fact, were blocked by the forces of bureaucratic conservatism, which had been waiting "in the wings" since 1964 (that is, from the moment the Brezhnev team came to the leadership).
Thus, the question why the reform of 1965 did not go ahead, why the turn turned out to be incomplete, can be answered: because the economic reform was not accompanied by the reform of the political system. Cost accounting, leading to independence, and the administrative-command system are not compatible.
Socio-economic development of the USSR in the 1970s - the first half of the 1980s. took place under the sign of a sharp increase in centralized control. Emphasis was placed on the creation of giant territorial production complexes (TPCs), the main place among which was taken by the West Siberian Oil and Gas (ZSONGK), located mainly in the Tyumen region. During the 1970s, oil production in Western Siberia increased 10 times, gas - 16 times. The USSR became the main exporter of these types of raw materials, receiving colossal incomes. This caused another "dizziness" among the country's leadership. The opinion that it is much more profitable to invest money and labor of the people in the extraction of raw materials than in high-tech industries has won. The petrodollars were used to buy science-intensive products, foodstuffs, and consumer goods. Thus, the Tyumen oil and gas pushed back the restructuring of the country for many years, prolonging the agony of the Brezhnev regime.
The course towards the creation of the TPK testified that the economy of the USSR developed in an extensive way. And the main competitors of the Soviet state in economic competition back in the 1960s. they focused on intensive development, on forcing science-intensive industries that determined scientific and technological progress - electronics, cybernetics, biotechnology, etc. Under such conditions, the USSR could not win the economic battle even at the cost of intensifying the exploitation of the working people and unrestrained exploitation. natural environment. The last major attempt to find a way out of the crisis of the system was made under M.S. Gorbachev.
Perestroika 1985-1991
The political life of the country in the first half of the 1980s. feverish frequent change of top management. In November 1982, the leader of the party and state, L.I. Brezhnev*. After him, Yu.V. Andropov was in power for 15 months (until February 1984) and K.U. Chernenko for 13 months (burial in March 1985).
March 1985 General Secretary The 54-year-old M.S. Gorbachev became the Central Committee of the CPSU, and A.A. Gromyko became the head of state (since July). The leadership took a new course, which was first proclaimed in April 1985 at the plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, concretized and approved at the XXVII Congress of the CPSU (1986). It was called "a course to accelerate socio-economic development." Thus began Gorbachev's perestroika. There are 3 stages in its history.
First stage- from April 1985 to January 1987 - romantic. The whole society is in favour. Even the party leadership, which perceived the new course as another change of scenery. There was still no understanding of the entire depth of the crisis of the system, its inferiority, the task was set - to improve socialism without affecting its foundations.
Second phase– 1987 – mid-1989 Glasnost is expanding, the overcoming of socialist dogmas begins: socialism is good, capitalism is bad. Along with economic reform, the essence of which consisted in an attempt to transfer a rigidly centralized, planned-state economy to a market, commodity-money basis (within the framework of socialism), an "update" of ideology began. An important stage in the democratization of the country and the formation of civil society was the first free elections in March 1989 and the First Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR (May-June 1989). After the congress, the politicization of the masses went faster, political movements and parties began to take shape. A year later there were already over 50 of them - from monarchists to anarchists. In 1990, AiF constantly introduced the program principles of new political parties on page 8. Officially, new parties and movements began to register from January 1991.
At the second stage, restructuring from above met with restructuring from below. A direct dialogue between individual groups of the population and the government of the country has begun. It was initiated by the miners' strikes in the summer of 1989. The strikes, to the very extent of perestroika, showed the people's dissatisfaction with the inconsistency of the reforms and the indecisiveness of the leadership's actions.
But could perestroika go faster? It was necessary to understand, comprehend the state of the country. Gorbachev and the leadership as a whole did not come to this understanding immediately. This, as well as the desire to carry out reforms without going beyond socialism, explains many mistakes and miscalculations. Since 1985 Gorbachev demonstrated a capacity for political dynamism - that is, he abandoned many of his views when it became clear that they were not supported by practice. This is a strong feature that makes any politician promising. On the other hand, all Gorbachev's predictions came true exactly the opposite. That is, as a theorist, he was not up to par.
