Sensation - general concepts. Sensation is a reflection of the individual properties of objects that directly affect our senses

5.1. PHYSIOLOGICAL BASES OF SENSATIONS

Sensation   - the simplest mental process, consisting in the reflection of the individual properties of objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the corresponding receptors.

Receptors   - These are sensitive nerve formations that perceive the impact of the external or internal environment and encode it in the form of a set of electrical signals. The latter then enter the brain, which decrypts them. This process is accompanied by the emergence of the simplest mental phenomena - sensations. The psychophysics of sensations is shown in Fig. 5.1.

Fig. 5.1. Psychophysical mechanism of sensation formation

Some of the human receptors are combined into more complex formations - sensory organs.

A person has an organ of vision - an eye, an organ of hearing - an ear, an organ of balance - a vestibular apparatus, an organ of smell - a nose, an organ of taste - a tongue. At the same time, some receptors do not combine into one organ, but are scattered across the surface of the whole body. These are receptors for temperature, pain and tactile sensitivity. 2

  Tactile sensitivity is provided by touch and pressure receptors.

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A large number of receptors are located inside the body: receptors for pressure, chemical sensation, etc. For example, receptors that are sensitive to blood glucose provide a feeling of hunger. Receptors and sensory organs are the only channels through which the brain can receive information for further processing.

“We constantly feel new worlds, our body and mind constantly capture external and internal changes. Our very life depends on how successfully we feel the world in which we are moving, and how accurately these sensations guide our movements. With the help of sensations, we avoid threatening irritants - the extreme heat, appearance, sound or smell of a predator - and strive for comfort and well-being. ” 3

  Bloom F, Leiserson A., Hofstedter L. Brain, mind, behavior. - M.: Mir, 1998 .-- S. 138.

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All receptors can be divided into distantwhich can perceive irritation at a distance (visual, auditory, olfactory), and contact(taste, tactile, pain), which can perceive irritation in direct contact with them.

The density of the flow of information coming through the receptors has its optimal boundaries. When this flow is amplified, information overload(for example, at air traffic controllers, exchange brokers, heads of large enterprises), and with its decrease - sensory isolation(for example, for submariners and astronauts).

^ 5.2. ANALYZER - MATERIAL BASIS OF SENSATIONS

Sensations are the product of activity analyzersperson. An analyzer is an interconnected complex of nerve formations that receives signals, transforms them, sets up the receptor apparatus, transfers information to nerve centers, processes it and decrypts it. I.P. Pavlov believed that the analyzer consists of three elements: sensory organand cortical department.According to modern concepts, the analyzer includes at least five departments:

1) receptor;

2) conductor;

3) tuner;

4) filtration unit;

5) analysis unit.

Since the conductor section, in essence, is just an “electric cable” that conducts electrical impulses, the four departments of the analyzer play the most important role (Fig. 5.2). The feedback system allows you to make adjustments to the work of the receptor department when changing external conditions (for example, fine-tuning the analyzer with different strengths).

Fig. 5.2. Analyzer structure diagram

If we take the human visual analyzer as an example, through which most of the information comes, then these five departments are represented by specific nerve centers (Table 5.1).

Table 5.1. Structural and functional characteristics of the constituent elements of a visual analyzer

In addition to the visual analyzer, with the help of which a person receives a significant share of information about the world around him, other analyzers that perceive chemical, mechanical, temperature and other changes in the external and internal environment are also important for drawing up a holistic picture of the world (Fig. 5.3).

Fig. 5.3. Basic human analyzers

In this case, contact and distant effects are analyzed by various analyzers. So, a person has a distant chemical analyzer (olfactory) and contact (taste), a distant mechanical analyzer (auditory) and contact (tactile).

^ 5.2.1. The structure of the auditory analyzer

The human auditory analyzer is located in the thickness of the temporal bone and actually includes two analyzers: the auditory and vestibular. Both of them work on the same principle (they register fluid vibrations in the membranous canals with the help of sensitive hair cells), but they allow obtaining different types of information.

One is about air vibrations, and the second is about the movement of one's own body in space (Fig. 5.4).

Fig. 5.4. The structure diagram of the inner ear - the main department of the receptor part of the auditory analyzer

The work of the auditory analyzer itself is a good illustration of the phenomenon of the transition of physical phenomena to mental ones through the stage of physiological processes (Fig. 5.5).

Fig. 5.5. The scheme of occurrence of auditory sensations

At the input of the auditory analyzer, we have a purely physical fact - air fluctuations of a certain frequency, then we can register a physiological process in the cells of the corti organ (the occurrence of the receptor potential and the formation of the action potential), and finally, mental phenomena such as sound appear at the level of the temporal cortex Feel.

^ 5.3. THRESHOLD OF SENSATIONS

In psychology, there are several concepts of the threshold of sensitivity (Fig. 5.6).

Fig. 5.6. Thresholds of sensations

Lower absolute sensitivity thresholddefined as the smallest stimulus that can cause sensation.

Human receptors are very sensitive to an adequate stimulus. So, for example, the lower visual threshold is only 2–4 light quanta, and the olfactory threshold is equal to 6 odorous molecules.

Irritants with a power less than threshold do not cause sensations. They're called subliminaland are not realized, however, they can penetrate the subconscious, determining the behavior of a person, as well as forming the basis of his dreams, intuition, unconscious drives.Psychological studies show that a person’s subconscious mind can respond to very weak or very short stimuli that are not perceived by the consciousness.

^ Upper Absolute Sensitivity Threshold changes the very nature of the sensations (most often - on pain). For example, with a gradual increase in water temperature, a person begins to perceive not heat, but already pain. The same thing happens with a strong sound or pressure on the skin.

^ Relative threshold (threshold of discrimination) is called the minimum change in the intensity of the stimulus, causing changes in sensations. According to the Bouguer-Weber law, the relative threshold of sensations is constant when measured as a percentage of the initial value of irritation.

^ Bouguer-Weber Law : “The threshold of discrimination for each analyzer has a constant relative value: DI / I   \u003d const, where I   - the strength of the stimulus. "

Weber's constants for different senses are: 2% for the visual analyzer, 10% for the auditory (in intensity) and 20% for the taste analyzer. This means that a person can notice a change in illumination of the order of 2%, while a change in auditory sensations requires a change in sound power by 10%.

The Weber – Fechner law determines how the intensity of sensations changes when the intensity of irritation changes. He shows that this dependence is not linear, but logarithmic.

^ Weber-Fechner Law: “The intensity of sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the force of irritation: S \u003d KlogI + C, where S is the intensity of sensation; I is the strength of the stimulus; Kand C   Are constants. ”

^ 5.4. CLASSIFICATION OF SENSATIONS

Depending on the source of stimuli acting on the receptors, sensations are divided into three groups. Each of these groups, in turn, consists of various specific sensations (Fig. 5.7).

1. ^ Exteroreceptive sensations reflect the properties of objects and phenomena of the external environment ("five senses"). These include visual, auditory, taste, temperature and tactile sensations. In fact, the receptors that provide these sensations are more than five, 4

  Touch, pressure, cold, heat, pain, sound, smell, taste (sweet, salty, bitter and sour), black-and-white and color images, rectilinear and rotational movements, etc.

[Close]   and the so-called “sixth sense” has nothing to do with it.

Fig. 5.7. Varieties of human sensations

For example, visual sensations occur when excited wand(“Twilight, black and white vision”) and cones("Daytime, color vision").

Thermal sensations in a person arise with separate excitation receptors of cold and heat.Tactile sensations reflect the effect on the surface of the body, and they occur when excited or sensitive receptor touchin the upper layer of the skin, or with a stronger effect on pressure receptorsin the deeper layers of the skin.

2. Interoreceptivesensations reflect the state of internal organs. These include sensations of pain, hunger, thirst, nausea, suffocation, etc. Pain sensations signal damage and irritation to human organs, are a kind of manifestation of the protective functions of the body. The intensity of pain is different, reaching in some cases a lot of power, which can even lead to a shock condition.

^ 3. Proprioceptive sensations (musculoskeletal). These are sensations that reflect the position and movements of our body. With the help of musculoskeletal sensations, a person receives information about the position of the body in space, about the relative position of all its parts, about the movement of the body and its parts, about the contraction, stretching and relaxation of muscles, the condition of joints and ligaments, etc. Muscular-motor sensations are complex. Simultaneous irritation of receptors of different quality gives a sensation peculiar in quality:

♦ irritation of the receptor endings in the muscles create a feeling of muscle tone during movement;

♦ sensations of muscle tension and effort are associated with irritation of the nerve endings of the tendons;

♦ irritation of receptors of articular surfaces gives a sense of direction, shape and speed of movement.

^ 5.5. PROPERTIES OF SENSATIONS

Sensations have certain properties:

♦ adaptation;

♦ contrast;

♦ thresholds of sensations;

♦ sensitization;

♦ sequential images.

Manifestations of these properties are described in table. 5.2.

Table 5.2. Sensation Properties

^ CHAPTER 6. PERCEPTION

6.1. GENERAL PERCEPTION OF PERCEPTION

6.1.1. Perception and sensations

If, as a result of a sensation, a person gains knowledge about individual properties, qualities of an object (cold, rough, green), then perception gives a holistic image of the object.

To illustrate the fundamental difference between the process of perception and sensation, we can recall the parable of three blind people who walked around the zoo and one by one approached the aviary with an elephant. When they later asked what the elephant was, one said that it looked like a thick rope, the other said that the elephant resembled a leaf of burdock: it is flat and rough, and the third said that the elephant resembles a tall and powerful column. Such a variety of descriptions of the same animal consisted in the fact that one blind man took an elephant by the tail, another touched his ear, and the third hugged his leg. Accordingly, they received different sensations, and none of them was able to build a holistic perception of the object.

