Sensation is what in psychology? Sensation and perception in psychology. Sensation - General Concepts

PSYCHOLOGY OF SENSATIONS.

Sensation - This is the simplest mental process, consisting in the reflection of the individual properties of objects and phenomena of the material world, as well as the internal conditions of the body with the direct impact of material stimuli on the corresponding receptors.

Reflection - the general property of matter, which consists in the ability of objects to reproduce with varying degrees of adequacy the signs, structural characteristics and relationships of other objects.

Receptor - a specialized organic device located on the surface of the body or inside it and designed to perceive various in nature stimuli: physical, chemical, mechanical, etc., and their conversion into nerve electrical impulses.

Sensation is that initial area of \u200b\u200bthe sphere of mental cognitive processes, which is located at the border that sharply separates mental and dopsychic phenomena. Mental cognitive processes - dynamically changing mental phenomena, in their totality providing knowledge as a process and as a result.

Psychologists have traditionally used the term “sensation” to mean an elementary perceptual image and the mechanism of its construction. Psychology speaks of sensation in the case when a person is aware that a signal has arrived at his senses. Any change in the environment that is accessible to vision, hearing and other modalities is psychologically presented in the form of sensation. Sensation is the primary conscious representation of a formless and non-objective fragment of reality of a certain modality: color, light, sound, indefinite touch. In the field of taste and smell, the difference between sensation and perception is much smaller, and sometimes it actually is not. If we can’t determine the taste of the product (sugar, honey), then we are talking only about sensations. If smells are not identified with their subject sources, then they are presented only in the form of sensations. Pain signals are almost always presented as sensations, since only a person with a very rich imagination can "build" an image of pain.

The role of sensations in human life is extremely great, since they are the source of our knowledge about the world and about ourselves. We learn about the wealth of the world, about sounds and colors, smells and temperatures, sizes and much more thanks to our senses. Using the senses, the human body in the form of sensations receives a variety of information about the state of the external and internal environment.

internal environment.

The sensory organs receive, select, accumulate information and transmit it to the brain for processing. As a result, an adequate reflection of the surrounding world and the state of the organism itself arises. On this basis, nerve impulses are formed that arrive at the executive organs responsible for regulating body temperature, the digestive organs, the organs of motion, the endocrine glands, for adjusting the sensory organs themselves, etc.

The sense organs are the only channels through which the external world "penetrates" the human mind. The senses give a person the opportunity to navigate in the world. If a person lost all sense organs, he would not know what was happening around him, could not communicate with people around him, get food, and avoid danger.

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASES OF SENSATIONS. ANALYZER CONCEPT

All sentient beings with a nervous system have the ability to feel. As for the conscious sensations (regarding the source and quality of occurrence of which is given a report), only a person has them. In the evolution of living beings, sensations arose on the basis of the primary irritability which is a property of living matter to respond to biologically significant environmental influences by changing its internal state and external behavior.

In humans, sensations in their quality and diversity reflect the diversity of environmental properties that are significant to them. Sense organs, or human analyzers, from the moment of birth are adapted for the perception and processing of various types of energy in the form of stimuli-stimuli (physical, mechanical, chemical and others).

A sensation arises as a reaction of the nervous system to a particular stimulus and has, like any psychic phenomenon, a reflex character. Reaction - the body's response to a specific stimulus.

The physiological basis of sensation is the nervous process that occurs when the stimulus acts on an analyzer adequate to it. Analyzer - a concept (according to Pavlov), denoting a combination of afferent and efferent nerve structures involved in the perception, processing and response to stimuli.

Efferent - This is a process directed from the inside out, from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body.

Afferent - a concept that characterizes the course of the process of nervous excitation along the nervous system in the direction from the periphery of the body to the brain.

The analyzer consists of three parts:

1. The peripheral department (or receptor), which is a special transformer of external energy into the nervous process. There are two types of receptors: contact receptors receptors that transmit irritation in direct contact with objects acting on them, and distantreceptors - receptors that respond to irritations emanating from a distant object.

Afferent (centripetal) and efferent (centrifugal) nerves, the pathways connecting the peripheral part of the analyzer with the central one.

3. Subcortical and cortical departments (cerebral end) of the analyzer, where there is a processing of nerve impulses coming from the peripheral departments.

The core of the analyzer is located in the cortical part of each analyzer, i.e. the central part, where the bulk of the receptor cells is concentrated, and the periphery, consisting of scattered cellular elements, which in one or another quantity are located in different areas of the cortex.

The nuclear part of the analyzer consists of a large mass of cells that are located in the area of \u200b\u200bthe cerebral cortex where the centripetal nerves from the receptor enter.

Scattered (peripheral) elements

this analyzer is included in areas adjacent to the cores of other analyzers. This ensures the participation in a separate act of sensing a large part of the entire cerebral cortex. The analyzer core performs the function of fine analysis and synthesis. The scattered elements are associated with a coarse analysis function. Certain sections of the cortical cells correspond to certain cells of the peripheral parts of the analyzer.

For the sensation to arise, the work of the entire analyzer as a whole is necessary. The action of the stimulus on the receptor causes the appearance of irritation. The beginning of this irritation is the conversion of external energy into the nervous process that is produced by the receptor. From the receptor, this process along the centripetal nerve reaches the nuclear part of the analyzer located in the spinal cord or brain. When the excitation reaches the cortical cells of the analyzer, we feel the quality of the stimuli, and after that there is an organism response to irritation.

If the signal is caused by a stimulus that threatens to cause damage to the body, or is addressed to the autonomic nervous system, it is very likely that it will immediately cause a reflex emanating from the spinal cord or other lower center, and this will happen before we realize this effect (reflex is an automatic response " body reaction to the action of any internal or external stimulus).

If the signal continues its path along the spinal cord, then it goes along two different paths: one leads to the GM cortex through the thalamus, and the other, more diffuse, passes through reticular formation filter, which keeps the cortex awake and decides whether the signal transmitted directly is important enough for the cortex to take care of. If the signal is considered important, a complex process will begin that will lead to a sensation in the literal sense of the word. This process involves a change in the activity of many thousands of cortical neurons, which will have to structure and organize a sensory signal to give

it makes sense. (Sensory - associated with the work of the senses).

First of all, the attention of the cerebral cortex to the stimulus will now entail a series of movements of the eyes, head, or trunk. This will allow you to more deeply and in detail familiarize yourself with the information coming from the sensory organ, the primary source of this signal, and also, possibly, connect other sensory organs. As new information arrives, they will be associated with traces of similar events preserved in memory.