The democratic part of society during Gorbachev's tenure as president (elected to this post by the Third Congress of People's Deputies in March 1990) wanted more adherence to his democratic principles and more radicalism. But we must not forget about the politics of the possible: the leader of the country had to take into account hundreds of different factors and, probably, he chose from all the options not the most worthy, but the most possible. Until 1990, MS Gorbachev, according to polls, was the No. 1 political leader, although the rating of trust in him was steadily declining.
Gorbachev was more loved in the West. The Soviet leader tried to compensate for failures in domestic policy with an active foreign policy. The “new political thinking” (meaning the priority of universal human values over class ones), proclaimed by Gorbachev, the withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan (1989), the beginning of the reduction of nuclear weapons (medium-range missiles under an agreement with the United States), non-resistance to the “velvet revolutions” in Eastern Europe made "Gorby" is quite popular abroad, Nobel Peace Prize winner.
An assessment of Gorbachev's activities in terms of the results of perestroika allows us to conclude that Gorbachev is a reformer politician whose scope of innovation is limited by the socialist mentality (worldview). Maybe, negative traits Gorbachev-politics are explained by the fact that he was formed by the very system that was to be broken. Gorbachev constantly swore allegiance to the "socialist choice": "I was born a communist and I will die a communist." Meanwhile, it was the CPSU that was the main brake on perestroika. If at the first stage (1985-86) perestroika was supported even by the conservative part of the party leadership, then later the party apparatus went on the defensive. As a result, in 1989 Gorbachev lost the initiative and then control over the processes taking place in the country. Life went on, but the CPSU, together with its leader, did not keep up with it*.
The third stage of perestroika- from mid-1989 to autumn 1991 - characterized by its decline, growing disillusionment in society, an attempt by conservative forces to take revenge. The country's leadership was chronically late in reacting to social processes, although the essence of political leadership lies in their forecasting. Gorbachev during this period resembled a man running in front of a trolley rolling down a mountain: it is terrible to fall under it; I want to slow it down a little; there is a great desire to make it clear to the audience that in fact it is not the trolley that is catching up with you, but you are leading it (especially since everyone saw how you moved it); and understanding the globality and historical necessity of what is happening.
The desire to carry out reforms without going beyond socialism led to the fact that fundamental issues were not resolved - about land, about property, without which perestroika began to "slip". Belatedly, issues of federation and the development of a new Union Treaty were resolved. Meanwhile, already in 1988, interethnic conflicts began. In Transcaucasia - between Armenia and Azerbaijan on the issue of ownership Nagorno-Karabakh, in the Baltic States, a course was taken for the exit of the republics from the USSR. The leadership of the USSR, unable to stop the centrifugal forces in a democratic way, increasingly resorted to military force, which was used in April 1989 in Tbilisi, in January 1990 - in Baku, in January 1991 - in Vilnius, in August 1991 - in Moscow.
In the spring and summer of 1990, the Baltic republics, followed by other republics, adopted a declaration of national sovereignty, effectively opposing themselves to the Union State. On June 12, 1990, the Declaration on State Sovereignty of the RSFSR was adopted. the first president of Russia as a result of the first national history popular elections on June 12, 1991, B.N. was elected. Yeltsin.
Yeltsin's political star began to rise after the October (1987) plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, where he criticized (very moderately) the course of perestroika. The speech was assessed as politically erroneous, and Yeltsin was removed from the leadership of the CPSU MGK. "I won't let you into politics any more," that's what Gorbachev told him, according to Yeltsin. Reaction public opinion Yeltsin's persecution was unanimous: she suffers for the truth. The party apparatus tried to discredit the critics of perestroika, but achieved the opposite result. Yeltsin's name is becoming the banner of supporters of change. Yeltsin! Yeltsin! - chanted thousands of rallies in Moscow. "Boris, fight!" - it was really a people's mandate. Huge popularity helped Yeltsin become a people's deputy of the USSR, a people's deputy of the RSFSR, the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Russia and, finally, the president of Russia.
