What percentage of oil pollution occurs at the terminal. Coursework: Impact of Oil Pollution on the Environment
Oil and petroleum products are the most common pollutants in the oceans. By the beginning of the 1980s, about 16 million tons of oil entered the ocean annually, which amounted to 0.23% of world production. Most of the oil that pollutes the seas and oceans does not get there as a result of accidents or natural disasters, but as a result of ordinary operations. Even in 1979, a record year for natural disasters and accidents due to natural disasters and tanker accidents, half as much oil got into the ocean as oil from internal combustion engines and industrial plants. In the period 1962-79, as a result of accidents, about 2 million tons of oil entered the marine environment. Over the past 30 years, since 1964, about 2000 wells have been drilled in the World Ocean, of which 1000 and 350 industrial wells have been installed in the North Sea alone. Due to minor leaks, 0.1 million tons of oil is lost annually. Large masses of oil enter the seas along rivers, with domestic and storm water flows. The volume of pollution from this source is 2.0 million tons / year. With industrial effluents, 0.5 million tons of oil gets in annually. Once in the marine environment, oil first spreads out in the form of a film, forming layers of varying thickness. By the color of the film, you can determine its thickness:
The oil film changes the composition of the spectrum and the intensity of light penetration into the water. Light transmission of thin films of crude oil is 11-10% (280 nm), 60-70% (400 nm). The film with a thickness of 30-40 microns completely absorbs infrared radiation. When mixed with water, oil forms an emulsion of two types: direct oil-in-water and reverse water-in-oil. Direct emulsions composed of oil droplets with a diameter of up to 0.5 microns are less stable and are characteristic of oil containing surfactants. When volatile fractions are removed, the oil forms viscous inverse emulsions, which can remain on the surface, carried by the current, washed ashore and settle to the bottom.
The impact of oil on flora and fauna
Birds are particularly affected by oil spills, as the oil infiltrates the feathers, depriving them of both water repellency and thermal insulation properties. The birds are unable to swim or maintain the desired body temperature. Estimates of the number of birds killed by oil spills are often low, simply because birds in distress do not come into view. When birds try to get out of the oil, it sticks to them from head to toe, making it impossible to see and poisoning the entire body.
Oil also contaminates or destroys natural food sources for birds. Diving birds are particularly affected, as they have to repeatedly dive through the oil on the surface in search of food. In addition to affecting individual aquatic organisms, oil also affects entire ecosystems. In areas where oil often enters the water, changes in the species composition of the marine community also become noticeable. Both petroleum and petroleum resins (tar) contain some carcinogenic substances. Several studies on molluscs in contaminated waters indicate that these animals exhibit an abnormally high number of tumors similar to human cancers.
After oil or oil products get into the water, it takes a certain time for their traces to disappear. This should also include the time required to repopulate the contaminated area with the same and in the same number of organisms that previously lived there. If the release of oil did not lead to the complete death of all local organisms, then the rest, multiplying, begin to fill the empty space as the oil disappears. Organisms from neighboring regions begin to arrive here, either by swimming, or carried by water currents (for example, larvae), or moving out of neighboring colonies (algae). Interspecies competition and predation leads to the establishment of a balance between different groups. The destructive effects of oil can last for years.
Oil and petroleum products are scattered in the environment everywhere, since in the modern world there is no such area of \u200b\u200bhuman economic activity where they are not used.
Impact pollution of the natural environment with oil and oil products is of current practical importance. Local sources create a significant one-time load on soil, water, biological objects, causing great damage to the economy and nature. Oil is extracted mainly from wells with the help of deep pumps, with controlled natural flowing, by displacement with compressed air or water injection into oil reservoirs.
The main potential sources of pollution of the environment with oil and oil products are oil fields, oil refineries, oil storage facilities, land and water transport carrying oil products.
Landscape pollution begins already at the stage of drilling wells. The main streams of pollutants are associated with drilling fluids and cuttings. They contain a large number of chemicals. To treat the bottomhole zone, hydrochloric, sulfuric, nitric acids, surfactants, hydrocarbons, solvents (diesel fuel, kerosene, gas condensate, etc.), water absorbers (methanol, diethylene glycol, acetone), water-soluble polymers, salt deposition inhibitors (derivatives of carboxylic acids and sulfonic acids) are used. , solutions of sodium chloride, potassium hydroxide, etc.), corrosion inhibitors (amines, amides, carboxylic acids, etc.).