Between the receptor and the brain there is not only a direct (centripetal), but also a reverse (centrifugal) connection .

Thus, sensation is not only the result of a centripetal process, it is based on a complete and complex reflex act, subordinate in its formation and flow to the general laws of reflex activity. Moreover, the analyzer is the initial and most important part of the entire path of nervous processes, or the reflex arc.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENSATIONS

The classification of sensations proceeds from the properties of the stimuli that cause them, and the receptors that these stimuli act on. So, by the nature of reflection and the location of sensory receptors divided into three groups:

1 Interoceptive sensationshaving receptors located in internal organs and body tissues and reflecting the state of internal organs. Signals from internal organs are not noticeable in most cases, with the exception of painful symptoms. The information of the interoreceptors informs the brain about the conditions of the internal environment of the body, such as the presence of biologically useful or harmful substances in it, body temperature, the chemical composition of the fluids present in it, pressure, and much more.

2. Proprioceptive sensationswhose receptors are located in the ligaments and muscles, they provide information about the movement and position of our body. A subclass of proprioception, which is a sensitivity to movement, is called kinesthesia, and the corresponding receptors are called kinesthetic or kinesthetic.

3. Exteroceptive sensations, reflecting the properties of objects and environmental phenomena and having receptors on the surface of the body. Exteroceptors can be divided into two groups: contact and distant. Contact receptors transmit irritation in direct contact with objects acting on them; such are the tactile, taste buds. Distant receptors respond to stimuli emanating from a distant object; they are visual, auditory, olfactory receptors.

From the point of view of the data of modern science, the accepted separation of sensations into external (exteroceptors) and internal (interoceptors) is not enough. Some types of sensations can be considered external-internal. These include, for example, temperature, pain, taste, vibration, muscle-joint and static-dynamic.

By belonging to the sensory organs are divided into taste, visual, olfactory, tactile, auditory.

Touch(or skin sensitivity) is the most widely presented type of sensitivity. The composition of touch, along with tactile sensations (sensations of touch: pressure, pain), includes an independent type of sensations - temperature sensations (heat and cold). They are a function of a special temperature analyzer. Temperature sensations are not only part of the sense of touch, but also have an independent, more general meaning for the entire process of thermoregulation and heat transfer between the body and the environment.

Unlike other exteroreceptors localized in narrowly limited surface areas of the predominantly cephalic end of the body, the receptors of the skin-mechanical analyzer, like other skin receptors, are located over the entire surface of the body, in areas bordering the external environment. However, the specialization of skin receptors has still not been accurately determined. It is unclear whether there exist receptors that are solely designed to perceive one effect, which generate differentiated sensations of pressure, pain, cold or warmth, or whether the quality of the sensation that arises may vary depending on the specificity of the property acting on it.

The function of tactile receptors, like all others, is to accept the process of irritation and the transformation of its energy into the corresponding nervous process. Irritation of nerve receptors is the process of mechanical contact of the stimulus with the area of \u200b\u200bthe skin surface in which this receptor is located. With a significant intensity of the action of the stimulus, contact becomes pressure. With the relative movement of the stimulus and the skin surface, contact and pressure are carried out under changing conditions of mechanical friction. Here the irritation is carried out not by stationary, but by flowing, changing contact.

Studies show that sensations of touch or pressure arise only if a mechanical irritant causes deformation of the skin surface. Under the action of pressure on a skin area of \u200b\u200bvery small sizes, the greatest deformation occurs precisely at the site of direct application of the stimulus. If the pressure is applied to a sufficiently large surface, then it is distributed unevenly - its lowest intensity is felt in the depressed parts of the surface, and the greatest - on the edges of the depressed area. In the experiment of G. Meisner it was shown that when a hand is immersed in water or mercury, the temperature of which is approximately equal to the temperature of the hand, pressure is felt only at the boundary of the surface immersed in the liquid, i.e. exactly where the curvature of this surface and its deformation are most significant.

The intensity of pressure sensation depends on the speed at which deformation of the skin surface occurs: the strength of sensation is greater, the faster the deformation occurs.

Sense of smell - a type of sensitivity that generates specific sensations of smell. This is one of the most ancient and vital sensations. Anatomically, the organ of smell is located in most living things in the most favorable place - in front, in the prominent part of the body. The path from the olfactory receptors to those brain structures where the impulses received from them are received and processed is the shortest. Nerve fibers departing from the olfactory receptors, directly without intermediate switching, enter the brain.

The part of the brain called olfactory is also the most ancient; the higher the living creature is at the lower stage of the evolutionary ladder, the more space it occupies in the mass of the brain. In many ways, the sense of smell is the most mysterious. Many have noticed that although a smell helps to revive an event, it is almost impossible to recall the smell itself, just as we mentally restore an image or sound. The smell therefore serves memory so well that the mechanism of smell is closely connected with that part of the brain that controls memory and emotions, although we do not know exactly how this connection is structured and acts.

Taste have four main modalities: sweet, salty, sour and bitter. All other tastes are a variety of combinations of these four main. Modality is a qualitative characteristic of sensations arising under the influence of certain stimuli and reflecting the properties of objective reality in a specifically encoded form.

Smell and taste are called chemical senses because their receptors respond to molecular signals. When molecules dissolved in a liquid, such as saliva, stimulate the taste buds of the tongue, we taste. When molecules in the air enter the olfactory receptors in the nose, we smell. Although in humans and most animals, taste and smell, having developed from a common chemical feeling, have become independent, they remain interconnected. In some cases, for example, inhaling the smell of chloroform, it seems to us that we smell it, but in fact it tastes.

On the other hand, what we call the taste of a substance often turns out to be its smell. If you close your eyes and pinch your nose, you may not be able to distinguish potatoes from an apple or wine from coffee. By holding your nose, you’ll lose 80 percent of the ability to smell the aromas of most foods. That is why people who do not breathe nose (runny nose) have a bad taste of food.

Although our olfactory apparatus is surprisingly sensitive, humans and other primates smell much worse than most other animal species. Some scientists suggest that our distant ancestors lost their sense of smell when they climbed trees. Since visual acuity at that time was more important, the balance between different types of feelings was disturbed. During this process, the shape of the nose changed and the size of the organ of smell decreased. It became less subtle and did not recover even when the ancestors of man descended from the trees.