In the context of the actual disintegration of the country, Gorbachev proposed a version of a new union treaty for the "renewal of the USSR" (the Novoogarevsky process), but it was too late. In April 1991, 10 out of 15 republics agreed to join the “renewed Union” under the name of the “Commonwealth of Sovereign States” (CCG), and the signing of a new union agreement* was scheduled for August 20. On August 19-21, 1991, conservative forces tried to prevent this prospect by force, preserving the USSR. The State Committee for the State of Emergency (GKChP)** was established, Gorbachev was isolated in a dacha in Foros (Crimea). But the coup attempt failed. Real power in Moscow finally passed from the allied bodies to the leadership of the RSFSR.
The final stage of the collapse of the USSR began. On December 8, near Minsk, the leaders of the RSFSR, Ukraine and Belarus announced the dissolution of the USSR and the creation of the "Commonwealth of Independent States" (CIS). This event, which took place in secret from the President of the USSR and the peoples of the country, went down in history as the "Belovezhskaya agreement". He was supported by eleven republics.
On December 25, the President of the USSR resigned his powers, and on the 26th, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, by the decision of one chamber (the Council of the Union), officially recognized the dissolution of the USSR and liquidated itself. Gorbachev's perestroika was over, a new stage in Russian history was beginning.
Russia in the 1990s.
The failure of the coup attempt in August 1991 led to the rapid dismantling of the totalitarian system, starting with its core, the CPSU. Having concentrated all power in its hands at the end of 1991, the Russian leadership set a course for deepening the market reform. Government headed by Acting Prime Minister E.T. Gaidar announced the release (liberalization) of prices from state regulation in January 1992. The population experienced a shock from the new prices. The inflation index for 1992 was 3000%. Food consumption has declined, food costs in most families have increased to 60-70% of their budget. However, the predictions of those politicians who predicted an immediate economic catastrophe and social explosion did not come true.
This was partly facilitated by the policy of foreign trade liberalization, which opened the borders for a wide penetration of foreign goods and free conversion (transfer) of the ruble. With the saturation of the market, the rise in prices fell noticeably, the free competition of goods made prices dependent on fluctuations in supply and demand. reverse side This process was the fall in prices for domestic products, difficulties with its implementation, which led to the massive closure of enterprises in 1994-1996. In a more advantageous position were regions rich in raw materials. The average salary of workers in the oil industry in 1992 was 53 thousand rubles. with a minimum wage in the industry as a whole of 1.8 thousand rubles. (December 1992) and a living wage of 4 thousand rubles. As a result, by the end of the first year of the reform, the earnings of the top 10% were 16 times higher than those of the poorest (5 times in 1991).
"The collapse of the USSR 1991" - The population was on the verge of starvation. Estimates of the collapse of the USSR are ambiguous: The decline in world oil prices, which shook the economy of the USSR. Cease-fire... centrifugal tendencies inherent in, according to some, every multinational country. Many enterprises were stopped, transport was inactive, crops were not exported.
"Cold War of the USSR and the USA" - the USSR sends its troops to Afghanistan. Formation of a bipolar world. In response, in 1953, the USSR detonates a hydrogen bomb. In the West entering Soviet troops in Afghanistan sparked violent protests. In the mid-1980s, "real socialism" entered a period of crisis. Divided Europe. The USSR could no longer support fraternal regimes.
Cold War - Beginning of the Cold War. The degree of guilt of the superpowers in unleashing the "cold war". 2nd point of view: the USSR is guilty. The Truman Doctrine envisioned: The concept of the Cold War. Consequences of the Cold War for the USSR. Cold War. Causes of the Cold War. Political ambitions of the leaders of the USSR (Joseph Stalin) and the USA (Harry Truman).