Perception - a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena in the aggregate of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses.

Perception is always a combination of sensations, and sensation is an integral part of perception. However, perception is not a simple sum of sensations received from one or another object, but a qualitatively and quantitatively new level of sensory cognition (Fig. 6.1).

^ The physiological basis of perception is the coordinated activity of several analyzers, proceeding with the participation of associative departments of the cerebral cortex and speech centers.

In the process of perception are formed perceptual imageswith which subsequently operate attention, memory and thinking. An image is a subjective form of an object; he is a product of the inner world of a given person.

Fig. 6.1. The scheme of formation of mental images in perception

For example, the perception of an apple consists of the visual sensation of a green circle, the tactile sensation of a smooth, hard and cool surface and the olfactory sensation of a characteristic apple smell.

Adding together, these three sensations give us the opportunity to perceive the whole object - an apple.

Perception should be distinguished from submissionsthat is, the mental creation of images of objects and phenomena that once influenced the body, but are currently absent.

In the process of image formation they are affected attitudes, interests, needsand motives of personality.So, the image that appears when the same dog is seen will be different for a casual passerby, an amateur dog breeder and a person who has recently been bitten by a dog. Their perceptions will vary in completeness and emotionality. A huge role in perception is played by a person’s desire to perceive a particular object, the activity of his perception.

^ 6.1.2. Perceptual Image Properties

The main properties of perceptual images include objectivity, integrity, and constancy.

Subjectivityit is understood as reproducibility in the perceptive image of its properties as properties of the object itself (the image of a stone, as it were, reproduces in a person’s consciousness its severity, hardness, smoothness, etc.).

Property integritya perceptual image is found in a number of phenomena. For example, when the incompleteness, loss or distortion of any parts of the image of an object does not interfere with its recognition, or when we group disparate details so that they form a meaningful whole.

Constancyof perception is the relative constancy of the properties of perceived objects and situations with a significant change in the conditions of perception in such a way that a change in its background characteristics does not affect the characteristics of the sign of the perceived figure. One of the researchers who analyzed the problem of constancy was G. Helmholtz. From his point of view, the constancy of perception is the result of unconscious inferences. So, he explained the facts of constancy of color perception by the fact that, seeing the same objects in different lighting conditions, we form an idea of \u200b\u200bhow this object will look in white light.

When studying the phenomena of perception rises the problem of congenital and acquired components in perception.Studies show that some aspects of perception are innate (perception of movement and some aspects of perception of space). The innate ability to perceive space ensures the constancy of perceived objects regardless of their movements in space, changes in lighting and movements of a person.

At the same time, perception is significantly dependent on feedback and can be modified in accordance with individual experience, learning and social factors (culture, education, etc.). For example, in an experiment with a device simulating a steep cliff, it was shown that the perception of space, in particular the “fear of heights,” is not an inborn feeling. Infants began to perceive a sharp drop in heights only a week after they began to crawl. 5

  Bloom F., Leiserson A., Hofstedter L. Brain, mind, behavior. - M.: Mir, 1998 .-- S. 138.

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In other experiments, people were allowed to wear special glasses that turned the image upside down. It turns out that after a few days the brain corrected this defect and turned the image over again, so that over time, the person began to see the world around him in a normal, not inverted form.

All this shows that human perception is a complex synthesis of congenital and acquired psychophysiological mechanisms.

^ 6.2. TYPES OF PERCEPTION

There are three main classifications of processes of perception: according to the form of existence of matter, according to the leading modality, and according to the degree of volitional control.

According to the first classification, there are three types of perception (Fig. 6.2).

Fig. 6.2. Types of perception in the form of the existence of matter

Space perceptionincludes reflection of the distance to or between objects, their relative position, volume, remoteness and the direction in which they are located. The main features of the perception of space by man are displayed in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1. Space perception

In human practice, there are also errors in the perception of space - illusions. Visual illusions are discussed in more detail in section 6.4 of this book. An example of visual illusion is the reassessment of vertical lines (of two lines of the same size, vertical is always visually perceived as large compared to horizontal - Fig. 6.3).

Fig. 6.3. Wundt's Vertical-Horizontal Illusion

Motion perception   - this is a reflection in time of changes in the position of objects or the observer in space (table. 6.2).

Table 6.2. Motion perception

In this case, the brain captures a number of motion parameters: the direction of motion, its speed, acceleration, shape and amplitude. The joint-muscular and vestibular human analyzer is involved in this type of perception. With the help of the latter, a person determines the magnitude of the acceleration and the intensity of rotation or turns. For this, the temporal bone has a system of three semicircular canals located in three mutually perpendicular planes, and two sacs (round and oval), which respond to any movement of the head.

^ Perception of time   - The least studied area of \u200b\u200bpsychology. So far, it is only known that the estimation of the duration of a time period depends on what events (from the point of view of a particular person) it was filled with. If time was filled with many interesting events, then subjectively it passes quickly, and if there were few significant events, then time drags on “slowly”. When remembering, the opposite phenomenon takes place - a period of time filled with interesting things seems to us longer than an “empty” one. The material basis for the perception of time by a person is the so-called "cellular clock" - a fixed duration of some biological processes at the levels of individual cells, according to which the body checks the duration of large periods of time. The concept of “perception of time” includes such types of perception as perception of the duration of phenomena, perception of a sequence of phenomena, as well as perception of tempo and rhythm.

The second classification of perception (according to the leading modality) includes visual, auditory, taste, olfactory, tactile perception, as well as the perception of one’s body in space (Fig. 6.4).

In accordance with this classification in neurolinguistic programming (one of the areas of modern psychology) it is customary to divide all people into visuals, audialsand kinesthetics.In visuals, the visual type of perception prevails, in audiences - auditory, and in kinesthetics - tactile, taste and temperature.

According to the degree of volitional control, perceptions are divided into intentional and unintentional (Fig. 6.5).

Fig. 6.4. Perceptions by leading modality

Fig. 6.5. Types of perception according to the degree of volitional control

^ 6.3. PROPERTIES AND LAWS OF PERCEPTION

6.3.1. Perceptual properties

Human perceptions differ from sensations in a number of specific properties. The main properties of perception are:

♦ constancy;

♦ integrity;

♦ selectivity;

♦ objectivity;

♦ apperception;

♦ meaningfulness.

Manifestations of these properties are described in table. 6.3.

Table 6.3. Perceptual properties

^ 6.3.2. Effects (laws) of perception

The perception of objects and phenomena by a person differs from similar registration by technical devices. This is due to the individual characteristics of a person, the characteristics of his life experience, as well as the general principles of the brain. These principles have been studied by various scientists who have deduced a number of empirical laws (Table 6.4).

Table 6.4. Patterns of perception (according to M. Wertheimer)

It should be recognized that science so far cannot accurately explain the mechanisms of the brain responsible for these effects, therefore, the discovered patterns are phenomenological in nature.

^ 6.4. ILLUSIONS OF PERCEPTION

6.4.1. Variety of illusions

Illusions (perception errors) can occur in any analyzer. For example, for more than two thousand years, the kinesthetic “Aristotle illusion”, first discovered by the great scientist of antiquity, has been known. If you strongly cross the middle and index fingers of the right hand, and then touch them to your own nose so that its tip touches the pads of these fingers at the same time (eyes closed), a distinct illusion of doubling the nose will arise.

Illusions are due to various mechanisms of the visual analyzer or the functioning of the human psyche. Some errors occur at the level of the oculomotor apparatus, others are caused by psychological attitudes, others are associated with difficulties in accommodation at objects of different distances, the fourth are caused by the previous experience of the individual, etc. In this connection, several types of visual illusions are distinguished (Fig. 6.6). Their examples will be demonstrated below.

Fig. 6.6. Varieties of visual illusions

^ 6.4.2. Visual distortion

Parallel lines seem to be angled (Fig. 6.7).

Fig. 6.7. The Illusion of Zollner

On one straight line are the lines BC, not AC, as it seems (Fig. 6.8).

Fig. 6.8. The Illusion of Poggendorf

The square seems distorted (Fig. 6.9).

Fig. 6.9. The Illusion of W. Erenstein

^ 6.4.3. Size Illusions

Which circle is bigger? One that is surrounded by small circles, or one that is surrounded by large? They are the same (Fig. 6.10).

Fig. 6.10. The Illusion of Ebbinghaus

Which of the shapes is bigger? They are exactly the same (Fig. 6.11).

Fig. 6.11. Illusion of Yastrov

^ 6.4.4. The illusion of perspective

The parallelepipeds are equal (Fig. 6.12), although the “distant” figure seems to be larger in size, since we are used to the fact that objects should decrease when removing.

Fig. 6.12. Which of the parallelepipeds is bigger?

^ 6.4.5. The phenomenon of irradiation

The phenomenon of irradiation consists in the fact that light objects on a dark background seem more enlarged against their actual size and, as it were, capture a part of the dark background. When we examine a light surface against a dark background, due to the imperfection of the lens, the boundaries of this surface seem to be moved apart, and this surface seems to us larger than its true geometric dimensions. In fig. 6.13 due to the brightness of the colors, the white square seems large relative to the black square on a white background.

Fig. 6.13. Which inner square is bigger? Black or white?

Sensation - a reflection of specific, individual properties, qualities, sides of objects and phenomena of material reality, affecting the senses at the moment.
The physiological basis of sensations is the complex activity of the senses.
The anatomophysiological apparatus, specialized for receiving the effects of certain stimuli from the external and internal environment and processing them into sensations, is called an analyzer. Each analyzer consists of three parts:

1. Receptor - a sense organ that converts the energy of external influences into nerve signals. Each receptor is adapted to receive only certain types of exposure (light, sound), i.e. possesses specific excitability to certain physical and chemical agents.
2. Conducting nerve pathways - along them, nerve signals are transmitted to the brain.
3. The brain center in the cerebral cortex.