However, in many animal species, the sense of smell is still one of the main means of communication. Probably for humans, odors are more important than previously thought.

Substances have a smell only if they are volatile, that is, they easily pass from a solid or liquid state to a gaseous state. However, the strength of the odor is not determined by one volatility: some less volatile substances, such as those contained in pepper, smell stronger than more volatile substances, such as alcohol. Salt and sugar are almost odorless, since their molecules are so tightly linked to each other by electrostatic forces that they almost do not: evaporate.

Although we detect odors very well, we do not recognize them well in the absence of visual cues. This is the property of our perception mechanism.

Smell and smell are phenomena that are much more complex and affect our lives to a greater extent than we thought until recently, and it seems that scientists dealing with these problems are on the verge of many startling discoveries.

Visual sensations - the type of sensations caused by exposure to the visual system of electromagnetic waves in the range from 380 to 780 billionths of a meter. This range occupies only part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Waves within this range and varying in length give rise to sensations of different colors. The apparatus of vision is the eye. Light waves reflected by an object are refracted through the lens of the eye and are formed on the retina as an image - an image. Visual sensations are divided into:

Achromatic, reflecting the transition from darkness to light (from black to white) through a mass of shades of gray;

Chromatic, reflecting the color scheme with numerous shades and color transitions - red, orange, yellow, green, blue, blue, purple.

The emotional impact of color is associated with its physiological, psychological and social meaning.

Auditory sensations are the result of mechanical action on receptors of sound waves with an oscillation frequency of 16 to 20,000 Hz. Hertz is a physical unit by which the frequency of air oscillations per second is estimated, numerically equal to one oscillation per second. Fluctuations in air pressure, following with a certain frequency and characterized by periodic occurrences of high and low pressure areas, are perceived by us as sounds of a certain height and volume. The higher the frequency of air pressure fluctuations, the higher the sound we perceive.

there are 3 types of sound sensations:

Noises and other sounds (arising in nature and in an artificial environment);

Speech (related to communication and mass media);

Musical (artificially created by man for artificial experiences).

In these types of sensations, the auditory analyzer distinguishes four qualities of sound:

Strength (volume, estimated in decibels);

Height (high and low oscillation frequency per unit time);

Timbre (originality of coloring of sound - speech and music);

Duration (playing time plus tempo rhythmic pattern).

MAIN PROPERTIES OF SENSATIONS.

Different types of sensations are characterized not only by specificity, but also by properties common to them. These properties include:

Spatial localization - display of the place of the stimulus in space. For example, contact sensations (tactile, painful, tasteful) relate to that part of the body that is affected by the stimulus. Moreover, the localization of pain is more "diffuse" and less accurate than tactile. Spatial threshold- the minimum size of a barely perceptible stimulus, as well as the minimum distance between stimuli, when this distance is still felt.

Sensation intensity - a quantitative characteristic that reflects the subjective size of the sensation and is determined by the strength of the stimulus and the functional state of the analyzer.

Emotional tone of feelings - the quality of the sensation, manifested in its ability to evoke certain positive or negative emotions.

Sensation speed (or time threshold) - the minimum time required to reflect external influences.

Differentiation, subtlety of sensations - an indicator of distinctive sensitivity, the ability to distinguish between two or more stimuli.

Adequacy, accuracy of sensation - correspondence of the sensation to the characteristics of the stimulus.

Quality (sensations of this modality) - this is the main feature of this sensation, distinguishing it from other types of sensation and varying within this type of sensation (this modality). So, auditory sensations differ in height, timbre, volume; visual - by saturation, color tone, etc. The qualitative variety of sensations reflects the infinite variety of forms of motion of matter.

Sensitivity Stability - the duration of maintaining the desired intensity of sensations.

Sensation duration - its temporal characteristic. It is also determined by the functional state of the sensory organ, but mainly by the duration of the stimulus and its intensity. The latent period for different types of sensations varies: for tactile sensations, for example, it is 130 milliseconds, for pain - 370 milliseconds. The taste sensation arises after 50 milliseconds after applying a chemical irritant to the surface of the tongue.

Just as a sensation does not occur simultaneously with the onset of the stimulus, it does not disappear simultaneously with the cessation of the latter. This inertia of sensations manifests itself in the so-called aftereffect.

The visual sensation has some inertia and does not disappear immediately after the stimulus causing it ceases to act. The trace from the stimulus remains in the form consistent image. Distinguish between positive and negative sequential images. A positive, consistent image in lightness and color corresponds to the initial irritation. The principle of cinema is based on the inertia of vision, on maintaining a visual impression for some period of time in the form of a positive sequential image. The sequential image changes in time, while the positive image is replaced by the negative. With colored light sources, a sequential image transitions to an additional color.

SENSITIVITY AND ITS MEASUREMENT

The various sensory organs, which give us information about the state of the external world surrounding us, may be more or less sensitive to the phenomena they display, that is, they can display these phenomena with greater or lesser accuracy. In order for a sensation to arise as a result of the action of the stimulus on the senses, it is necessary that the stimulus causing it reaches a certain value. This value is called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity. Lower absolute sensitivity threshold - minimum strength of the stimulus, causing a barely noticeable sensation. This is the threshold of conscious recognition of the stimulus.

However, there is a lower threshold - physiological. This threshold reflects the sensitivity limit of each receptor beyond which excitation can no longer ensue. This threshold is genetically determined and can only change depending on age or other physiological factors. The threshold of perception (conscious recognition) is much less stable and depends, among other things, on the level of wakefulness of the brain, on the attention of the brain to the signal that crossed the physiological threshold. Between these two thresholds there is a zone of sensitivity in which the excitation of receptors entails the transmission of a message, but it does not reach consciousness. Despite the fact that the environment at any time sends us thousands of all kinds of signals, we can catch only a small part of them.

At the same time, being unconscious, being below the lower threshold of sensitivity, these stimuli (subsensory) are able to influence the conscious sensations. With the help of such sensitivity, for example, our mood can change, in some cases they affect a person’s desires and interest in certain objects of reality.

Currently, there is a hypothesis that in the zone * under the level of consciousness - in the subthreshold zone - the signals perceived by the sensory organs are possibly processed by the lower centers of our brain. If this is the case, then every second there must be hundreds of signals that pass by our consciousness, but nevertheless are recorded at lower levels.

Such a hypothesis allows us to find an explanation for many controversial phenomena. Especially when it comes to perceptual protection, subthreshold and extrasensory perception, about the awareness of internal reality in conditions, for example, sensory isolation or in a state of meditation.