"USSR and the Cold War" - Formulate your own position. Concepts: Cold War, Marshall Plan, colonial system, local wars. Cold War scheme. "Any war is a misunderstanding." T. Carlyle. The choice of the political course of the USSR. Theme of the lesson: "Cold War". Korean War 1950 - 1953
"History of the Cold War" - On the other side are the United States. Goals and objectives: Make a general conclusion on the topic of the lesson. Was it possible to find a compromise in resolving these contradictions? Could the Cold War have been avoided? Issues for discussion: Gives facts, documents proving the correctness of this position. Summing up the lesson.
"Warm and cold color" - Talk about brightness and saturation. Color tone. Brightness and saturation. Objectives: To introduce warm and cool colors. Chromatic warm cold red blue yellow cyan orange purple. Russian. Theme: Warm and cool colors. Learn how to enlarge and reduce a picture.
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Cold War concept
The Cold War is a state of intense confrontation in relations between capitalist and socialist countries led by the USA and the USSR.
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Causes of the Cold War
The desire of the USSR and the USA to dominate in the post-war world Contradictions between the capitalist and socialist socio-political systems. Political ambitions of the leaders of the USSR (Joseph Stalin) and the USA (Harry Truman)
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The Cold War was accompanied by:
an arms race and intensified preparations for a "hot" war; rivalry in all spheres of public life; acute ideological struggle and the creation of the image of an external enemy; struggle for spheres of influence in the world; local armed conflicts.
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Beginning of the Cold War
The Cold War began in March 1946 with a speech at Fulton by Winston Churchill. The proclamation of the H. Truman Doctrine in 1947
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The Truman Doctrine was:
Providing economic assistance to European countries; Creation of a military-political union of Western countries under the leadership of the United States; Deployment of a network of US military bases along the borders of the USSR; Support for internal opposition in Eastern Europe; Use of nuclear weapons.
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The degree of guilt of the superpowers in unleashing the "cold war"
There are three points of view on the problem of the guilt of the superpowers in unleashing the Cold War.
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US is to blame
Creation atomic bomb and development of the Dropshot plan; W. Churchell's Fulton speech; Truman Doctrine; Creation of military bases along the border of the USSR; Creation of Germany; Creation of NATO; Participation in the Korean War.
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guilty of the USSR
Stalin's course towards confrontation with the West and a new war; Establishment of Soviet control over the countries of Eastern Europe; Blockade of West Berlin; Participation in the Korean War; Creation of the atomic bomb and inclusion in the arms race; Leadership of the international communist movement
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The USSR and the USA are equally responsible for unleashing the Cold War
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Main stages of the Cold War
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In 1948, the UN recommended the creation of two states on the territory of British Palestine: Jewish and Arab. Jerusalem and Bethlehem were to become territory under international control. The adoption of this plan became possible thanks to its support from the major powers - the USSR and the USA. On May 14, 1948, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed the creation of an independent Jewish state on the territory allocated according to the UN plan. Creation of the State of Israel
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The very next day, the League of Arab States declared war on Israel and five Arab states (Syria, Egypt, Lebanon, Iraq and Transjordan) immediately began hostilities - the First Arab-Israeli War, called in Israel the "War of Independence". Before the outbreak of hostilities, about 750 thousand Arabs lived in Palestine. During the war, about 600 thousand of them left their homes. At the same time, over 800,000 Jews were expelled or fled from the Arab countries to the newly created Jewish state. After a year of fighting, in July 1949 the war ended with an Israeli victory. The State of Israel was recognized as a member of the UN.
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Creation of the People's Republic of China By 1949, the CCP's armed forces were victorious in the Chinese civil war. Supporters of Chiang Kai-shek, with the support of the United States, entrenched themselves on the island of Taiwan. In 1949-1956, with the help of the USSR, basic industries were created in China, the nationalization of industry and the collectivization of agriculture were carried out, and massive socialist construction was launched.