The sensations are objective, since they always reflect an external stimulus, and on the other hand, are subjective, since they depend on the state of the nervous system and individual characteristics.

The English physiologist I. Sherrington identified three main classes of sensations:
1. Exteroreceptive sensations reflect the properties of objects and environmental phenomena (“five senses”). These include visual, auditory, taste, temperature and tactile sensations. Receptors are on the surface of the body.
2. Interoreceptive sensations reflect the state of internal organs. They include a sensation of pain, hunger, thirst, nausea, suffocation, etc. Pain sensations signal damage and irritation of human organs, are a kind of manifestation of the protective functions of the body.
3. Proprioceptive sensations (musculoskeletal). These are sensations that reflect the position and movements of our body. With the help of musculoskeletal sensations, a person receives information about the position of the body in space, about the relative position of all its parts, about the movement of the body and its parts, about the contraction, stretching and relaxation of muscles, the condition of joints and ligaments, etc.
Group I - distant sensations:
1. Vision - electromagnetic waves, the reflection of light from objects.
2. Hearing - sound vibrations.
3. Smell - odorous particles, chemical analysis.
Group II - contact sensations:
4. Tactile - sensations of touch and pressure. Even a slight decrease in tactile sensitivity negatively affects the psyche. The most sensitive:
a) language
b) lips
c) fingertips.
5. Temperature - separate receptors for cold and heat. Body temperature is taken as 0.
6. Flavoring - receptors in the papillae of the tongue that respond to the chemical composition of food.
7. Vibration sensitivity - a response to low-frequency environmental fluctuations. The oldest sensitivity. The progenitor of hearing and tactile sensations. There are no special receptors, all body tissues are involved in the transmission of information.
8. Pain sensitivity - stands in the service of the instinct of self-preservation. People without pain sensitivity do not live up to 10 years.
Group III - sensations related to the body itself:
Sensations of events within the body.
9. Vestibular - determine how the body is placed in relation to gravity. We need to understand where the top, where the bottom. Receptors in the inner ear.
10. Muscular - kinesthetic, dynamic, musculoskeletal, proprioreception. Special sensors in all muscles, places of attachment of tendons and joints. React to tension and relaxation. Thanks to them, we can say with closed eyes what our body does. All types of skeletal movements are regulated by the psyche with the participation of muscle sensations.
11. Introceptive sensations - interoreception - the combined result of several types of sensors inside the body (chemoreceptors - chemical events inside the body, baroreceptors - respond to pressure changes, pain, etc.). Often they do not reach the psyche, to awareness. Managed by subcortical structures. What comes to consciousness (Sechenov): "dark gross sense of the body" - poorly recognized, undifferentiated. Events within the body affect external sensory sensitivities.

Sensation Properties:
1. Adaptation is the adaptation of sensitivity to constantly acting stimuli.
2. Contrast - a change in intensity and quality of sensations under the influence of a previous or concomitant stimulus.
3. Sensitization - increased sensitivity under the influence of the interaction of sensations and exercises.
4. Synaesthesia is manifested in the fact that sensations of one modality can be accompanied by sensations of another modality.
Not every stimulus affecting the receptor ends of one or another analyzer is capable of causing sensation. For this, it is necessary that the stimulus has a certain size or strength.
The lower absolute threshold of sensation is the minimum value, or force, of the stimulus at which it is able to cause enough nervous excitation in the analyzer to cause sensation.
The absolute sensitivity of one or another sensory organ is characterized by the value of the lower threshold of sensation. The smaller the value of this threshold, the higher the sensitivity of this analyzer. Most analyzers have very high sensitivity. For example, the absolute lower threshold of auditory sensation, measured in units of pressure of air sound waves on the eardrum, is equal to an average of 0.001 boron in a person. How great is this sensitivity can be judged by the fact that one boron is equal to one millionth of normal atmospheric pressure. The sensitivity of the visual analyzer is even higher. The absolute lower threshold for sensing light is 2.5-10 "" erg / s. With this sensitivity, the human eye can notice light at a distance of one kilometer, the intensity of which is only a few thousandths of a normal candle.
The upper absolute threshold of sensation corresponds to the maximum value of the stimulus, beyond which this stimulus ceases to be felt. So, the absolute upper threshold of audibility of tones in an average person is 20,000 vibrations of sound waves per second.

Closely related. And one and the other is the so-called sensual reflection of objective reality, existing independently of consciousness and due to its impact on the senses: this is their unity. But perception   - awareness of the sensory given object or phenomenon; in perception, we usually see the world of people, things, phenomena fulfilled for us of a certain meaning and involved in diverse relationships. These relationships create meaningful situations, of which we are witnesses and participants. Sensation   the same is a reflection of a separate sensory quality or undifferentiated and unremarked impressions of the environment. In this latter case, sensations and perceptions differ as two different forms or two different relations of consciousness to objective reality. Sensations and perceptions are thus one and different. They comprise: sensory-perceptual level of mental reflection. At the sensory-perceptive level, we are talking about those images that arise with the direct impact of objects and phenomena on the senses.

The concept of sensations

The main source of our knowledge about the outside world and about our own bodies are sensations. They constitute the main channels through which information about the phenomena of the external world and about the states of the body reaches the brain, giving a person the opportunity to navigate in the environment and in his body. If these channels were closed and the senses did not bring the necessary information, no conscious life would be possible. There are known facts that a person deprived of a constant source of information falls into a sleepy state. Such cases: take place when a person suddenly loses sight, hearing, smell and when his conscious sensations are limited by any pathological process. A result close to this is achieved when a person is placed for some time in a light and soundproof chamber that isolates him from external influences. This condition first causes sleep, and then becomes intolerable to the subjects.

Numerous observations have shown that a violation of the flow of information in early childhood, associated with deafness and blindness, causes sharp delays in mental development. If children born blindly deaf or deprived of hearing and vision at an early age are not taught special techniques that compensate for these defects through touch, their mental development will become impossible and they will not develop independently.

As will be described below, the high specialization of various sensory organs is based not only on the structural features of the peripheral part of the analyzer - “receptors”, but also on the highest specialization of neurons that are part of the central nervous apparatus, to which signals perceived by the peripheral senses reach.

The reflex nature of sensations

So, sensations are the initial source of all our knowledge of the world. The objects and phenomena of reality that affect our senses are called stimuli, and the effects of stimuli on the senses are called annoyance. Irritation, in turn, causes excitation in the nervous tissue. A sensation arises as a reaction of the nervous system to a particular stimulus and, like any psychic phenomenon, has a reflex character.

The physiological mechanism of sensation is the activity of special nerve devices called.

Each analyzer consists of three parts:

1. the peripheral department, called the receptor (the receptor is the receptive part of the analyzer, its main function is the transformation of external energy into the nervous process);
2. afferent or sensory nerves (centripetal), conducting excitation in the nerve centers (central section of the analyzer);
3. cortical sections of the analyzer, in which the processing of nerve impulses coming from the peripheral sections occurs.

The cortical part of each analyzer includes a region representing a projection of the periphery in the cerebral cortex, since certain sections of the cortical cells correspond to certain peripheral cells (receptors). For sensation to arise, the work of the entire analyzer as a whole is necessary. The analyzer is not a passive energy receiver. This is an organ that reflexively changes under the influence of stimuli.

Physiological studies show that sensation is not at all a passive process; it always includes motor components. Thus, observations with a microscope of a skin area, conducted by the American psychologist D. Neff, made it possible to verify that when irritated with a needle, the moment of sensation is accompanied by reflex motor reactions of this skin area. Subsequently, numerous studies have found that each sensation includes movement, sometimes in the form of a vegetative reaction (vasoconstriction, skin-galvanic reflex), sometimes in the form of muscle reactions (eye rotation, neck muscle tension, arm motor reactions, etc. .). Thus, sensations are not at all passive processes - they are active. The indication of the active nature of all these processes is the reflex theory of sensations.

Classification of sensations

It has long been customary to distinguish between five main types (modalities) of sensations: sense of smell, taste, touch, sight and hearing. This classification of sensations by basic modalities is correct, although not exhaustive. A.R. Luria believes that the classification of sensations can be carried out according to at least two basic principles - systematic   and genetic   (in other words, by the principle of modality, on the one hand, and by the principle of complexity or the level of their construction, on the other).

Systematic classification of sensations

Highlighting the largest and most significant groups of sensations, they can be divided into three main types; interoceptive, proprioceptive and exterocentive sensations. The former combine signals reaching us from the internal environment of the body; the second provide information on the position of the body in space and on the position of the musculoskeletal system, provide regulation of our movements; finally, others provide signals from the outside world and form the basis for our conscious behavior. Consider the main types of sensations separately.

Interoceptive sensations

Interoceptive sensations, signaling the state of internal processes of the body, bring to the brain irritation from the walls of the stomach and intestines, heart and circulatory system and other internal organs. This is the most ancient and most elementary group of sensations. Interoceptive sensations are among the least conscious and most diffuse forms of sensations and always maintain their proximity to emotional states.

Proprioceptive sensations

Proprioceptive sensations provide signals about the position of the body in space and constitute the afferent basis of human movements, playing a decisive role in their regulation. The peripheral receptors of proprioceptive sensitivity are located in the muscles and joints (tendons, ligaments) and have the form of special nerve cells (Pacchini bodies). The excitations arising in these bodies reflect the sensations that occur when the muscles are stretched and the joints change position. In modern physiology and psychophysiology, the role of proprioception as an afferent basis of movements in animals was studied in detail by A. A. Orbeli, P. K. Anokhin, and in humans by N. A. Bernshtein. The described group of sensations includes a specific type of sensitivity called a sense of balance, or static sensation. Their peripheral receptors are located in the semicircular canals of the inner ear.