The fact that stimuli of lower strength (subthreshold) do not cause sensations is biologically feasible. The bark at every single moment from an infinite number of impulses perceives only vital ones, delaying all the others, including impulses from internal organs. It is impossible to imagine the life of an organism in which the cerebral cortex would equally perceive all impulses and provide reactions to them. This would lead the body to inevitable death. It is the cerebral cortex that "guards" the vital interests of the body and, increasing the threshold of its excitability, turns irrelevant impulses into subthreshold ones, thereby saving the body from unnecessary reactions.

Sensation - a reflection of specific, individual properties, qualities, sides of objects and phenomena of material reality, affecting the senses at the moment.
The physiological basis of sensations is the complex activity of the senses.
The anatomophysiological apparatus, specialized for receiving the effects of certain stimuli from the external and internal environment and processing them into sensations, is called an analyzer. Each analyzer consists of three parts:

1. Receptor - a sense organ that converts the energy of external influences into nerve signals. Each receptor is adapted to receive only certain types of exposure (light, sound), i.e. possesses specific excitability to certain physical and chemical agents.
2. Conducting nerve pathways - along them, nerve signals are transmitted to the brain.
3. The brain center in the cerebral cortex.

The sensations are objective, since they always reflect an external stimulus, and on the other hand, are subjective, since they depend on the state of the nervous system and individual characteristics.

The English physiologist I. Sherrington identified three main classes of sensations:
1. Exteroreceptive sensations reflect the properties of objects and environmental phenomena (“five senses”). These include visual, auditory, taste, temperature and tactile sensations. Receptors are on the surface of the body.
2. Interoreceptive sensations reflect the state of internal organs. They include a sensation of pain, hunger, thirst, nausea, suffocation, etc. Pain sensations signal damage and irritation of human organs, are a kind of manifestation of the protective functions of the body.
3. Proprioceptive sensations (musculoskeletal). These are sensations that reflect the position and movements of our body. With the help of musculoskeletal sensations, a person receives information about the position of the body in space, about the relative position of all its parts, about the movement of the body and its parts, about the contraction, stretching and relaxation of muscles, the condition of joints and ligaments, etc.
Group I - distant sensations:
1. Vision - electromagnetic waves, the reflection of light from objects.
2. Hearing - sound vibrations.
3. Smell - odorous particles, chemical analysis.
Group II - contact sensations:
4. Tactile - sensations of touch and pressure. Even a slight decrease in tactile sensitivity negatively affects the psyche. The most sensitive:
a) language
b) lips
c) fingertips.
5. Temperature - separate receptors for cold and heat. Body temperature is taken as 0.
6. Flavoring - receptors in the papillae of the tongue that respond to the chemical composition of food.
7. Vibration sensitivity - a response to low-frequency environmental fluctuations. The oldest sensitivity. The progenitor of hearing and tactile sensations. There are no special receptors, all body tissues are involved in the transmission of information.
8. Pain sensitivity - stands in the service of the instinct of self-preservation. People without pain sensitivity do not live up to 10 years.
Group III - sensations related to the body itself:
Sensations of events within the body.
9. Vestibular - determine how the body is placed in relation to gravity. We need to understand where the top, where the bottom. Receptors in the inner ear.
10. Muscular - kinesthetic, dynamic, musculoskeletal, proprioreception. Special sensors in all muscles, places of attachment of tendons and joints. React to tension and relaxation. Thanks to them, we can say with closed eyes what our body does. All types of skeletal movements are regulated by the psyche with the participation of muscle sensations.
11. Introceptive sensations - interoreception - the combined result of several types of sensors inside the body (chemoreceptors - chemical events inside the body, baroreceptors - respond to pressure changes, pain, etc.). Often they do not reach the psyche, to awareness. Managed by subcortical structures. What comes to consciousness (Sechenov): "dark gross sense of the body" - poorly recognized, undifferentiated. Events within the body affect external sensory sensitivities.

Sensation Properties:
1. Adaptation is the adaptation of sensitivity to constantly acting stimuli.
2. Contrast - a change in intensity and quality of sensations under the influence of a previous or concomitant stimulus.
3. Sensitization - increased sensitivity under the influence of the interaction of sensations and exercises.
4. Synaesthesia is manifested in the fact that sensations of one modality can be accompanied by sensations of another modality.
Not every stimulus affecting the receptor ends of one or another analyzer is capable of causing sensation. For this, it is necessary that the stimulus has a certain size or strength.
The lower absolute threshold of sensation is the minimum value, or force, of the stimulus at which it is able to cause enough nervous excitation in the analyzer to cause sensation.
The absolute sensitivity of one or another sensory organ is characterized by the value of the lower threshold of sensation. The smaller the value of this threshold, the higher the sensitivity of this analyzer. Most analyzers have very high sensitivity. For example, the absolute lower threshold of auditory sensation, measured in units of pressure of air sound waves on the eardrum, is equal to an average of 0.001 boron in a person. How great is this sensitivity can be judged by the fact that one boron is equal to one millionth of normal atmospheric pressure. The sensitivity of the visual analyzer is even higher. The absolute lower threshold for sensing light is 2.5-10 "" erg / s. With this sensitivity, the human eye can notice light at a distance of one kilometer, the intensity of which is only a few thousandths of a normal candle.
The upper absolute threshold of sensation corresponds to the maximum value of the stimulus, beyond which this stimulus ceases to be felt. So, the absolute upper threshold of audibility of tones in an average person is 20,000 vibrations of sound waves per second.

And human emotions? This is the issue we decided to devote to today's article. Indeed, without these components we would not be people, but machines that do not live, but simply exist.

What are the senses?

As you know, a person learns all the information about the world through his own. These include the following:

eyes;
language;
leather.

Thanks to these organs, people feel and see the objects surrounding them, as well as hear sounds and taste. It should be noted that this is not a complete list. Although it is customary to call it the main one. So what are the feelings and sensations of a person whose function is not only the above, but also other organs? Consider the answer to this question in more detail.

Eyes

Sensations of vision, or rather color and light, are most numerous and diverse. Thanks to the presented body, people receive about 70% of environmental information. Scientists have found that the number of visual sensations (various qualities) of an adult, on average, reaches 35 thousand. It should also be noted that it is vision that plays a significant role in the perception of space. As for the sensation of color, it completely depends on the length of the light wave that irritates the retina, and the intensity on its amplitude or the so-called magnitude.