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In February 1950, the PRC and the USSR signed a friendship treaty. The USSR transferred the CER and Port Arthur to China, provided a soft loan, and transferred captured Japanese property. The USSR supported the annexation of Tibet to China. Stalin viewed the PRC as a bulwark of communism in the Far East. Protesting against the exclusion of the PRC from the UN, the USSR suspended its membership in the UN Security Council.
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In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) was established on the territories of the American, British and French zones of occupation, and the German Democratic Republic (GDR) on the territory of the Soviet zone of occupation. Creation of the FRG and the GDR
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North Atlantic Treaty Organization, NATO, North Atlantic Alliance April 4, 1949. The United States, Canada, Iceland, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Norway, Denmark, Italy and Portugal became NATO member states. One of NATO's stated goals is to provide deterrence or defense against any form of aggression against the territory of any NATO member state. Creation of NATO
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The Korean War is a conflict between North Korea and South Korea that lasted from June 25, 1950 to July 27, 1953. This Cold War conflict is seen as a proxy war between the United States and its allies and the communist forces of the PRC and the USSR. The North (or Communist coalition) included: North Korea and its armed forces, the Chinese army, the USSR. From the South, South Korea, the United States, Great Britain and the Philippines took part in the war. Many other countries also took part in the war as part of the UN peacekeeping force.
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Historical Background Korea was occupied by Japan from 1910 until the end of World War II in 1945. On August 6, 1945, the USSR, in accordance with an agreement concluded with the United States, denounced the non-aggression pact of 1941, declared war on the Empire of Japan, and on August 8, Soviet troops entered Korea from the north. American troops landed on the Korean Peninsula from the south.
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On August 10, 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to divide Korea along the 38th parallel, assuming that the Japanese troops to the north of it would surrender to the Soviet army, and the surrender of the southern formations would be accepted by the United States. The peninsula was thus divided into northern, Soviet, and southern, American parts. In December 1945, the US and the USSR signed an agreement on the temporary administration of the country.
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The first offensive of the northern coalition (June-August 1950). North Korean troops crossed the border with their southern neighbor on June 25, 1950. On June 28, the capital of South Korea, the city of Seoul, was captured. By mid-August, up to 90% of the territory of South Korea was occupied by the DPRK army
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Counteroffensive of the troops of the southern coalition (September-November 1950)
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Winter offensive of the northern coalition (November 1950 - January 1951).
The offensive of the 270,000th Chinese army in October 1950 came as a surprise to the UN troops. In late November, the Chinese surrounded them and struck.
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Fighting comes to a stalemate (July 1951)
It became clear to all parties to the conflict that it was impossible to achieve a military victory at a reasonable cost. The ceasefire agreement was concluded on July 27, 1953, after the UN accepted the Indian proposal.
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The front line remained in the area of the 38th parallel, and the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) was proclaimed around it. This territory is still guarded by North Korean troops from the north and US-Korean troops from the south. To this day, the peace treaty ending the war has not been signed. The border between North and South Korea in the DMZ area.
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Losses:
Southern Coalition: 1,271,000 to 1,818,000 Northern Coalition: 1,858,000 to 3,822,000 Chinese and North Koreans; 315 citizens of the USSR who died from wounds and diseases (including 168 officers).
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Numerous eyewitness accounts confirm that both North Korean and South Korean troops often resorted to torturing and executing prisoners of war, killing wounded enemy soldiers; American troops have been ordered to kill all people approaching their positions on the front lines, even if they look like civilians. The execution of refugees in the village of Nogun-Ri in 1950 became especially famous.
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Consequences of the war
The Korean War was the first armed conflict of the Cold War, and was the forerunner of many subsequent conflicts. She created a model of local war, when two superpowers fight in a limited area without the use of nuclear weapons. At the end of the war, the peninsula remained divided into zones of influence of the USSR and the USA.