The second stream of pollutants is associated with well drilling. It is represented by a mixture of drilled rocks and drilling fluids.
The third group of technogenic flows of substances is drilling wastewater, which contains all the reagents used, including oil, oil products, hydrogen sulfide, etc. The volume of drilling waste for each well is large. There are a lot of wells in oil-producing regions, for example, in Western Siberia, over 20 years (1965-1985), about 50 thousand wells were drilled, and the growth rate of their number in conditions of increasing demand for oil is increasing.
In oil fields, pollution occurs mainly with oil and oil products. Crude oil (reservoir fluids) and commercial oil (demineralized oil) are spilled on the surface in case of accidents at wells, oil pipelines, and oil losses are great. On the territory of the former USSR, about 700 major accidents on gas and oil pipelines occurred annually, during which 7-30% of the oil produced was lost.
Oil pollution is most active at the following stages: at oil fields (tens and hundreds of square kilometers), at production and exploration wells; in case of accidents at wells and oil pipelines; in places of oil refining and consumption. The moduli of technogenic oil pressure differ significantly: from 5 t / km 2 in Central and Eastern Siberia, in the Far East to 100-200 t / km 2 and more in the Volga region, Donbass, Moscow region.
In the area of \u200b\u200boil fields, the main pollutants are crude oil and highly mineralized oil and waste water, products of associated gas combustion.
The least controlled source of pollution is oil pipelines that transport crude and commercial oil, as well as various liquid oil products. Dense oil pipelines are located in oil production areas. Pipeline accidents often occur near rivers that carry oil over long distances.
Oil refineries and oil storage facilities are local sources of pollution. They pollute the natural environment mainly through the atmosphere and waste water. At the same time, one-time emissions to the soil are relatively small, but their constant effect creates a significant area of \u200b\u200bpersistent pollution around the source. For example, an oil refinery with a capacity of 12 million tons of oil releases about 100 tons of hydrocarbons per day into the atmosphere through safety valves at technological units.
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It is difficult to say how true the expression “environmental problems of the oil industry” sounds? Industry, like any other human activity, cannot have environmental problems. It is the environment that has problems due to human intervention and the use of its resources. Because of oil, environmental problems have arisen and become widespread. Especially after the next industrial revolution. When the fuel oil produced from it became the main source of energy for the industry, displacing coal.
It has been used by humanity since time immemorial. The most popular before fuel oil was kerosene, obtained from it in an uncomplicated, by today's standards, method. Since the end of the 18th century, kerosene has been used for lighting lamps.
The impact of oil causes environmental problems only after it is removed from natural storage facilities. If it is located in the place of its natural origin, that is, underground, nature does not cause problems. There is also no mention that oil has caused damage to the environment, its environment, that is, below the surface of the earth. There is no evidence that she herself, without human participation, caused significant damage to terrestrial nature. Its spills, protruding to the surface in some regions of the Earth, are so insignificant that they should not be taken into account.
general characteristics
Oil is a natural liquid. Oily and flammable. She has a specific smell and color from yellow-green to brown-brown and black. It consists of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and various impurities. Refers, like peat, coal, shale, to natural fossil fuels - caustobiolites. The depth of its occurrence is from several meters to 6 km, it belongs to non-renewable resources.
It got its name from the Persian language. In other languages \u200b\u200bit is called "stone oil" or "mountain oil". It is a highly flammable liquid.
Industrial processing began in the 18th century, before that it was used unrefined. The first borehole produced oil in 1848 in the Baku region, where the first plant was built in 1857.
The process of its origin in nature is still controversial among scientists. The main theory speaks of its organic origin.
The explored reserves amount to about 210 billion tons and the undiscovered ones are about the same. The largest reserves are in Venezuela, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, UAE, Russia, Libya and others. The same countries extract it the most.
Problems
It is also not correct to talk about the problems caused by the oil industry as a branch of human economic activity. Nature suffers not only when drilling wells, laying pipelines or burning fuel oil. Isn't spills of crude oil on the surface of the sea or soil an ecological disaster? Does it harm the environment with fuel oil or other products made from it, discharged into rivers by ships? It is not the oil industry that burns the same fuel oil at thermal stations, but gasoline and diesel fuel in the engines of personal cars. But this does not diminish nature's problems. And it is impossible to look for the causes of environmental problems only in this industry.