Exteroreceotive sensations

The third and largest group of sensations are exteroreceotive sensations. They bring information to the person from the outside world and are the main group of sensations connecting the person with the environment. It is customary to conditionally divide the entire group of xxteroceptive sensations into two subgroups: contact and distant sensations.

Contact sensations are caused by exposure directly to the surface of the body and the corresponding perceived organ. Examples of contact sensation are taste and touch.

Distant sensations are caused by stimuli acting on the senses at a distance. Such sensations include the sense of smell and, especially, hearing and vision.

Genetic classification of sensations

Genetic classification allows us to distinguish two types of sensitivity:

1. protopathic   (more primitive, affective, less differentiated and localized), which include organic feelings (hunger; thirst, etc.);
2. epicritical   (more subtly differentiating, objective and rational), to which the main human senses are referred.

Epicritical sensitivity is younger genetically, and it controls protopathic sensitivity.

General properties of sensations

Different types of sensations are characterized not only by specificity, but also by properties common to them. These properties include: quality, intensity, duration and spatial localization.

Quality - this is the main feature of this sensation, distinguishing it from other types of sensations and varying within this type of sensations. The qualitative variety of sensations reflects the infinite variety of forms of motion of matter.

Intensity   sensation is its quantitative characteristic and is determined by the strength of the active stimulus and the functional state of the receptor.

Duration   sensation is its temporal characteristic. It is also determined by the functional state of the sensory organ, but mainly by the duration of the stimulus and its intensity.

When the stimulus acts on the sensory organ, sensation does not immediately arise, but after some time - the so-called latent (hidden) period of sensation. The latent period of various types of sensations varies: for example, for tactile sensations it is 130 ms; for pain - 370, and for taste - only 50 ms.

Just as a sensation does not occur simultaneously with the onset of the stimulus, it does not disappear simultaneously with the cessation of its action. The presence of positive sequential images explains why we do not notice breaks between successive frames of the movie: they are filled with traces of the frames that were in effect before - sequential images from them. The sequential image changes in time, the positive image is replaced by the negative. With colored light sources, the sequential image goes into an additional color.

Types of sensation

Sensations can be classified on various grounds. According to the leading modality (qualitative characteristic of sensations), the following sensations are distinguished: visual, auditory, olfactory, taste, tactile, motor, internal (sensations of the internal state of the body).

Visual sensations are a reflection of both achromatic (white, black and intermediate shades of gray between them), and chromatic (various shades of red, yellow, green, blue) colors. Visual sensations are caused by exposure to light, i.e. electromagnetic waves emitted (or reflected) by physical bodies to the visual analyzer. The external receptive "device" is the retina of the lining of the eye. Auditory sensations are a reflection of sounds of various heights (high - low), strength (loud - quiet) and various qualities (musical sounds, noises). They are caused by the action of sound waves created by vibrations of bodies. The olfactory sensations are a reflection of odors. The olfactory sensations arise due to the penetration of particles of odorous substances spreading in the air into the upper part of the nasopharynx, where they act on the peripheral ends of the olfactory analyzer embedded in the nasal mucosa. Taste sensations are a reflection of some chemical properties of flavors dissolved in water or saliva. Taste sensations play an important role in the nutrition process, in distinguishing between different types of food. Tactile sensations are a reflection of the mechanical properties of objects that are detected by touching them, rubbing against them, impact. These sensations also reflect the temperature of environmental objects and external pain. These sensations are called exteroceptive and constitute a single group by the type of analyzers located on or near the surface of the body. Exteroceptive sensations are divided into contact and disco. Contact sensations are caused by a direct touch to the surface of the body (taste, touch), distant sensations are caused by stimuli acting on the senses at a certain distance (vision, hearing). The olfactory sensations occupy an intermediate position between them.

The next group consists of sensations that reflect the movements and conditions of the body itself. They are called motor or proprioceptive. Motor sensations reflect the position of the limbs, their movement and the degree of effort applied. Without them, it is impossible to carry out movements normally and coordinate them. Sensations of position (balance) along with motor sensations play an important role in the process of perception (for example, stability) .; In addition, there is a group of organic sensations - internal (iteroceptive). These sensations reflect the internal state of the body. These include a feeling of hunger, thirst, nausea, internal pain, and others. By the time the sensation occurs, they are relevant and irrelevant. Different types of sensations are characterized not only by specificity, but also by properties common to them. Such properties include: quality - an essential feature of sensations, which allows to distinguish some types of sensations from others (for example, auditory from visual), as well as various variations of sensations within a given species (for example, by color, saturation); intensity - a quantitative characteristic of sensations , which is determined by the strength of the active stimulus and the functional state of the receptor; duration is a temporary characteristic of sensations. It is determined by the functional state of the sensory organs, the time of exposure to the stimulus, and its intensity. The quality of sensations of all kinds depends on the sensitivity of the analyzers of the corresponding type.

Psychophysical law

Fechner's law.

The relation E \u003d C1x ln (R / R1) is called the Fechner law or sometimes the Weber – Fechner law.

The absolute threshold of sensation is the smallest stimulus intensity sufficient to cause sensation;

the differential threshold of sensation is an increase in the intensity of the stimulus, sufficient to cause the subject to change the sensation.

Location: the audience

Duration:   2 hours

Lesson Objectives:

1. To acquaint with the basic concepts of the processes of sensation and perception.

2. To study the main types and properties of sensation and perception.

3. Show the differences in sensations and perceptions.

4. To analyze the clinical picture of sensations and perceptions.

The student must know:

1. Definitions of sensation and perception.
2. The origin of sensations.
3. Sensation Properties
4. Impaired sensation.

The student must be able to:

1. Investigate disturbances in the processes of sensation and perception in patients.
2. Determine the leading sensory system of a person using special techniques.

Topics of projects, abstracts:

1. The origin of sensations.
2. Types and classification of sensations.
3. Sensation Properties
4. The difference between perception and sensations.
5. Illusions of visual perception. Perception of space, time and movement.
6. The role of sensations in human life.
7. The mechanisms of perception of the shape of objects and their sizes, the perception of time.
8. Classification of perceptual disorders (agnosia, illusions, hallucinations and pseudo-hallucinations, psychosensory disorders).

Main literature:

1. Clinical Psychology / Ed. P.I. Sidorova A.V. Parnyakova. - GEOTAR-Media, 2008.

2. Clinical Psychology / Ed. B.D. Karvasara. Peter, 2002.

3. The basics of psychology. Workshop, Stolyarenko L.D. - Rostov / on D., 2006.

4. Psychology. (Lectures for students of medical universities), N. D. Tvorogova - Moscow GOU VUNMTS RF, 2002

Additional literature:

1. Psychosomatic medicine, F. Alexander. - M., 2000.
2. Introduction to the psychology of health, Ananyev V.A. - SPb., 1998.
3. Practical Pathopsychology: A Guide for Physicians and Medical Psychologists.
4. Bleicher V.M., Kruk I.V., Bokov S.N. - Rostov / on D., 1996.
5. Psychology in medicine, Abramova G.S., Yudchits Yu.A. - M .: Department- M, 1998.
6. Introduction to medical psychology. Lebedinsky M.S., Myasischev V.N. - L., 1996.
7. Basics of clinical and advisory psychology. Todd J., Bogard A.K. - St. Petersburg: Owl; M .: Eksmo-Press, 2001.
8. Psychological testing. Anastazi A. Per. with eng. - M., 1982.
9. Workshop on General, Experimental and Applied Psychology: Textbook. allowance. Krylov A.A., Manichev S.A. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000.
10. Fundamentals of General Psychology. Rubinstein S.L. - St. Petersburg, 1998.
11. Sidorov P.I., Parnyakov A.V. Clinical Psychology: a textbook. - 3rd ed., Revised. and add. - M.: GEOTAR-Media, 2008 .-- 880 p .: ill.
12. Clinical Psychology: Textbook / Ed. B.D. Karvasara. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002.
13. Mendelevich V.D. Clinical and medical psychology. - M.: MED-press, 1998.

Initial knowledge level control:

1. What do you mean by the terms “sensation” and “perception”?
2. What is the difference between sensation and perception?
3. What do you think is the role of these psychological processes in human life?
4. What factors can disturb these mental processes?

Key topics:

1. Definition of sensation and perception.
2. The origin of sensations.
3. Types of sensations and classification of sensations.
4. Sensation Properties
5. Measurement and change of sensations.
6. Impaired sensation.
7. The difference between perception and sensations.
8. The main properties of the images of perception: objectivity, consistency, integrity, categoricality.
9. Illusions of visual perception. Perception of space, time and movement.
10. The mechanisms of perception of the shape of objects and their sizes, the perception of time.
11. Disorders in the clinic.
12. Classification of perceptual disorders (agnosia, illusions, hallucinations and pseudo-hallucinations, psychosensory disorders).

Final control of the level of knowledge:

1. Define sensations and indicate which components of the nervous system are involved in the sensory information space?
2. List the main characteristics of the sensations?
3. List the main groups of sensory disturbances. What are the main mechanisms of their occurrence?
4. What are the main characteristics that distinguish perception from sensations?
5. How does the study of various illusions determine the understanding of perception mechanisms?
6. List the main groups of perceptual disorders. What are the main mechanisms of their occurrence?
7. How is the processing of visual information performed by a person and what are the mechanisms of occurrence of visual agnosia?
8. How are sound stimuli translated into sensory signals and what are the mechanisms of occurrence of auditory agnosia?
9. What is skin-kinesthetic sensitivity and what are the mechanisms of tactile agnosia?
10. How is a person’s charming, gustatory and static sensitivity examined?