The ears

Hearing (tones and noises) gives a person about 20 thousand different states of consciousness. This sensation is caused by air waves that come from the sounding body. Its quality depends entirely on the magnitude of the wave, strength on amplitude, and timbre (or sound coloring) on \u200b\u200bform.

Nose

The sensations of smell are quite diverse, and they are very difficult to classify. They occur with irritation of the upper part of the nasal cavity, as well as the mucous membrane of the palate. This effect occurs due to the dissolution of the smallest odorous substances.

Language

Thanks to this organ, a person can distinguish between different tastes, namely sweet, salty, sour and bitter.

Leather

Tactile sensations break up into feelings of pressure, pain, temperature and so on. They occur during irritation of nerve endings located in the tissues, which have a special structure.

What kind of feelings does a person have? In addition to all of the above, people have feelings such as:

Static (the position of the body in space and a sense of its balance). This feeling occurs during irritation of the nerve endings that are located in the semicircular canals of the ear.
Muscular, articular and tendon. They are very difficult to observe, but they are in the nature of internal pressure, tension, and even sliding.
Organic or somatic. Such feelings include hunger, nausea, breathing, and so on.

What are the feelings and emotions?

Emotions and inner feelings of a person reflect his attitude to any event or situation in life. Moreover, the two named states are quite different from each other. So, emotions are a direct reaction to something. This happens on an animal level. As for the senses, this is a product of thinking, accumulated experience, experiences, etc.

What kind of feelings does a person have? It is rather difficult to answer clearly the question posed. After all, people have a lot of feelings and emotions. They give the person information about the needs, as well as feedback on what is happening. Thanks to this, people can understand what they are doing right and what are wrong. After realizing the feelings that have arisen, a person gives himself the right to any emotion, and thereby he begins to understand what is happening in reality.

The list of basic emotions and feelings

What are the feelings and emotions of a person? Listing them all is simply impossible. In this regard, we decided to name only a few. Moreover, they are all divided into three different groups.

Positive:

pleasure;
jubilation;
joy;
pride;
delight;
the trust;
confidence;
delight;
sympathy;
love (or affection);
love (sex drive for a partner);
respect;
gratitude (or appreciation);
tenderness;
complacency;
tenderness;
gloat;
bliss;
a sense of satisfied revenge;
a sense of self-satisfaction;
feeling of relief;
anticipation;
sense of security.

Negative:

Neutral:

surprise;
curiosity;
amazement;
calmly contemplative mood;
indifference.

Now you know what feelings a person has. Someone more, some less, but each of us at least once in our life experienced them on ourselves. Negative emotions that are ignored and not realized by us do not disappear just like that. After all, the body and soul are one, and if the latter suffers for a long time, the body takes on some part of its heavy burden. And it is not in vain that they say that all diseases are from nerves. The influence of negative emotions on human well-being and health has long been a scientific fact. As for the positive feelings, the benefits of them are clear to everyone. Indeed, experiencing joy, happiness and other emotions, a person literally fixes in his memory the desired types of behavior (feelings of success, prosperity, trust in the world, people around him, etc.).

Neutral feelings also help people express their attitude to what they have seen, heard, and so on. By the way, such emotions can act as a springboard to further positive or negative manifestations.

Thus, by analyzing one’s behavior and attitude to events, a person can become better, worse or stay the same. It is these properties that distinguish humans from animals.

Feel - the simplest mental process, consisting in the reflection of the individual properties of objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the corresponding receptors

Receptors - These are sensitive nerve formations that perceive the effects of the external or internal environment and encode it in the form of a set of electrical signals. These signals then enter the brain, which decrypts them. This process accompanies the emergence of the simplest mental phenomena - sensations.

Some of the human receptors are combined into more complex formations - sensory organs. A person has an organ of vision - an eye, an organ of hearing - an ear, an organ of balance - a vestibular apparatus, an organ of smell - a nose, an organ of taste - a tongue. At the same time, some receptors do not combine into one organ, but are scattered across the surface of the whole body. These are receptors for temperature, pain and tactile sensitivity. A large number of receptors are located inside the body: pressure receptors, chemical senses, etc. For example, receptors that are sensitive to blood glucose provide a feeling of hunger. Receptors and sensory organs are the only channels through which the brain can receive information for further processing.

All receptors can be divided into distant that can perceive irritation at a distance (visual, auditory, olfactory) and contact (taste, tactile, pain).

Analyzer - the material basis of sensations

Sensations are the product of activity analyzers person. An analyzer is an interconnected complex of nerve formations that receives signals, transforms them, sets up the receptor apparatus, transfers information to nerve centers, processes it and decrypts it. I.P. Pavlov believed that the analyzer consists of three elements: sensory organ , pathway and cortical department . According to modern concepts, the analyzer includes at least five departments: receptor, conductor, tuner, filtering unit, and analysis unit. Since the conductor section is essentially just an electric cable that conducts electrical impulses, the four departments of the analyzer play the most important role. The feedback system allows you to make adjustments to the work of the receptor department when changing external conditions (for example, fine-tuning the analyzer with different strengths).

Thresholds of sensations

In psychology, there are several concepts of the threshold of sensitivity.

Lower absolute sensitivity threshold defined as the smallest stimulus that can cause sensation.

Human receptors are very sensitive to an adequate stimulus. So, for example, the lower visual threshold is only 2-4 quanta of light, and the olfactory is 6 molecules of odorous substance.

Irritants with a power less than threshold do not cause sensations. They're called subliminal and are not realized, however, they can penetrate the subconscious, determining the behavior of a person, as well as forming the basis of his dreams, intuition, unconscious drives.A study of psychologists shows that a person’s subconscious mind can respond to very weak or very short stimuli that are not perceived by the consciousness.

Upper Absolute Sensitivity Threshold changes the very nature of the sensations (most often - to pain). For example, with a gradual increase in water temperature, a person begins to perceive not heat, but already pain. The same thing happens with a strong sound and or pressure on the skin.

Relative threshold (threshold of discrimination) is called the minimum change in the intensity of the stimulus, causing changes in sensations. According to the Bouguer-Weber law, the relative threshold of sensations is constant when measured as a percentage of the initial value of irritation.