To varying degrees, oil-related environmental problems should be considered in a comprehensive manner. They consist of problems caused by oil and the production processes in which it is involved. The impact on nature occurs when the ecosystem comes into direct contact with crude oil, during exploration, production, storage, transportation and processing, as well as transportation of oil products and their use.
Industry, its divisions
In the oil industry, the essence of the environmental problem lies in the imperfection of technical processes and equipment, their insufficient equipment to ensure safety, avoid accidents and make the most efficient use of it at each technological stage.
The oil industry is one of the leading sectors of the economy in those countries in the world where there is oil. The industry consists of several divisions. Each department carries out a certain set of works. The activity is broken down into stages: production, which is preceded by exploration and drilling, storage, transportation and processing.
The first stage of the "relationship" between a person and oil is its production. This is a complex production process that includes geological exploration, drilling wells, cleaning the extracted raw materials from water, paraffin, sulfur and other impurities, as well as pumping to primary storage and metering points.
Influence on nature
In oil production, environmental problems arise almost immediately. They begin with clearing places for the installation of drilling equipment. For this, deforestation or other cleaning of the site from vegetation is carried out. At the same time, the area set aside for work is littered with human waste products, waste materials, and soil raised to the surface. The adjacent territory suffers. It is used by workers for their own needs. Access roads are laid to the drilling site. They clear the meta for laying the pipeline. As a result, nature receives a whole range of pollution. But this is only a preliminary stage. Since the beginning of the extraction of raw materials, the damage to the environment has increased significantly. Primarily due to the spill of crude oil. It can be both technological and emergency outflow. In this case, the soil, surface and underground water sources receive such pollution, to recover from which they will take many years. The negative consequences for nature do not end with pumping out of an underground deposit. The resulting voids lead to soil movement. Soil failures, displacement and erosion occur. It should be noted that, as a rule, hydrocarbon deposits are located in natural zones with a very fragile ecosystem. The ecological balance in these places was formed very difficult and can be easily destroyed.
This is followed by oil transportation, storage and processing. The biggest problems arise during transportation. Whichever mode of transport is used for this, it spills everywhere. When transported by pipeline, rail or road, spilled oil falls on the soil, if by water it remains on the water surface. It is soluble in organic solvents and insoluble in water. Therefore, its spots remain on the surface for a long time.
The last stage, which is referred to as the oil industry, is refining. Various types of fuel, raw materials for the chemical industry, building materials and so on are produced from it.
Products obtained as a result of processing have most of its properties. When they are burned, a large amount of carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and various sulfur compounds are emitted as fuel. An increase in their content in the atmosphere leads to climate change, "acid rain" and the "greenhouse effect".
The waters of the planet are polluted by oil and oil products. Up to 10 million tons of them enter the World Ocean annually. But only a liter of oil floating as a spot on the surface of sea water deprives it of 40 thousand liters of oxygen. A ton can have a negative impact on an area of \u200b\u200b12 km 2.
A decrease in oxygen in water and an increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are the main "disease symptoms" of the biosphere. Failure to take the necessary actions can lead to fatal consequences for a person in the first place.
Video - Oil slick on the surface of the Yenisei
The combustion of coal, oil products, gas, bitumen and other substances is accompanied by the release of significant masses of carcinogenic substances into the atmosphere, soil and water environment, among which polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and benzo (a) pyrene (BP) are especially dangerous. Automobile transport, aviation, coke-chemical and oil refineries, oil fields contribute to environmental pollution with these carcinogens. Anthropogenic sources emit carcinogenic 3,4-benzpyrene and other toxic compounds into the atmosphere.
The presence of increased amounts (BP) in air, waters, soil, food is found in cities, industrial regions, around enterprises, railway stations, airports, along roads. The main final reservoir of BP accumulation is the soil cover. Most of all it accumulates in the humus horizon of soils. With soil dust, groundwater, as a result of water erosion, with food, benzpyrene enters the general biogeochemical cycles on land, spreading everywhere.