Feel

Sensations and perceptions, which are sensory images, constitute the initial, initial moment in the process of a person's knowledge of the world. Sensations and perceptions arise only with the direct action of stimuli on the senses. The primary link in cognition is precisely sensation.

Sensations are of great importance in human life, since, firstly, they provide a connection with the outside world, are a constant source of knowledge about the environment.

Secondly, sensations are associated with the internal environment of the body, due to interoreception, the normal state of the body is maintained. And, finally, sensations are associated with the needs of the body and, therefore, perform a regulatory function.

Sensation- This is the simplest mental process, consisting in the reflection of individual properties, objects and phenomena of the external world, as well as the internal conditions of the body with the direct action of stimuli on the corresponding receptors. The physiological mechanism of sensations is the analyzer mechanism, and feedback is of great importance.

Sensation   - this is the mental process of reflecting the individual properties of objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the senses. Since the time of Aristotle, five types of sensations have traditionally been distinguished, informing a person about changes in the environment. This is touch, taste, smell, hearing and sight.

Different types of sensations are characterized not only by specificity, but also by properties common to all of them. These properties include quality, intensity, duration and spatial localization.

Quality - this is the main feature of this sensation, distinguishing it from other types of sensations and varying within this type of sensations (one modality). Auditory sensations, for example, differ in height, timbre, volume, and visual - in saturation, color tone.

Intensity   sensation is its quantitative characteristic and is determined both by the strength of the stimulus and the functional state of the receptor.

Sensation duration   it is also determined by the effect of the aftereffect, which consists in the fact that the sensation does not stop at the moment the stimulus ends, but continues for some time, which manifests itself in the appearance of a consistent image. The duration of inertia of sensation varies from 0.05 to 1 second.

Spatial localization   sensations gives a person information about the localization of the stimulus in space, if we are talking about distant receptors (visual, auditory, etc.), or correlates sensation with the part of the body that is affected by the stimulus in the case of contact receptors (tactile).

Studies show that these characteristics are not constant. Under the influence of a number of factors, the sensitivity changes.

Basic properties:

1.   Modality - the main feature of this type of sensation that distinguishes it from other types. In the course of evolution in humans, the main eleven types of sensations were formed that provide a holistic reflection of the world and optimal adaptation - these are visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile, temperature, motor, or kinesthetic, vestibular, or equilibria, vibrational, painful, organic, or interoceptive . In each modality, various qualities are reflected, for example, in the visual, such qualities as brightness, contrast, etc. are represented, in the auditory one, pitch, timbre, sound volume. The ratio of modality and quality of the main types of sensations is presented in table. one.

Table 1

Correlation of modality and quality of sensations (Bloom, Leiserson, Hofstedter)

Modality	Sensitive organ	Quality	Receptors
	Retina	Brightness, contrast, movement, size, color	Sticks and cones
		Pitch, Tone, Volume	Hair cells
Equilibrium	Vestibular organ	Gravity Rotation	Macular cells Vestibular cells
Touch		Pressure Vibration	Ruffini endings Merkel wheels Taurus Pacini
		Sweet and sour taste Bitter and salty taste	Taste papillae on the tip of the tongue Taste papillae at the base of the tongue
Sense of smell	Olfactory nerves	Flower smell Fruit smell Musky smell Pungent smell	Olfactory receptors

2.   Intensity   sensations depends on the strength of the acting stimulus, on the functional state of the analyzer, as well as on the individual characteristics of a person. The main characteristic of the analyzer is its sensitivity. It is determined by two quantities. The first of them is that segment of the continuum of stimuli, the impact of which causes a feeling of this modality. In order for a sensation to arise, the intensity of the stimulus must reach a certain value. In the future, with an increase in the intensity of the stimulus, there comes a time when the analyzer ceases to work adequately. Any impact that exceeds a certain limit causes pain and disrupts the activity of the analyzer. The interval from the minimum to the maximum adequately perceived value determines the sensitivity range of the analyzer.

The main characteristics of sensations

Sensitivity range. An irritant can cause sensation only when a certain amount or strength is reached.

The minimum amount of stimulus, causing a subtle sensation, called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity (i0). The lower threshold is used to judge the absolute sensitivity of the analyzer. Lower (i0), the higher the sensitivity of the analyzer to the stimulus.

The lower absolute threshold determines the resolution of the sensory organs, in humans it is relatively large. For the eye, 2-8 quanta of radiant energy are enough to cause a visual sensation, and if the auditory threshold is slightly reduced, then a person could hear the rustling made by the molecules during the Brownian motion.

Less irritating irritants are called subliminal   and signals about them are not transmitted to the cerebral cortex.

The transition from the subthreshold sensation is carried out stepwise: if the effect has almost reached the threshold value, then a barely noticeable increase in its strength is enough to immediately turn the stimulus into a sensible one. Subthreshold sensations are not indifferent to the body. This is confirmed by numerous facts, when it is weak subthreshold stimuli. coming from the external or internal environment, create a dominant focus in the cerebral cortex and contribute to the emergence of “deceptions of feelings” of hallucinations.

The upper absolute threshold of sensation (i   max) is the maximum value of the stimulus that the analyzer is able to adequately perceive. Impacts in excess (i   max) cease to be felt or cause pain (i max) - significantly more variable in different people and at different ages. Interval between (i0) and (i   max) - carries the name - sensitivity range.

Time threshold   measured by the duration of exposure needed to create a sensation. The spatial threshold is determined by the minimum size of the position in the sensory field and the area affected by the stimulus of a barely perceptible stimulus, its distance from the receptor. The most elementary example of the spatial threshold is visual acuity. It is determined by the minimum distance between two points at which a minimal sense of their separation is possible. Usually for normal visual acuity is taken one whose threshold is equal to 1 angle. min

Sensation duration determined by the duration of the stimulus and its intensity. The sensation does not occur immediately, but after some time, after the onset of the stimulus. The period from the onset of the stimulus to the sensation is called latent period. The latent periods of a simple sensorimotor reaction upon presentation of stimuli of different modality are different and are presented in table. 2.

table 2

The latent period of a simple sensorimotor reaction (according to Lomov)

Analyzer and signal quality	Latent period (in milliseconds) *
Tactile (touch)
Auditory (sound)
Visual (light)
Olfactory (smell)
Temperature (heat and cold)
Flavoring: Salty Sweet Bitter
Vestibular apparatus (rotation of the subject)

* Note: the smallest and largest values \u200b\u200bof the average values \u200b\u200bobtained by different authors are indicated.

One of the phenomena of sensitivity change is adaptation.

Adaptation sensory organs is called a change in the sensitivity of the analyzer under the influence of an active stimulus. Adaptation may be accompanied by an increase in sensitivity or its decrease until complete disappearance. The most significant amount of adaptation is in the visual analyzer. The sensitivity of the eye can change about 2 to 10 times. The adaptation time is about 30-40 minutes, the adaptation time to light is about 10 minutes. Different analyzers have different adaptive capabilities. Adaptation most quickly occurs in tactile, olfactory analyzers. Most slowly - in the visual. There is practically no adaptation of a person to pain, which is of great biological importance, since pain is a signal of ill-being in the body.

Classification of sensations

Over the past century, attempts have repeatedly been made to classify, streamline the whole variety of sensations. The most common is currently sherrington classification   which is based on the “principle of assignment of the receptor organ to the receptor field”, that is, the location of the receptor and the location of the source of irritation are taken into account. In accordance with this, all sensations are divided into 3 groups.

Exteroreceptors - environmental receptors. The activity of these receptors is aimed at recognizing the effects of the external world, which is of paramount importance for reflecting objective reality in the human mind. This group includes vision, hearing, smell, taste, tactile, temperature, pain.

Proprioreceptors,   include sensory organs, reflecting the movement and position of the body in space, muscular-articular, or kinesthetic, vibrational, vestibular (sensations of balance and acceleration).

Interoreceptors - located in the internal organs. By the nature of stimulation, all receptors of internal organs, regardless of their location, are divided into several types: chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors, pain receptors, and mechanoreceptors, reflecting changes in pressure in the internal organs and bloodstream.

Thus, the three main types of sensations are combined depending on what they reflect: the external world, the position and movement of the body in this external world, or the activity of internal organs. Of course, this classification is relative, since many of the types of sensations are represented by receptors that are present both on the surface of the body and in the internal environment of the body, such as temperature, tactile. In addition, the nature of the sensitivity of almost all senses is significantly affected by the internal state of the body.

An example of analyzer interaction is coesthesia, synesthesia.

Sommestesia   - a comprehensive education that combines all types of skin receptions, kinesthesia, interoreception and visual sensations and forms body outline. The mechanisms of the formation of the body scheme have not been studied enough yet, but it is the body scheme that is the “sensory source of personality” as Sechenov put it. In the study of such a psychological phenomenon as the I-person and in determining its structure, the primary level — the core of the “I” - refers to the feeling of the existence of the body, including a complex of sensations and emotions. Thus, the connection between the sensory sphere and the subjective side of a person’s life, with the formation and development of his self-consciousness, is obvious.

The most important factor affecting the level of sensitivity is the interaction of the analyzers. All analyzers do not function in isolation, they represent a single complex system, all parts of which are closely interconnected. The effect of the stimulus on any analyzer not only causes its reaction, but also leads to one or another change in all other analyzers.