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Vietnam War Vietnam is a French colony. 1941 - a colony of Japan. In China, the League for the Independence of Vietnam was created (leader - Ho Chi Minh). 1945 - Japan surrenders, Ho Chi Minh's troops capture Hanai, the DRV is formed. Beginning of the Civil War. 1946 - 1954 - Indochina war, Geneva agreement on the division of Vietnam along the 17th parallel. 1954 - 1964 - guerrilla war with the support of the USSR and the USA.
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The results of the war
1973 - Agreement in Paris on Vietnam. American troops have been withdrawn from the country. The division of the country has been preserved (along the 17th parallel). 1975 - Operation "Ho Chi Minh", the capture of South Vietnam by the North. Vietnam became a single socialist country.
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State on the Indochina peninsula. VIETNAM War 1964-1973
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Consequences of the Cold War for the USSR
Huge spending on arms race Spending on supporting satellite countries (WTO countries) Establishing an "iron curtain", limiting contacts with Western countries Toughening domestic policy Lack of access to the latest foreign technologies, technological lag behind Western countries
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The Cold War is the historical period from 1946 to 1991, which was marked by the confrontation between two major superpowers - the USSR and the USA, which took shape after the end of World War II in 1945. The rivalry between the two strongest states of the planet at that time gradually acquired a fierce character of confrontation in all spheres - economic, social, political and ideological. Both states created military-political associations (NATO and the Warsaw Pact), accelerated the creation of nuclear and conventional weapons, and also constantly took covert or overt participation in almost all local military conflicts on the planet.
Main causes of confrontation
- The desire of the United States to secure world leadership and create a world based on American values, taking advantage of the temporary weakness of potential opponents (European states, like the USSR, lay in ruins after the war, and other countries at that time could not even come close to competing with the strengthened overseas "empire" )
- Different ideological programs of the USA and the USSR (Capitalism and Socialism). The authority of the Soviet Union after the defeat of Nazi Germany was unusually high. Including in the states of Western Europe. Fearing the spread of communist ideology and mass support for it, the United States began to actively oppose the USSR.
The position of the parties at the beginning of the conflict
The United States initially had a colossal economic head start over its eastern adversary, thanks to which, in many respects, they got the opportunity to become a superpower. The USSR defeated the strongest European army, but paid for it with millions of lives and thousands of destroyed cities and villages. No one knew how long it would take to restore the economy destroyed by the fascist invasion. The territory of the United States, unlike the USSR, did not suffer at all, and the losses against the background of the losses of the Soviet army looked insignificant, since it was the Soviet Union that took the strongest blow from the fascist core of all of Europe, fighting alone against Germany and its allies from 1941 to 1944.
The United States, on the other hand, participated in the war in the European theater of operations for less than a year - from June 1944 to May 1945. After the war, the United States became a creditor to the Western European states, effectively formalizing their economic dependence on America. The Yankees proposed the Marshall Plan to Western Europe, an economic aid program that 16 states had signed by 1948. For 4 years, the United States had to transfer 17 billion to Europe. dollars.
Less than a year after the victory over fascism, the British and Americans began to look anxiously at the East and look for some kind of threat there. Already in the spring of 1946, Winston Churchill delivers his famous Fullton speech, which is usually associated with the beginning of the Cold War. Active anti-communist rhetoric begins in the West. By the end of the 1940s, all communists were removed from the governments of Western European states. This was one of the conditions under which the United States provided financial assistance to European countries.
The USSR was not included in the financial aid program for obvious reasons - it was already seen as an enemy. The countries of Eastern Europe, which were under the control of the communists, fearing the growth of US influence and economic dependence, also did not accept the Marshall Plan. Thus, the USSR and its allies were forced to restore the destroyed economy solely on their own, and this was done much faster than expected in the West. The USSR not only quickly restored infrastructure, industry and destroyed cities, but also quickly eliminated the US nuclear monopoly by creating nuclear weapons, thereby depriving the Americans of the opportunity to strike with impunity.