Over 2.5 billion tons of crude oil are produced annually in the world. A negative consequence of the intensification of oil production is pollution of the natural environment with oil and products of its processing. During the extraction, transportation, processing and use of oil and petroleum products, they are lost about 50 million tons per year. As a result of pollution, large areas become unsuitable for agricultural use. When crude oil and oil products enter the soil, the process of their natural fractionation is disrupted. In this case, light fractions of oil gradually evaporate into the atmosphere, some of the oil is mechanically carried out by water outside the contaminated area and dispersed along the paths of water flows. Some of the oil undergoes chemical and biological oxidation.
Oil is a complex mixture of gaseous, liquid and solid hydrocarbons, their various derivatives and organic compounds of other classes. The main elements in the composition of oil are carbon (83-87%) and hydrogen (12-14%). Among other elements, sulfur, nitrogen and oxygen are included in its composition in noticeable quantities.
In addition, oil tends to contain trace amounts of trace elements. More than 1000 individual compounds have been identified in the oil.
To assess oil as a substance polluting the natural environment, the following criteria are used: the content of light fractions, paraffin and sulfur:
light fractions are highly toxic to living organisms, but their high volatility contributes to rapid self-purification;
paraffin - does not have a strong toxic effect on living organisms, but due to the high pour point, it significantly affects the physical properties of the soil;
sulfur - increases the danger of hydrogen sulfide contamination of soil.
The main contaminants for soils:
formation fluid, consisting of crude oil, gas, oil water;
gas from gas caps of oil deposits;
marginal waters of oil reservoirs;
oil, gas and waste water from oil reservoirs;
oil, gas and waste water obtained as a result of separation of formation fluid and primary oil treatment;
the groundwater;
drilling fluids;
petroleum products.
These substances enter the environment as a result of a violation of technology, various emergencies, etc. In this case, the components of gas flows are deposited on the surface of plants, soils, water bodies. Partially hydrocarbons return to the earth's surface with precipitation, while secondary pollution of land and water bodies occurs. With the entry of oil and oil products into the environment with the processes of microbiological and chemical decomposition, their evaporation occurs, which can serve as a source of air and soil pollution.
Petroleum substances are able to accumulate in bottom sediments, and then, over time, are included in the physicochemical, mechanical and biogenic migration of the substance. The predominance of certain processes of transformation, migration and accumulation of petroleum products is extremely dependent on the natural and climatic conditions and the properties of the soils into which these pollutants enter. When oil enters the soil, deep, irreversible changes in morphological, physical, physicochemical, microbiological properties occur, and sometimes significant changes in the soil profile, which leads to the loss of fertility by contaminated soils and the rejection of territories from agricultural use.
The composition of the oil includes: alkanes (paraffins), cycloalkanes (naphthenes), aromatic hydrocarbons, asphaltenes, resins and olefins.
Petroleum products include various hydrocarbon fractions obtained from oil. But in a broader sense, the concept of "petroleum products" is usually represented as a commodity feedstock from oil that has undergone primary training in the field, and oil refined products used in various types of economic activities: gasoline fuels (aviation and automobile), kerosene fuels (jet, tractor, lighting), diesel and boiler fuels; fuel oils; solvents; lubricating oils; tar; bitumens and other petroleum products (paraffin, additives, petroleum coke, petroleum acids, etc.)
When evaporating, for example, from the surface of groundwater contaminated with oil products, they form gas areoles in the aeration zone. And having such a property as the formation of an explosive mixture at a certain ratio of vapors to air, they can explode when a high-temperature source is introduced into this mixture.
Vapors of oil and oil products are toxic and have a toxic effect on the human body. Vapors of sulfurous oils and petroleum products are especially toxic, as well as leadedx gasoline. The maximum permissible concentration (MPC) of harmful vapors of petroleum products in the air of the working areas of oil depots are given in table. 5.2.
Table 5.2 MPC of harmful vapors of petroleum products in the air of the working areas of oil depots
The interaction of oil and oil products with soils, microorganisms, plants, surface and ground waters have their own characteristics depending on the types of oil and oil products.
Methane hydrocarbons, being in soils, water and air spheres, have a narcotic and toxic effect on living organisms: getting into cells through membranes, they disorganize them.
Extraction, transportation, processing of oil and gas are quite often accompanied by significant losses and catastrophic impact on the environment, which are especially noticeable within the sea areas. The main danger for the coastal sea zone is the development of oil and gas deposits on the shelf.
More than 6,500 drilling platforms are currently in operation in the world. More than 3000 tankers are engaged in the transportation of petroleum products.