Bouguer-Weber Law: “The threshold of discrimination for each analyzer has

constant relative value ":

DI / I = const, where I is the strength of the stimulus

Classificationsensations

1. Exteroreceptive sensations reflect the properties of objects and phenomena of the external environment ("five senses"). These include visual, auditory, taste, temperature and tactile sensations. In fact, there are more than five receptors that provide these sensations, and the so-called “sixth sense” has nothing to do with it. For example, visual sensations occur when excited wand (“Twilight, black and white vision”) and cones ("Daytime, color vision"). Thermal sensations in a person arise with separate excitation cold and heat receptors. Tactile sensations reflect the effect on the surface of the body, and they occur when excited or sensitive receptor touch in the upper layer of the skin, or with a stronger effect on pressure receptors in the deeper layers of the skin.

2. Interoreceptive sensations reflect the state of internal organs. These include a sensation of pain, hunger, thirst, nausea, suffocation, etc. Pain sensations signal damage and irritation to human organs, are a kind of manifestation of the protective functions of the body. The intensity of pain is different, reaching in some cases a lot of power, which can even lead to a shock condition.

3. Proprioceptive sensations (musculoskeletal). These are sensations that reflect the position and movements of our body. With the help of musculoskeletal sensations, a person receives information about the position of the body in space, about the relative position of all its parts, about the movement of the body and its parts, about the contraction, stretching and relaxation of muscles, the condition of joints and ligaments, etc. Musculoskeletal sensations are complex. Simultaneous irritation of receptors of various quality gives a peculiar quality of sensation: irritation of the receptor endings in the muscles creates a sensation of muscular tonicity when performing movement; sensations of muscle tension and effort are associated with irritation of the nerve endings of the tendons; irritation of the receptors of the articular surfaces gives a sense of direction, shape and speed of movement. To the same group of sensations, many authors include sensations of equilibrium and acceleration, which arise as a result of excitation of receptors of the vestibular analyzer.

Sensation Properties

Sensations have certain properties:

·adaptation,

·contrast,

Thresholds of sensations

Sensitization

· Sequential images.

Feel - the simplest mental process, consisting in the reflection of the individual properties of objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the corresponding receptors

Receptors - These are sensitive nerve formations that perceive the impact of the external or internal environment and encode it in the form of a set of electrical signals. These signals then enter the brain, which decrypts them. This process accompanies the emergence of the simplest mental phenomena - sensations.

All receptors can be divided into distant that can perceive irritation at a distance (visual, auditory, olfactory) and contact (taste, tactile, pain).

Analyzer - the material basis of sensations

Sensations are the product of activity analyzers person. An analyzer is an interconnected complex of nerve formations that receives signals, transforms them, sets up the receptor apparatus, transfers information to nerve centers, processes it and decrypts it. I.P. Pavlov believed that the analyzer consists of three elements: sensory organ ,pathway and cortical department . According to modern concepts, the analyzer includes at least five departments: receptor, conductor, tuner, filtering unit, and analysis unit. Since the conductor section is essentially just an electric cable that conducts electrical impulses, the four departments of the analyzer play the most important role. The feedback system allows you to make adjustments to the work of the receptor department when changing external conditions (for example, fine-tuning the analyzer with different strengths).

Thresholds of sensations

In psychology, there are several concepts of the threshold of sensitivity.

Lower absolute sensitivity threshold defined as the smallest stimulus that can cause sensation.

Human receptors are very sensitive to an adequate stimulus. So, for example, the lower visual threshold is only 2-4 quanta of light, and the olfactory is 6 molecules of odorous substance.

Bouguer-Weber Law: “The threshold of discrimination for each analyzer has

constant relative value ":

DI / I \u003d const,where I is the strength of the stimulus

Classification of sensations

2. Interoreceptive sensations reflect the condition of internal organs. These include a sensation of pain, hunger, thirst, nausea, suffocation, etc. Pain sensations signal damage and irritation to human organs, are a kind of manifestation of the protective functions of the body. The intensity of pain is different, reaching in some cases a lot of power, which can even lead to a shock condition.

3. Proprioceptive sensations (musculoskeletal). These are sensations that reflect the position and movements of our body. With the help of musculoskeletal sensations, a person receives information about the position of the body in space, about the relative position of all its parts, about the movement of the body and its parts, about the contraction, stretching and relaxation of muscles, the condition of joints and ligaments, etc. Muscular-motor sensations are complex. Simultaneous irritation of receptors of various quality gives a sensation of a peculiar quality: irritation of the receptor endings in the muscles creates a sensation of muscle tone during movement; sensations of muscle tension and effort are associated with irritation of the nerve endings of the tendons; irritation of receptors of articular surfaces gives a sense of direction, shape and speed of movement. To the same group of sensations, many authors include sensations of equilibrium and acceleration that arise as a result of excitation of the receptors of the vestibular analyzer.

Sensation Properties

Sensations have certain properties:

Adaptation

Contrast

Thresholds of sensations

Sensitization

· Sequential images.

Imagination- this is a process of creative transformation of representations that reflect reality, and the creation on this basis of new representations that were previously absent. In addition to this, there are other definitions of imagination. For example, it can be designated as the ability to represent an absent (at the moment or in general in reality) object, hold it in consciousness and mentally manipulate it. Sometimes the term “fantasy” is used as a synonym, which means both the process of creating something new and the end product of this process. Therefore, in psychology, the term "imagination" is adopted, which denotes only the procedural side of this phenomenon. Imagination differs from perception in two ways: - the source of emerging images is not the external world, but memory; - it is less consistent with reality, as it always contains an element of fantasy. Functions of the imagination: 1 Representation of reality in images, which makes it possible to use them, performing operations with imaginary objects. 2 Formation of an internal action plan (creating an image of the goal and finding ways to achieve it) in the face of uncertainty. 3 Participation in the arbitrary regulation of cognitive processes (memory management). 4 Regulation of emotional states (in auto-training, visualization, neuro-linguistic programming, etc.). 5 The basis for creativity - both fiction (literature, painting, sculpture), and technical (invention) 6 Creating images that correspond to the description of the object (when a person tries to imagine something that he heard or read about). 7 The production of images that do not program, but replace activities (pleasant dreams, replacing boring reality). Types of imagination: Depending on the principle underlying the classification, different types of imagination can be distinguished (Fig. 10.1):
Classification of imagination Characterization of certain types of imagination Active imagination (intentional) is the creation by a person of his own will of new images or representations, accompanied by certain efforts (the poet is looking for a new artistic image to describe nature, the inventor sets the goal to create a new technical device, etc.). Passive imagination (unintentional) - at the same time, a person does not set himself the goal of transforming reality, and images spontaneously arise themselves (this type of psychic phenomena includes a wide range of phenomena, from dreams to ideas that suddenly and unplanned arise in the minds of the inventor). Productive (creative) imagination - the creation of fundamentally new ideas that do not have a direct sample, when reality is creatively transformed in a new way, and not just mechanically copied or recreated. Reproductive (recreating) imagination - creating an image of objects or phenomena according to their description, when reality is reproduced from memory in the form in which it is. The characteristic of certain types of imagination: Dreams can be classified as passive and involuntary forms of imagination. According to the degree of transformation of reality, they can be either reproductive or productive. Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov called dreams “an unprecedented combination of experienced impressions,” and modern science believes that they reflect the process of translating information from operational into long-term memory. Another point of view is that many vital needs find expression and satisfaction in a person’s dreams, which, for a number of reasons, cannot be realized in real life.