It is known, for example, that color sensitivity increases with the simultaneous impact of sound on a person: sensitivity to red-orange colors decreases, to green-blue colors increases (data by Kravkov). The weak effect of side irritants (for example, rubbing cold on the face, hands, neck or slowly chewing a sweet and sour tablet) increases the sensitivity of night vision (Kekcheev). Weak pain increases the sensitivity of almost all analyzers. Thus, acting on some analyzers, you can purposefully change the sensitivity level of others. In this case, the general rule may be the following: strong impacts on any analyzer lower the level of sensitivity of others, weak ones - even subthreshold stimuli - increase.

Synesthesia - this is the occurrence under the influence of irritation of one analyzer of sensations characteristic of another analyzer. This phenomenon is especially pronounced and is used in the effect of color music. Such "famous" artists as Skriabin and Čiurlionis possessed a "color" rumor. In modern studies, this effect is studied as cross-modal interaction and its variant - cross-modal transfer.

A huge influence on the change in sensitivity has a practical and cognitive activity of a person. In particular, in the process of professional activity sensitization , that is, an increase in the sensitivity of the senses under the influence of exercise. It is known that sharpeners sharply increase visual acuity and they see gaps up to 0.0005 mm, while untrained only up to 0.1 mm. Professional dyers distinguish up to 40 shades of black, and steelmakers can determine the melting temperature by shades of the color of hot metal. In the process and under the influence of activity, first of all, the difference, differential sensitivity changes. Absolute sensitivity is less amenable to training.

Human sensory organization - This term was first proposed by Ananyev in 1960. According to the scientist, sensory organization refers to the most important manifestations of the historical nature of man and to the fundamental phenomena of life associated with the deep layers of the structure of human development and personality. In this light, the widespread and currently notion that sensory-perceptual processes belong to the lower mental functions and, constituting the periphery of the subject, are not included in its basic structure and are indifferent to the personality, is obsolete.

The structure of sensory organization includes a system of constant inter-analyzer connections, the general composition of sensory reflection. The determining factors for the formation of sensory organization are the habitat, lifestyle and way of life. These factors determine the ratio of types of reception in a given sensory organization, determine its core, that is, groups of analyzers specific to a given environment. In fish, for example, a sideline organ and chemoreception make up such a core. In monkeys, kinesthesia, the rudiments of active touch and vision form the sensory axis. The selection of the leading sensory organs that make up the sensory axis in animals is determined by species. In humans - by individual characteristics, primarily characteristics of sensitivity, as well as features of activity. In this regard, it is necessary to highlight such a property of sensory organization as sensitivity - sensitivity level of analyzers.

The level of sensitivity and leading analytic systems determine the individual characteristics of a person. The structure of the sensory organization of a person is a condition for successful socialization. The formation of such qualities as sensitivity, empathy, observation is significantly associated with sensory organization. In addition, sensory organization underlies the formation of human abilities for various activities. Knowledge and accounting of the leading analyzer system are very important when communicating with people, organizing training, as the mismatch of the methods of presenting information and its reception significantly complicates the interaction of people and understanding. It is known that most teachers, for example, prefer visual presentation of information. At the same time, children whose auditory or kinesthetic system is the leading sensory system may experience significant difficulties.

In this sense, the tactile analyzer is universal. In numerous experiments, it was shown that touching, a short and light touch of the hand powerfully reduces discomfort, reduces or even removes the barrier between the therapist and the client, increases the activity and self-disclosure of the latter. Currently, this effect is actively used in psychotherapeutic practice, for example, in the framework of the so-called body-oriented psychotherapy.

Sensory Disorders

Disturbances of sensations are very numerous. However, in most cases, all observed mental disorders of sensation can be attributed to one of three main groups: hyperesthesia, hypesthesia, and paresthesia.

Hyperesthesia   - Hypersensitivity to real ordinary or even weak influences. In these cases, both external and inter- and proprioceptive stimuli cause an extremely intense reaction due to a sharp decrease in the lower absolute thresholds of sensations. For example, the clatter of a typewriter stuns the patient, the burning candle dazzles, and the shirt adjacent to the body irritates so much that it seems to be made of “barbed wire”, etc. Such mental hyperesthesia is observed with neurosis, intoxication with certain substances (opiates, hash, cyclodol, etc.), the initial stages of stupefaction, acute psychoses.

Hypesthesia - reduced sensitivity to real stimuli, increased lower absolute thresholds of sensations. In this case, the patient almost does not respond to an injection, to a fly crawling across his face, etc. Reduced sensitivity to temperature irritants can lead to accidents - burns and frostbite. In extreme cases of hypesthesia, the analyzer is completely unable to respond to irritation, and this phenomenon is called anesthesia. Anesthesia usually occurs with a complete anatomical break of one of the peripheral nerve trunks or the destruction of the central part of the analyzer. Loss of sensitivity usually extends to tactile, pain and temperature sensitivity (total anesthesia) or only to its individual types (partial anesthesia). Neurologists distinguish between radicular anesthesia, in which the sensitivity in the innervation zone of a certain posterior spine of the brain is totally impaired, and segmental, in which disturbances occur in the innervation zone of a certain segment of the spinal cord. In the latter case, anesthesia can be either total or dissociated, in which the absence of pain and temperature sensitivity is combined with the preservation of proprioceptive sensitivity or vice versa. In some diseases, for example, leprosy (leprosy), a specific lesion of the skin receptors occurs with a consequent weakening and loss of temperature, then pain, and then tactile sensitivity (proprioceptive sensitivity is preserved for the longest time with leprosy anesthesia).

In case of mental hypesthesia and anesthesia, the corresponding analyzer is formally anatomically physiologically preserved. In particular, hypesthesia and anesthesia can be instilled into a person in a hypnotic sleep. Mental amblyopia (blindness), mental anosmia (insensitivity to smells), mental agesia (loss of taste), mental deafness, mental tactile and pain anesthesia are often found in hysterical neurotic disorders. Within the framework of hysterical anesthesia, pain sensitivity disorders of the type “stockings and gloves” are described, i.e. from the point of view of neurologists, patients experience areas of insensitivity to pain with clear boundaries that do not correspond to the zones of innervation of certain roots or nerves.

Paresthesia If hypesthesia and hyperesthesia can be qualified as quantitative disorders of sensitivity, then paresthesias are associated with qualitative changes (perversion) of information coming from the receptor to the cortical part of the analyzer. Probably, everyone knows about the sensations arising from prolonged squeezing of a nerve with an uncomfortable position - “lay out a hand”, “served a leg”. In case of nerve conduction disturbances, there are sensations of “crawling creeps”, tightening of the skin, tingling, burning sensation (these are peculiar fluctuations in the modality of sensation). Paresthesias are more often a sign of a neurological or vascular lesion.

They are close to paresthesias and senestopathies, but they occupy an intermediate position with visceral hallucinations, as even less associated with any real irritation of the peripheral part of the analyzer. Senestopathies - vague, often migrating, very unpleasant and painful sensations that are projected into the body (into the bodily “I”): squeezing and stretching, rolling and trembling, “suction”, “sticking”, etc. They never have a clear localization, and patients are not even able to describe them correctly. Senestopathies are found in many mental illnesses.

Perception

Perception - the mental process of reflection of an object or phenomenon as a whole, in the totality of its properties and parts, based on the sensations arising from them, but at the same time possessing certain characteristics that cannot be reduced to individual sensations.

If the sensation is monomodal, then the perception is multimodal. It is formed on the basis of the joint activities of a number of analyzers integrated into a functional system. At the same time, one of the analyzers plays a leading role in image formation.

Perceptual properties

1. Objectivity and integrity   - the ability to perceive a holistic image of the subject. The perception of an object is possible only if the object is distinguished from the environment (the background on which it is located). In this case, the subject and background are dynamic, this is especially clearly seen in dual images, the content of the image in which varies depending on what is taken as the background (Fig. 1).

Fig. one.   Perception of the subject depending on the background

The background is usually unlimited and uncertain. The figure is limited, embossed, it has objectivity. Contribute to the contrast of the subject and background, the unusualness of the subject. For example, in an X-ray of the lungs, a round shadow stands out much better against a normal pulmonary pattern than against a disseminated process. As the studies of Zinchenko, Yarbus, etc. showed, in the process of isolating an object from the background, micromotion of the eyes occurs, as if “circling” it along the contour, which also contributes to the selection of the object from the background.

2. Constancy   - ensuring constancy in the form, color, size and other parameters of the objects we perceive. Perception preserves their sizes for certain objects, regardless of how far and at what angle we look at them.

3. Selectivity   - clearly stands out in the phenomenon of highlighting a figure from the background. That which is in the foreground and perceived as concrete is a figure, that everything else is a background. Perceived reality is always divided into two layers: the figure - a holistic image of the object and the background - the image of the space surrounding the object. What was a figure can merge with the background, something from the background can become a figure of perception.

4. Meaningfulness   - indicates the connection of perception with thinking, with an understanding of the essence of objects. The images of perceived objects always have certain, semantic meanings, and this shows not only a close connection with thinking, but also the activity of perception.

5. Apperception of perception   - indicates the connection of perception with the person, all past experiences of a person with his "I".

The influence of the attitude on human perception is also manifested in the phenomenon demonstrated in a huge number of experiments, when the same person is perceived as evil and cruel, if the subjects are told in advance that the person depicted in the photograph is a criminal; as good and courageous, if it is known in advance that this is a person of a humane profession who has committed a courageous act to save people's lives.

A great influence on the perception of the emotional state of a person. It is known, for example, that in a state of excitement, time accelerates its run, as it were, in a state of longing and depression — it slows down. Patients in a state of depression are always pessimistic and foresee a catastrophe, they are inclined even to perceive joyful events in black tones.