The supply of petroleum products to the oceans is approximately 0.23% of the annual world oil production. Oil pollution of seas and oceans occurs mainly as a result of oil-containing waters discharged overboard by tankers and ships (see Table 5.3).
On land, the bulk of oil products are transported through pipelines. The most vulnerable part of the main pipelines are crossings over rivers, canals, lakes and reservoirs. Trunk pipelines intersect with railways and highways, rivers, lakes and canals. And quite often emergency situations arise at the crossings, especially since almost 40% of the length of the main pipelines have worked for more than 20 years and their service life is running out.
Table 5.3 Sources and routes of entry of petroleum hydrocarbons into the World Ocean
Oil pollution is the technogenic factor that affects the formation and course of hydrochemical and hydrological processes in the seas, oceans and inland basins. There is a concept of "background state of the natural environment", which means the state of natural ecosystems in vast areas experiencing moderate anthropogenic impacts due to pollutants coming from near and distant sources of emissions into the atmosphere and wastewater discharges into water bodies.
The atmosphere promotes the evaporation of volatile fractions of oil and oil products. They are susceptible to atmospheric oxidation and transport and may return to land or to the ocean. Onshore (located on land) oil production facilities serve as anthropogenic sources of pollution of such constituent elements of the geological environment as the earth's surface, soils and underlying horizons of groundwater, as well as rivers, reservoirs, coastal zones of sea water areas, etc.
A significant part of the light fraction of the oil decomposes and volatilizes on the soil surface or is washed away by water flows. During evaporation, 20 to 40% of the light fraction is removed from the soil. Part of the oil on the earth's surface undergoes photochemical decomposition. The quantitative aspect of this process has not yet been studied.
An important characteristic in the study of oil spills on soils is the content of solid methane hydrocarbons in oil. Solid paraffin is not toxic to living organisms, but due to high pour points and solubility in oil (+18 C and +40 C), it turns into a solid state. After cleaning, it can be used in medicine.
When assessing and monitoring environmental pollution, groups of oil products are distinguished, which differ:
the degree of toxicity in relation to living organisms;
the rate of decomposition in the environment;
the nature of the changes made in the atmosphere, soils, grounds, waters, biocenoses.
In soils, technogenic oil products are in the following forms:
in a porous medium - in a liquid readily mobile state;
on particles of rock or soil - in a sorbed, bound state;
in the surface layer of soil or ground - in the form of a dense organic-mineral mass.
Soils are considered contaminated with oil products if the concentration of oil products reaches a level at which:
oppression or degradation of vegetation begins;
the productivity of agricultural land is falling;
the ecological balance in the soil biocenosis is disturbed;
the other species are displaced by one or two growing species of vegetation, the activity of microorganisms is inhibited;
there is a leaching of oil products from soil into ground or surface water.
A safe level of soil pollution with oil products is recommended to be considered a level at which none of the negative consequences listed above occurs due to oil pollution. The lower safe level of oil products in soils for the territory of Russia corresponds to a low level of pollution and is 1000 mg / kg. At a lower level of pollution in soil ecosystems, relatively fast self-purification processes occur, and the negative impact on the environment is insignificant.
frozen-tundra-taiga regions - low pollution (up to 1000 mg / kg);
taiga-forest areas - moderate pollution (up to 5000 mg / kg);
forest-steppe and steppe regions - medium pollution (up to 10,000 mg / kg).
To monitor the level of soil contamination from chronic leaks of oil products, to prevent critical environmental situations, as well as to assess the contamination of soil, soil samples are taken. If an accident has already occurred, then when sampling, establish:
the depth of penetration of oil products into the soil, their direction and the rate of the subsurface flow;
the possibility and scale of the penetration of oil products from soil into aquifers;
distribution area of \u200b\u200boil products within the polluted aquifer;
a source of soil and water pollution.
Sampling points are determined depending on the terrain, hydrogeological conditions, source and nature of pollution.
Introduction
Conclusion
Thus, we can conclude that factories, plants and other enterprises have a detrimental effect on the area in which they are located, and the extraction of the minerals necessary for their technological process is also detrimental to nature.
In the last decade, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe mutual influence of a healthy environment and sustainable economic development has gained increasing recognition. At the same time, the world was undergoing major political, social and economic changes as many countries began implementing programs to radically restructure their economies. Thus, the study of the impact on the environment of general economic activities has become an urgent problem of serious importance and requiring an early solution.