Hallucination - passive and involuntary forms of imagination. By the degree of transformation of reality, they are most often productive. Hallucinations are called fantastic visions that do not have an explicit connection with the reality surrounding a person. Typically, hallucinations are the result of some kind of mental disorder or exposure to the brain of drugs or drugs.

Daydreams unlike hallucinations, they are a completely normal mental state, which is a fantasy associated with a desire, most often a somewhat idealized future. This is a passive and productive type of imagination.

Dream differs from dreams in that it is more realistic and more feasible. Dreams are a type of active form of imagination. By the degree of transformation of reality, dreams are most often productive. Features of a dream: - When dreaming, a person always creates the image of what he wants. - It is not directly involved in human activities and does not immediately give practical results. - The dream is directed to the future, while some other forms of imagination work with the past. - The images that a person creates in his dreams are distinguished by their emotional richness, vivid character, and at the same time, their lack of understanding of concrete ways to fulfill their dreams. Dreams and dreams in a person take up a fairly large part of the time, especially in youth. For most people, dreams are pleasant thoughts about the future. Some also have disturbing visions that generate feelings of anxiety, guilt, and aggressiveness. Mechanisms for processing representations into imaginary images. Creating images of imagination is carried out using several methods: Agglutination - “folding”, “gluing” of various parts that are not connected in everyday life. An example is the classic character of fairy tales - the centaur, the Serpent-Gorynych, etc.

Hyperbolization- a significant increase or decrease in the subject or its individual parts, which leads to qualitatively new properties. The following fairy-tale and literary characters can serve as an example: the giant Homeric cyclops, Gulliver, Boy-s-Finger. Emphasis - selection of a characteristic detail in the created image (friendly cartoon, caricature).

2.Perception - a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena in the aggregate of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses.

Perception is always a combination of sensations, and sensation is an integral part of perception. However, perception is not a simple sum of sensations received from one or another object, but a qualitatively and quantitatively new level of sensory cognition.

The scheme of formation of mental images in perception:

Physiological basis of perception is the coordinated activity of several analyzers, proceeding with the participation of associative departments of the cerebral cortex and speech centers.

In the process of perception are formed perceptual images , with which subsequently operate attention, memory and thinking. An image is a subjective form of an object; he is a product of the inner world of a given person.

For example, the perception of an apple consists of the visual sensation of a green circle, the tactile sensation of a smooth, hard and cool surface and the olfactory sensation of a characteristic apple smell. Adding together, these three sensations will give us the opportunity to perceive the whole object - an apple.

Perception should be distinguished from submissions, that is, the mental creation of images of objects and phenomena that once influenced the body, but are absent at the moment.

In the process of image formation they are affected attitudes, interests, needs,and motives personality. So the image that appears when the same dog is seen will be different for a casual passerby, an amateur dog breeder and a person who has recently been bitten by a dog. Their perceptions will be characterized by completeness and emotionality. A huge role in perception is played by a person’s desire to perceive a particular object, the activity of his perception.

Perceptual properties

Human perceptions differ from sensations in a number of specific properties. The main properties of perception are:

· Constancy,

· Integrity.

· Selectivity

· Objectivity,

Apperception

Meaningfulness

Types of perception

There are three main classifications of processes of perception - in the form of the existence of matter, in the leading modality, and in the degree of volitional control.

According to the first classification there are three types of perception

Space perception- this is the perception of the distance to or between objects, their relative position, their volume, remoteness and the direction in which they are located.

Motion perception - this is a reflection in time of changes in the position of objects or the observer in space.

Perception of time - The least studied area of \u200b\u200bpsychology. So far, it is only known that the estimation of the duration of a time period depends on what events (from the point of view of a particular person) it was filled with. If time was filled with many interesting events, then time passes quickly, and if significant events were few, then time drags on slowly. When remembering, the opposite phenomenon takes place - a period of time filled with interesting things seems to us longer than an “empty” one. The material basis for the perception of time by a person is the so-called "cellular clock" - a fixed duration of some biological processes at the levels of individual cells, according to which the body checks the duration of large periods of time.

Second classification of perception (by leading modality) includes visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile perception, as well as perception of one’s body in space.

In accordance with this classification in neuro-linguistic programming (one of the areas of modern psychology), it is customary to divide all people into visuals, audials and kinesthetics. In visuals, the visual type of perception prevails, in audiences - auditory, and in kinesthetics - tactile, taste and temperature.

3. Memory - the ability (of a living system to record the fact of interaction with the environment, to save the result of this interaction in the form of experience and use it in behavior.

memory is a complex mental process consisting of several private processes connected with each other. Man needs memory. It allows him to accumulate, save and subsequently use his personal life experience. Human memory is not just some single function. It involves many different processes. There are three completely different types of memory: 1) as a “direct imprint” of sensory information; 2) short-term memory; 3) long-term memory.

Imprint of sensory information . This system holds pretty accurate about the full picture of the world, perceived by the senses. The duration of preservation of the picture is very short - 0.1-0.5 s. Close your eyes, then open them for a moment and close again. Watch how the sharp, clear picture you see remains for a while, and then slowly disappears.

Short-term memory holds a different type of material. In this case, the information held is not a complete display of events that occurred at the sensory level, but a direct interpretation of these events. For example, if you uttered a phrase, you will remember not so much the sounds that make it up as the words. Usually only 5-6 words are remembered. Having made a conscious effort, repeating the material again and again, you can keep it in short-term memory for an indefinitely long time. Immediate fingerprints of sensory memory cannot be repeated, they are saved only a few tenths of a second and there is no way to extend them.