Creation of military-political blocs of NATO and the Warsaw Pact
In the spring of 1949, the United States initiated the creation of a NATO military bloc (Organization of the North Atlantic Alliance), citing the need to "fight the Soviet threat." The union initially included the Netherlands, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Great Britain, Iceland, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark, as well as the USA and Canada. American military bases began to appear in Europe, the number of armed forces of European armies began to increase, and the number of military equipment and combat aircraft increased.
The USSR reacted in 1955 with the creation of the Warsaw Treaty Organization (OVD), in the same way creating the unified armed forces of the Eastern European states, as they did in the West. The ATS included Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, Poland, Romania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia. In response to the buildup of military forces by the Western military bloc, the strengthening of the armies of the socialist states also began.
Symbols of NATO and the Warsaw Pact
Local military conflicts
Two military-political blocs launched a large-scale confrontation with each other all over the planet. A direct military clash was feared on both sides, since its outcome was unpredictable. However, there was a constant struggle in various parts of the globe for spheres of influence and control over non-aligned countries. Here are just a few of the most striking examples of military conflicts in which the USSR and the USA indirectly or directly participated.
1. Korean War (1950-1953)
After World War II, Korea was divided into two states - in the South, pro-American forces were in power, and in the north, the DPRK (People's Democratic Republic of Korea) was formed, in which the Communists were in power. In 1950, a war broke out between the two Koreas - “socialist” and “capitalist”, in which, of course, the USSR supported North Korea, and the United States supported South Korea. Soviet pilots and military specialists, as well as detachments of Chinese "volunteers", unofficially fought on the side of the DPRK. The United States provided direct military assistance to South Korea, intervening openly in the conflict, which ended with the signing of peace and the preservation of the status quo in 1953.
2. Vietnam War (1957-1975)
In fact, the scenario of the beginning of the confrontation was the same - Vietnam after 1954 was divided into two parts. In North Vietnam, the Communists were in power, and in South Vietnam, political forces oriented towards the United States. Each side sought to unify Vietnam. Since 1965, the United States has provided open military assistance to the South Vietnamese regime. Regular American troops, along with the army of South Vietnam, participated in hostilities against North Vietnamese troops. Covert assistance to North Vietnam with weapons, equipment and military specialists was provided by the USSR and China. The war ended with the victory of the North Vietnamese communists in 1975.
3. Arab-Israeli wars
In a whole series of wars in the Middle East between the Arab states and Israel, the Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc supported the Arabs, and the US and NATO supported the Israelis. Soviet military specialists trained the troops of the Arab states, which were armed with tanks and planes that came from the USSR, and the soldiers of the Arab armies used Soviet equipment and equipment. The Israelis used American military equipment and followed the instructions of US advisers.
4. Afghan war (1979-1989)
The USSR sent troops to Afghanistan in 1979 to support political regime oriented towards Moscow. Large formations of the Afghan Mujahideen fought against the Soviet troops and the government army of Afghanistan, who enjoyed the support of the United States and NATO, and accordingly armed themselves with them. Soviet troops left Afghanistan in 1989, the war continued after their departure.
All of the above is only a small part of the military conflicts in which the superpowers participated, covertly or almost overtly fighting each other in local wars.
1 - American soldiers in position during the Korean War
2-Soviet tank in the service of the Syrian army
3-American helicopter in the sky over Vietnam
4-Column of Soviet troops in Afghanistan
Why did the USSR and the USA never enter into a direct military conflict?
As mentioned above, the outcome of the military conflict between the two large military blocs was completely unpredictable, but the main deterrent was the presence of nuclear missile weapons in huge quantities both in the United States and in the Soviet Union. Over the years of confrontation, the parties have accumulated such a number of nuclear charges that would be enough to repeatedly destroy all life on Earth.