Thus, perception is an active process, the course of which is affected not only by the activity of the perceptual system, but also by the internal characteristics of the subject.

Complex forms of perception include perception of space, perception of time, perception of movement.

The perception of time distinguishes between the perception of time duration and the perception of time sequence. The direct experience of time is due to organic sensations and is associated with rhythmic processes in the body: pulse rate, respiration, etc. Evaluation of the duration of time periods depends on the content of the activity: a time period filled with interesting, meaningful activity is subjectively evaluated as short, that is, underestimated; empty, not filled with interesting activities are evaluated as longer, that is, reevaluated. (Everyone knows how boring lessons at school last forever). The perception of time also depends on the setting: when waiting for unpleasant events, time flies quickly; but how painfully long the time creeps if we are waiting for some pleasant event (meeting with a loved one, for example). In recollection, on the contrary: the longer the time span is, the longer it appears in recollection.

The most important characteristic of time is its irreversibility. The perception of an irreversible sequence of events over time involves the establishment of relationships between different segments and events of life

Based on sensation and perception, a more complex form of sensory reflection arises - performance.

Performance   - a secondary sensory image of an object that does not currently affect the senses, but has acted in the past (Lomov). Representations acquire a special role with the development of remote control systems, when the operator must with a high degree of accuracy imagine the processes occurring in a controlled system.

Representations can be considered as a transitional link between the sensory image (sensation, perception) and abstract thinking. Depending on the level of wakefulness and the characteristics of the activity, representations, on the one hand, are included in memory, imagination, thinking (its figurative forms), on the other hand, create dream images. Representations accompany a person throughout his life: the image of a familiar person arises in our consciousness even when that person is no longer there; the image of our native places vividly arises before our mental gaze. Common to all representations is that the subject or phenomenon is no longer there, and their reflection continues to develop. The flow of ideas unfolds in the "inner space, never carried out. This distinguishes the view from hallucinations, "when the internal image is" brought out. "

Perceptual disorders

In some pathological conditions, especially in mental and nervous diseases, perceptual processes may be impaired. However, there are deviations of perception that can be observed in quite healthy people (for example, illusions). Perceptual disorders can be divided into three main groups: illusions, hallucinations, and sensory synthesis disorders (psychosensory disorders).

Illusions.   Illusion is the distorted perception of a really existing object or phenomenon. Illusions are classified according to their sense organs - visual, auditory, tactile and others. Depending on the main reasons underlying the distortion of perception, all illusions can also be divided into physical, physiological and mental.

Physical illusions are explained by objective physical laws and are not dependent on the person himself. An example of a physical illusion, which is captured by the camera, is the perception of a spoon in a glass of water. The spoon seems broken due to the different light-refracting properties of water and air.

Physiological illusions find their explanation in the features of the structure and activity of our senses. For example, try pushing the side of the eyeball from the side, and immediately the object we are looking at will fork. Bifurcation of an object occurs due to an increase in the disparity of its image on the retinas. We find another example of this type of illusion at Aristotle: cross two fingers and start rolling a small ball between them, and it will seem double. When an object first contacts the index finger, and then with the middle finger, both contacts occur at different points of space that are familiar to us. Touching the index finger seems higher, although the finger is actually lower; touching the middle is lower, although the finger is actually higher. There are many such illusions on the part of the vestibular apparatus — illusions of banks, counter-rotation and others.

Mental illusions are associated both with various mental states of a person, and with some psychological features of our perception.

In diseases, mental illusions are most often observed in conditions of upset consciousness, with excitement (exaltation, ecstasy) in manic patients or in states of fear and anxiety in depression. Their illusions are hardly corrected, and the patient is inclined to consider these perceptual errors a reality. Verbal illusions, when a patient instead of neutral speech hears abuse, threats and insults, are often found in the early stages of the development of auditory verbal (speech) hallucinations in some psychoses. They differ from the so-called functional auditory hallucinations in that, under illusions, the pathologically arisen image absorbs the image of the real object (the patient “hears instead ...”), with hallucinations the pathological image does not merge with the real (“hears along with ...”) .

Healthy people against the background of various mental states (expectation, anxiety or fear) also often have psychic illusions. For example, at the entrance to the room the child will be frightened by the figure by the window, but after that he will laugh, because he will see that he was frightened by the coat and hat hanging on the hanger. And if in every tree standing by the road we see the person whom we are waiting for, then we are also talking about psychic illusions.

In order for the process of interpreting sensory information to reach a level of consciousness, special techniques are needed, and some of them have already been mentioned (simplification of the image, principles of grouping, contrasts, and others). Ambiguity of perception often results in illusions, arising due to a lack of essential information or an excess of non-essential information in the image. Ambiguity of perception also arises in cases where several significant images can be extracted from the same image. For example, in the famous painting by the artist Salvador Dali “Slave market with a vanishing bust of Voltaire” there are alternative ways of interpreting the depicted scene. In the center of the picture are two small nuns standing next to each other. But with another perceptual organization, the pictures of the nuns' faces turn into Voltaire's eyes, and their contacting figures - into the nose and chin. To some extent, these two ways of organizing visual information are incompatible: it is difficult to perceive both images at the same time.

In the experiment, illusions are used to study various aspects of the organization of the properties of the analyzer system. Visual illusions were often used to supply ambiguous sensory information to the input of the visual system to identify those errors that the system makes and thereby reveal some of its hidden properties. Numerous facts and conditions of errors in perception are described - the illusions of an “arrow”, railroad tracks, revaluation of vertical lines, intersections, concentric circles, “impossible figures” and others.

Visual illusions are also found in animals. In particular, it is on their basis that various methods of disguise and mimicry are formed. All these phenomena convince that there are some common factors that cause the appearance of illusions, and for many of them there is still no convincing interpretation.

Hallucinations.   Hallucinations are disorders of perception when a person, as a result of mental disorders, sees, hears, feels that which in reality does not exist. This is a perception that, as they say, is not based on an external object, otherwise it is an “imaginary, false perception”.

We can observe hallucinations in mental illness, as well as in healthy people, in experiments with sensory isolation or with the use of certain drugs (hallucinogens); hallucinations can also be instilled into a person in a deep hypnotic sleep.

Hallucinations are usually classified according to the sensory organs: visual, auditory, olfactory, and others. Of great importance in psychiatric diagnosis is the division of hallucinations into true and false (pseudo-hallucinations).

True hallucinations are characterized by sensual clarity, they unfold in the real space of one analyzer or another and “patients not only think what they see and hear, but actually see and hear” (E. Kraepelin, 1909). The behavior of patients usually corresponds to the content of hallucinatory experiences, and they are convinced that the people around them see and hear the same thing as them.

Pseudo-hallucinations differ from true hallucinations in that they do not have complete sensual-bodily clarity of images, and this brings them closer to ideas. Patients speak of visible and audible, adding “as if”, although they insist on the reality of their hallucinations. A pseudo-hallucinatory image unfolds in the imagined, or rather, the intrapsychic (subjective) space of a particular analyzer, so patients can report the possibility of "seeing" beyond the horizon or through opaque obstacles, and also report sounds and human voices that occur "inside the head". Since false hallucinations are recognized as something subjective and very different from real images, the behavior of patients is almost always dissociated with the content of hallucinations. Pseudo-hallucinations indicate a more unfavorable course of mental illness, often acquire a protracted and chronic nature, accompanied by impaired thinking.

Sometimes extracampine hallucinations that are projected out of the reach of the corresponding analyzer are separately distinguished from the group of pseudo-hallucinations. At the same time, patients “see” behind themselves, behind the wall, “hear” for many hundreds of kilometers.

In healthy people, against the background of fatigue or exhaustion, sometimes when falling asleep, visual or auditory hallucinations, similar to pseudo-hallucinations, which are called hypnagogic because of their proximity to dreams, briefly occur for a short time (hypnomopomic - the same thing, but noted at the time of awakening).

Visual and auditory hallucinations are often divided into simple (photopsies - the perception of flashes of light, stars, sparks; azoasms - the perception of sounds, noise, cod, whistle, crying) and complex (verbal - the perception of articulate speech).

In reflex hallucinations, the perceived real image is immediately accompanied by the appearance of a hallucinatory similar to it (the patient hears a phrase - and a phrase similar to it begins to sound in his head).

Apperceptive hallucinations (auditory or visual) appear after the corresponding volitional effort of the patient who wants to experience them.

Charles Bonnet hallucinations (visual, less often auditory) are observed when the peripheral part of the analyzer is damaged (in the blind, deaf), as well as in sensory deprivation or isolation (in prison, in a foreign language environment) in the field of the affected or information-restricted analyzer. They should be distinguished from hemianaptic hallucinations in the field of hemianopsia in case of damage to the cortical end of the analyzer (tumor, trauma, vascular lesion).

Hallucinations that occur as a result of mental trauma are called psychogenic. They are divided into the following varieties:

Dominant (auditory and visual) with psychologically clear content, reflecting mental trauma, and emotionally saturated;

Eidetic (usually auditory), which tend to be repeated as clichés (for example, the constant hallucinatory reproduction of funeral music and sobbing at a funeral);

Hallucinations of Dupree's imagination, where the plot follows from hysterical dreams and fantasies;

Induced hallucinations occur as mutual suggestion and self-hypnosis against the background of emotional stress;

Inducted hallucinations are often found in alcoholic delirium during the “lucid window” (daytime clarification of consciousness): Reichardt symptom (suggested reading on a blank sheet of paper), Aschaffenburg symptom (suggested imaginary conversation on the disconnected telephone), Lipman symptom (inspired visual hallucinations after ten seconds on eyeballs), etc.