The subject of research is the impact of oil pollution on the environment, the object of research is oil spills and the damage they cause to the environment. The hypothesis of the research is that a modern enterprise causes damage to the environment, starting from the process of extracting materials necessary for industrial production. The practical significance of the course work is the study and analysis of the impact of oil pollution on the environment.
The purpose of the work is to study the interaction and impact of oil companies on the environment.
The objectives of the course work include the consideration and analysis of the following issues:
Environmental pollution by oil spills;
Responsibility for oil spills;
The impact of oil pollution on the environment;
The effect of oil on animals and plants;
Influence of oil on the hydrosphere and lithosphere.
Oil spills can and are already occurring almost everywhere. Small spills receive little attention, are quickly cleaned up or decompose naturally. Large oil spills attract public attention and usually require urgent action by government agencies. Severe oil spills cannot be predicted in advance, but biologists and administrators must be held accountable if they do occur.
1. Oil pollution of the environment
1.1 Environmental pollution from oil spills
The emergence of about 35% of oil hydrocarbons in offshore areas in the early 70s was caused by spills and discharges during the transportation of oil by sea. Spills during transportation and unloading account for less than 35% of the total size and discharges of oil to the soil and clean water of the environment. Data from the late 70s show that this figure has risen to 45% in offshore areas. In urban areas, oil spills and releases can be 10% or slightly less. By comparison, most coastal or inland oil spills occur in transit.
Oil discharges into water quickly cover large areas, while the thickness of the pollution also varies. Cold weather and water slows down the spread of oil on the surface, so this amount of oil covers larger areas in summer than in winter. Spilled oil is thicker where it collects along the coastline. The movement of an oil spill depends on wind, current and tides. Some types of oil sink (sink) and move under the water column or along the surface, depending on the current and tides.
Crude oil and refined products begin to change composition depending on the temperature of air, water and light. Low molecular weight components evaporate easily. The amount of vapor varies from 10% in case of spills of heavy types of oil and oil products (No. 6 heating oil) to 75% in case of spills of light types of oil and oil products (No. 2 fuel oil, gasoline). Some low molecular weight components can dissolve in water. Less than 5% of crude oil and petroleum products dissolve in water. This "atmospheric" process causes the remaining oil to become denser and unable to float on the surface of the water.
Oil oxidizes under the influence of sunlight. A thin film of oil and oil emulsion oxidizes more readily in water than a thicker oil layer. Crude oils with a high metal content or low sulfur content oxidize faster than oils with a low metal content or high sulfur content. Fluctuations in water and currents mix oil with water, resulting in either an oil-water emulsion (a mixture of oil and water), which will dissolve over time, or an oil-water emulsion that will not dissolve. Water-oil emulsion contains from 10% to 80% water; 50-80 percent emulsions are often referred to as "chocolate mousse" because of their dense, viscous appearance and chocolate color. Mousse spreads very slowly and can remain unchanged on water or shore for many months.
The movement of oil from the surface of the water in the process of dissolution and transformation into an emulsion delivers oil molecules and particles to living organisms. Microbes (bacteria, yeast, filamentous fungi) in the water change the composition of the oil into small and simple hydrocarbons and non-hydrocarbons. Oil particles, in turn, adhere to particles in the water (debris, mud, microbes, phytoplankton) and settle at the bottom, where microbes change light and simple components. The heavy components are more resistant to microbial attack and eventually settle to the bottom. The effectiveness of microbial exposure depends on water temperature, pH, salt percentage, oxygen availability, oil composition, water nutrients and microbes. Thus, microbiological deterioration most often occurs when oxygen, nutrients and water temperatures rise.
Microbes exposed to oil multiply in marine organisms and react quickly to large releases of oil. 40% to 80% of spilled crude oil is exposed to microbes.
Different organisms attract oil. Filtering zooplankton, bivalve molluscs absorb oil particles. Although molluscs and most zooplankton are unable to digest oil, they can carry it and are temporary storage facilities. Fish, mammals, birds and some invertebrates (crustaceans, many worm-like) digest a certain amount of oil hydrocarbons, which they swallow during feeding, cleansing, breathing.