Thus, a direct military conflict between the USSR and the USA would inevitably mean an exchange of nuclear missile strikes, during which there would be no winners - everyone would be losers, and the very possibility of life on the planet would be called into question. Nobody wanted such an outcome, so the parties did their best to avoid an open military clash with each other, but nevertheless periodically tried each other's strength in local conflicts, helping any state covertly or directly participating in hostilities.
So, with the beginning of the nuclear age local conflicts and information wars have become almost the only ways to expand their influence and control over other states. This situation persists to this day. The possibilities of the collapse and liquidation of such major geopolitical players as modern China and Russia lie only in the sphere of attempts to undermine the state from within by means of information wars, the purpose of which is a coup d'etat with subsequent destructive actions of puppet governments. There are constant attempts on the part of the West to find weaknesses in Russia and other uncontrolled states, to provoke ethnic, religious, political conflicts, etc.
End of the Cold War
In 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed. There was only one superpower left on planet Earth - the United States, which tried to rebuild the whole world on the basis of American liberal values. Within the framework of globalization, an attempt is being made to impose on all mankind a certain universal model of social structure along the lines of the United States and Western Europe. However, this has not yet been possible. There is active resistance in all parts of the globe against the imposition of American values, which are unacceptable to many peoples. The story goes on, the struggle continues ... Think about the future and the past, try to understand and comprehend the world around, develop and do not stand still. Passive waiting and burning through life is essentially a regression in your development. As the Russian philosopher V. Belinsky said - who does not go forward, he goes back, there is no standing position ...
Best regards, mind-point administration
Supported by various allies from all sides. This confrontation continued for almost fifty years (from 1946 to 1991).
The Cold War was not a military battle in the truest sense. The basis for the disputes was the ideology of the two most powerful states on the planet at that time. Scientists characterize this confrontation as a very deep contradiction between the socialist and capitalist systems. It is symbolic that the Cold War began immediately after the end of World War II, as a result of which both countries remained victorious. And since devastation prevailed in the world at that time, ideal conditions were created for planting many territories by their people. But, unfortunately, the United States and the USSR at that time disagreed in their opinions, so each side wanted to get ahead of the rival and make sure that on a vast territory where people did not know what to believe in and how to live, as soon as possible to implant their ideology. As a result, the people of the losing states will trust the victorious country and enrich it at the expense of their human and natural resources.
This confrontation is divided into stages of the Cold War, among which are the following:
Beginning (1946-1953). This stage can be characterized as attempts by the USSR and the USA to hold the first events in Europe that would be aimed at imposing their ideology. As a result, since 1948, the possibility of starting a new war has hung over the world, so both states began to rapidly prepare for new battles.
On the verge (1953-1962). During this period, relations between the opponents improved slightly and they even began to make friendly visits to each other. But at this time, the European states, one by one, start revolutions in order to independently lead their country. The USSR, in order to eliminate the indignation, actively began the bombing of the outbreak of conflicts. The United States could not allow such liberties to the enemy and began to set up their air defense system themselves. As a result, the relationship deteriorated again.
Stage of detente (1962-1979). During this period, more conservative rulers came to power in the warring countries, who were not particularly willing to conduct an active confrontation, which could well lead to war.
A new round of confrontation (1979-1987). The next stage began after the Soviet Union sent troops to Afghanistan and several times shot down foreign civilian aircraft that flew over the state. These aggressive actions provoked the United States to deploy its forces on the territory of several European countries, which naturally pissed off the USSR.
Gorbachev's coming to power and the end of the confrontation (1987-1991). The new one did not want to continue the struggle for ideology in other European countries. Moreover, his policy was aimed at eliminating the communist government, which was the ancestor of political and economic repressions towards the United States.
The end of the Cold War was marked by the fact that the Soviet Union made great concessions and did not particularly claim power in Europe, especially since the defeated countries had already moved away from devastation and began independent development. The USSR began to experience a deep crisis, which led to the final one in December 1991. Thus, the Cold War did not bring a positive result to our state, but became one of the elements that led to the collapse of a great state.