Sensory synthesis disorders. Perception is a complex process of integration, the synthesis of the image of a perceived object from sensory signals coming through the senses from the external environment and own body. In some conditions and diseases, we encounter various violations of the synthesis process, the integration of sensory information during perception. Typically, psychosensory disorders include two groups of disorders: derealization and disorders of the “body scheme”.

Derealization - violation of the sensory synthesis of information that comes from the outside world. Something can “fall out”, change, and ultimately the world around us loses its sensory reality from the association of sensory signals participating in the formation of the image of external reality — it is distorted.

A person can lose the perception of the depth of space, and then everything around him is seen in a planar, two-dimensional image. Distortions of perception can relate to certain characteristics of the subject - form (metamorphopsia), magnitude (increase - macropsy, decrease - micropsy), or others. With porropsia, the distance estimate is violated - it seems to the person that the objects are farther than they are actually located; with dysmegalopsia, a perceptual disorder concerns elongation, expansion, oblique or kinked around the axis of surrounding objects.

Disorders are close to derealization when the usual, familiar environment is perceived as completely new (the phenomenon of “never seen” - jamais vu), or, conversely, the new situation (locality, street, house) is perceived as well-known and known (the “already seen” phenomenon - deja vu). Patients are especially worried about the distortions of time - its slowdown (bradychrony) or acceleration (tachychrony), as well as the loss of the emotional components of the perception of the environment - “everything is frozen, glazed”, and “the world has become like a scenery”. Patients almost always remain critical of these disorders, they are alien to the individual and subjectively extremely unpleasant.

Disorders of the “body scheme” are characterized by various symptoms of impaired perception of one’s own body, peculiar sensations of increasing or decreasing weight, size of the whole body or its parts (arms, legs, head). Disorders of the perception of the relationship between parts of the body also belong to disorders of the body pattern: patients talk about the incorrect position of the ears, the “twisting” of the body. The patient feels these changes only with his eyes closed, since under the control of vision all the misconceptions about his body disappear.

Practical part

Methodology:Definition of the leading sensory system of a person.

For practical work with people, it is very important to determine the leading sensory system of a person, since this indicates the preferred channel for perceiving information (visual, auditory, kinesthetic), which is of great importance in determining individual methods and means of supplying information in the process of communication (including therapeutic ), training, joint activities, in family interaction, etc.

To determine the leading sensory system, the “Leading sensory organ” (VOCH) technique proposed by Polish psychologists, translated by Efremtseva, is proposed. The technique is given according to the book: Kuleshova L.N. The psychology of ancient sensations. - SPb., 1999.

Equipment.   Subjects are offered a standard form with questions.

Instruction to subjects. Read the questions carefully and circle the numbers of those with which you agree in the questionnaire.

1. I like to watch clouds and stars	13. When I hear the old tune, the past returns to me	25. After a long drive by car I come to my senses for a long time	37. I have good stereo equipment
2. Often I hum to myself slowly			38. When I listen to music, I beat the beat with my foot
3. I do not recognize fashion that is uncomfortable	15. I like to talk on the phone	27. I attach importance to the manner of dressing in others	39. On vacation I like to inspect monuments of architecture
4. I like to go to the sauna	16. I have a tendency to be overweight	28. I like to stretch, spread my limbs, warm up	40. Can't stand the mess
5. In a car, color matters to me	17. I prefer to listen to a story that someone is reading than to read it myself	29. Too hard or too soft bed for me flour	41. I do not like synthetic fabrics
6. I know by steps who entered the room	18. After a bad day, my body is in tension	30. It’s not easy for me to find comfortable shoes	42. I think that the atmosphere in the room depends on the lighting
7. I'm imitated by imitation of dialects	19. Willingly and a lot of pictures	31. I like to watch television and video films	43. Often I go to concerts
8. I attach great importance to appearance	20. I remember for a long time what my friends or acquaintances told me	32. I find out ever seen faces, even after years	44. Shaking hands tells me a lot about this person.
9. I like to take massage	21. It’s easy to give money for flowers because they adorn life	33. I like to walk in the rain when drops are tapping on an umbrella	45. Willingly visiting galleries and exhibitions
10. When I have free time, I like to watch people	22. In the evening I like to take a hot bath	34. I like to listen when they say	46. \u200b\u200bSerious discussion is interesting
11. I feel bad when I do not enjoy the movement	23. I try to record my personal files	35. I like to engage in outdoor sports or perform any physical exercises, sometimes dancing	47. Through touch, much more can be said than with words
12. Seeing clothes in a showcase, I know that I will be fine in it	24. I often talk to myself	36. When the alarm clock is ticking close, I can’t sleep	48. I can’t concentrate in the noise

Data Processing and Interpretation. Count the results, accruing 1 point for a match with the key in each of the sections.

The key is to process the results.

The section in which the subject scored the most points determines the leading sensory system.

Test

1. The direct impact of an object or phenomenon on receptors is a mandatory feature of cognitive processes such as:

1. sensation
2. perception
3. thinking
4. imagination
5. attention

2. The integral result of the direct impact on a person of any stimuli (color, sound, chemical, etc.) is called:

1. perception;
2. perception;
3. sensation

3. The reflection of the individual properties of objects and phenomena of the world, this:

1. perception;
2. emotion;
3. sensation;
4. attention.

4. The main properties of sensations are indicated, except:

1. modalities;
2. constancy;
3. intensity
4. duration.

5. The minimum difference between stimuli, causing a difference in sensations, is:

1. absolute lower threshold of sensations;
2. differential threshold;
3. absolute upper threshold;
4. spatial threshold.

6. The change in the sensitivity of the senses under the influence of an active stimulus is:

1. sensitization;
2. adaptation;
3. synesthesia;
4. apperception.

7. The properties of perception include those specified, except:

1. integrity;
2. structuralness;
3. reminiscences;
4. apperception.

8. The incorrect distorted perception of an object or phenomenon that is currently acting on the sense organs, is:

1. hallucination;
2. illusion;
3. reminiscence;
4. adaptation

9. When a person wears hard contact lenses, they interfere with him, but over time, he ceases to notice them. What is the reason for this?

1. adaptation;
2. sensitization;
3. reminiscence;
4. illusion.

10. The minimum amount of stimulus that causes a subtle sensation is called:

1. absolute upper threshold of sensations
2. absolutely lower threshold of sensations (threshold of sensitivity)
3. pain threshold
4. differential threshold of sensations
5. operational threshold of sensations

11. Sensations associated with signals arising from irritation of receptors located in the muscles, tendons, joints, are called:

1. exteroreceptive
2. interoreceptive
3. proprioreceptive
4. endoceptive

12. Disorders of various types of sensations are called:

1. agnosia
2. hallucinations
3. sensory disorders
4. illusions

13. Sensations having receptors located in the internal organs and reflecting the state of the internal environment of the body are called:

1. interoreceptive
2. proprioreceptive
3. contact
4. distant

14. Sensations that reflect the properties of objects and environmental phenomena and have receptors on the surface of the body are called:

1. interoreceptive
2. contact
3. distant
4. proprioreceptive

15. Restore the sequence. The formation of sensations:

1. stimulus
2. sensory organs
3. nerve pathways
4. the corresponding center of the brain
5. sensation

16. The sensations, the receptors of which are in the ligaments, joints, and give information about the movement and position of the body in space, are called:

1. exteroreceptive
2. interoreceptive
3. proprioreceptive
4. contact

17. The reduced sensitivity to real stimuli and the increased lower absolute threshold are:

1. hyperesthesia
2. hypesthesia
3. anesthesia
4. paresthesia

18. The increased lower absolute threshold of sensations leads to:

1. sensitization
2. complete loss of sensitivity
3. decrease in sensitivity
4. qualitative changes in sensitivity

19. A phenomenon in which the analyzer is completely unable to respond to irritation is called:

1. hyperesthesia
2. hypesthesia
3. anesthesia
4. paresthesia

20. Qualitative changes (distortions) of information coming from the receptor to the cerebral cortex are:

1. hyperesthesia
2. hypesthesia
3. hallucinations
4. paresthesia

21. The mental process of reflection of an object or phenomenon as a whole, in the totality of its properties and parts, is called:

1. emotions
2. sensation
3. perception
4. thinking

22. The mental process of reflection of the individual properties of objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the senses, is:

1. sensation
2. perception
3. thinking
4. setting

23. The phenomenon of highlighting a “figure from the background” characterizes what property of attention?

1. integrity
2. selectivity
3. constancy
4. meaningfulness

24. The situation: the patient examines the picture with the image of glasses and argues: “What is this? ... a circle and another circle ... and the crossbar, probably this is a bicycle. " What is disturbed in the perception of this patient?

1. perception integrity
2. selectivity of perception
3. constancy of perception
4. apperception

25. The property of perception, which provides relative constancy in form, color, size and other parameters of the objects we perceive, is:

1. apperception
2. constancy
3. objectivity
4. meaningfulness

26. The connection of perception with the person, his past experience, is called

1. constancy
2. sensitivity
3. apperception
4. meaningfulness

27. The distorted perception of a really existing object or phenomenon is called

1. hallucinations
2. derealization
3. illusions

28. Disorders of perception, when a person sees, hears, feels something that in reality does not exist:

1. hallucinations
2. derealization
3. illusions

29. A violation of the sensory synthesis of information that comes from the outside world and leads to a distortion of perception is called:

1. hallucinations
2. derealization
3. illusions

30. The preferred channel for perceiving information (visual, auditory, kinesthetic), which is of great importance in determining individual methods and means of supplying information in the process of communication, training, joint activities, etc., is called:

1. apperception of perception
2. sensitivity range
3. rational form of knowledge
4. lead sensor system

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