Long-term memory . There is a clear and convincing difference between the memory of an event that just happened and the events of the distant past. Long-term memory is the most important and most complex of memory systems. The capacity of the first named memory systems is very limited: the first consists of several tenths of a second, the second consists of several storage units. The capacity of long-term memory is almost unlimited. Everything that is held for more than a few minutes should be in the long-term memory system. The main source of difficulties associated with long-term memory is the problem of finding information.

AT of memorythere are three processes: memorization(entering information into memory), preservation(retention) and reproduction.These processes are interconnected. The organization of memorization affects conservation. The quality of the save determines the playback.

The process of memorization can proceed as an instant capture - imprinting. The state of imprinting in a person occurs at the time of high emotional stress. It is likely to be associated with periods of sensitive development of mental functions. With repeated repetition of the same stimulus, it is captured without conscious installation on it. The intention to preserve material in memory characterizes arbitrary memorization.

An organized repetition of material for the purpose of memorizing it is called memorization. A significant increase in the ability to memorize falls by the age of 8 to 10 years and especially increases from 11 to 13 years. From the age of 13, there has been a relative decrease in the rate of development of memory. A new growth begins at the age of 16. At the age of 20-25, the memory of a person engaged in mental work reaches the highest level.

The mechanism is distinguished logicaland mechanicalmemorization. By the result - literaland semantic.

By itself, the focus on memorization does not give the desired effect. Its absence can be compensated by high forms of intellectual activity, even if in itself this activity was not aimed at memorization. And only a combination of these two components creates a solid foundation for the most successful memorization, makes memorization productive.

What is best remembered is what arises as an obstacle, difficulty in activity. The memorization of material given in finished form is less successful than the memorization of material found independently in the course of active work. That which is remembered, even if involuntarily, but in the process of active intellectual activity, is retained in memory more strongly than that which was remembered arbitrarily.

The result of memorization is higher when relying on visual, figurative material. However, the productivity of memorization when relying on words increases with age than when relying on pictures. Therefore, the difference in the use of those and other supports decreases with age. With independent inventing, verbal supports become a more effective means of memorization than ready-made pictures.

In a broad sense, the support of memorization can be everything with which we associate what we remember or what itself “emerges” in us as being connected with it. The semantic support is a certain point, i.e. something short, concise, serving as a support for some broader content, replacing it with itself. The most developed form of semantic support points are theses, as a brief expression of the main idea of \u200b\u200beach section. Most often, the headings of the sections act as a strong point.

The material is remembered better and less forgotten in those cases when the strong points were highlighted in the process of memorization. The strength of a strong point depends on how deeply and thoroughly we comprehend the content of the section thanks to it. The semantic reference point is the reference point of understanding. For us, it is not the strong points that are most important, but the semantic activity that is necessary for highlighting.

4. Thinking - this is the highest form of cognitive activity of a person, the socially determined mental process of mediated and generalized reflection of reality, the process of searching and discovering essentially new.

The main features of the process of thinking are:

A generalized and indirect reflection of reality.

Relationship with practice.

Inextricable communication with speech.

The presence of a problem situation and the lack of a ready answer.

Generalized reflection reality means that in the process of thinking we turn to the general that unites a similar series of objects and phenomena. For example, when we talk about furniture, we mean tables, chairs, sofas, armchairs, wardrobes, etc.

Indirect reflection reality can be seen in the arithmetic problem of adding up several apples or in determining the speed of two trains moving towards each other. “Apples”, “trains” - these are just symbols, conditional images, which should not be at all specific fruits or compositions.

Thinking comes from practice, from sensory knowledge, but goes far beyond it. In turn, the correctness of thinking is checked in the course of practice.

Thinking is inextricably linked to a speech. Thinking operates with concepts that are words in their form, and, in essence, are the result of mental operations. In turn, as a result of thinking, refinement of verbal concepts can occur.

Thinking takes place only when there is problem situation. If you can get by with the old methods of action, then thinking is not required.

1.2 Qualitative characteristics of thinking

Thinking, like other cognitive processes of a person, has a number of specific qualities. These qualities are present to varying degrees in different people, and to varying degrees are important in solving various problem situations. Some of these qualities are more significant in solving theoretical problems, some in solving practical issues.

Examples of qualities (properties) of thinking:

Speed \u200b\u200bof thinking - the ability to find the right solutions in the face of time pressure

Flexibility of thinking - the ability to change the intended plan of action when changing the situation or changing the criteria for the right decision

Depth of thinking - the degree of penetration into the essence of the phenomenon being studied, the ability to identify significant logical connections between the components of the problem

1.3 Thinking and Intelligence

Intelligence - a set of mental abilities of a person, ensuring the success of his cognitive activity.

In a broad sense, this term refers to the totality of all cognitive functions of an individual (perception, memory, imagination, thinking), and in the narrow - his mental abilities.

In psychology, there is a concept intelligence structureshowever, the understanding of this structure varies widely depending on the views of a psychologist. For example, the famous scientist R. Kettel distinguished two aspects in the structure of intelligence: dynamic, or fluid ( Fluid), and static or crystallized ( “Crystallized”) According to his concept, fluid intelligence manifests itself in tasks whose solution requires quick and flexible adaptation to a new situation. It is more dependent on the human genotype. Crystallized intelligence is more dependent on the social environment, and manifests itself in solving problems requiring appropriate skills and experience.

You can use other models of the structure of intelligence, for example, highlighting the following components in it:

· Ability to learn (quick development of new knowledge. Skills);

· Ability to successfully operate with abstract symbols and concepts;

· Ability to solve practical problems and problem situations.

· The amount of available long-term and random access memory.

Accordingly, intelligence tests include several groups of tasks. These are tests that reveal the amount of knowledge in a certain field, tests that evaluate the intellectual development of a person in connection with his biological age, tests that determine a person’s ability to solve problem situations and intellectual tasks. In addition, there are special tests for intelligence, for example, for abstract-logical or spatial thinking, for verbal intelligence, etc. The most famous intellectual tests include:

Stanford Binet Test: assesses the intellectual development of the child.

Wexler Test: evaluates the verbal and non-verbal component of intelligence.

Raven test: nonverbal intelligence.

Eysenck Test (IQ) –Determines the general level of development of intelligence

In the study of intelligence in psychology, two approaches are encountered: intellectual abilities are innate or intellectual abilities develop in the process of individual development, as well as their intermediate version.