The residence time of oil in water is usually less than 6 months, if the oil spill did not occur the day before or directly in winter in northern latitudes. Oil can be trapped in ice before spring, when it is exposed to air, wind, sunlight and increased microbial exposure, accompanied by an increase in water temperature. The residence time of oil in coastal sediments, or already exposed to atmospheric influences as a water-oil emulsion, is determined by the characteristics of the sediments and the configuration of the coastline. The retention period of oil in the coastal environment ranges from a few days on cliffs to more than 10 years in tidal and damp areas.
Oil retained in sediments and onshore can be a source of pollution in coastal waters.
Periodic storms often lift huge amounts of settled oil and carry them out to sea. In places with a cold climate, due to ice, slow wave movement, less chemical and biological activity, oil remains in sediments or on the shore for a long period of time than in places with temperate or tropical climates. In cold climates sheltered from the ebb and flow and damp areas, are able to hold oil indefinitely. Some sediments or moist soils do not contain enough oxygen for decomposition; oil decomposes without air, but this process is slower.
Oil spilled on the ground does not have time to be exposed to the weather before it hits the soil. Oil spills on small water surfaces (lakes, streams) are usually less weather-affected until they reach the shore than oil spills in the ocean. Differences in current speed, soil porosity, vegetation, wind and wave direction affect the time period for oil to remain at the coastline.
Oil spilled directly on the ground is vaporized, oxidized and attacked by microbes. In porous soil and low water tables, oil spilled on the ground can contaminate the ground water.
1.2 Responsibility for oil spills
Responsibility for oil spills is a complex and difficult process, especially for large spills. The extent of liability is determined by the size and location of the spill.
A 1,000-gallon spill in a port or conservation area will attract more attention than the same amount spilled 200 miles offshore in the Atlantic Ocean. Hazardous substances spilled in the ocean, in close proximity to the coast and main waterways of the mainland of the United States are protected by the United States Coast Guard (CG). All other spills in the country are under the protection of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). State and regional teams representing the respective agencies coordinate the work related to major oil spills.
The perpetrators of the oil spill may be held accountable for the clean-up, or they may suggest GC and EPA take responsibility. These services can oversee clean-ups if the efforts of those responsible for the spill are insufficient. The actual clean-up of an oil spill can be carried out by those who have spilled the oil, by private contractors or by cooperatives sponsored by private entrepreneurs. Local fire brigades are often involved in responding to small oil spills on land. Methods for protecting or cleaning up areas affected by oil spills vary.
The environment and circumstances of a spill dictate how oil is cleaned up to reduce environmental impact. The American Petroleum Institute (API) provides excellent advice on oil spill cleanup methods and the unique characteristics of the marine environment (API Publication # 4435). Most of the methods used to combat oil spills and protect the marine environment are also applied to clean up freshwater environments. Exceptions are methods that include chemicals (dispersants, absorbents, gelling agents) designed for use in salt water. Only EPA approved chemicals can be used to clean up oil spills.
State and local authorities should develop plans for possible oil spills, according to which the primary areas for protection and clean-up are identified; tasks are set to be performed and those responsible for their implementation are appointed. Typically, local and federal biologists responsible for natural resources, lawyers, clean-up contractors, specially trained animal rehabilitation specialists and local officials are involved. In addition, large spills attract the attention of volunteers, media representatives and observers.
While no two oil spills are exactly the same, historical events introduce the reader to the typical problems encountered and their biological impact. The emphasis of each case depends on the specialty of the author (i.e. the cases described by biologists have more biology-related details).
The organization responsible for the oil spill is responsible for the consequences. The Act on General Responsibility for Environmental Protection and Compensation for Damage, adopted in 1980. (CERCLA), as amended in 1986, provides remediation, cleanup, and natural resource remediation measures that are administered by federal, state, local or foreign governments, or Indian tribes. Natural resources include: land, air, water, groundwater, drinking water, fish, animals and other representatives of fauna and flora. The latest rules for assessing damage to natural resources are published in Federal Digest (FR) publications 51 FR 27673 (Type B rules) and 52 FR 9042 (Type A rules) and are systematized in 43 CFR Part 11.
Additions and corrections to these rules are printed in collections 53FR 5166, 53 FR 9769. Type A rules are one of the models for using standard physical, biological and economic data for simplified assessment. A minimum site survey is required. Type B of the regulation is an alternative description of more complex cases where the environmental damage, the size of the spill, and the duration in time are unclear. Extensive supervision is necessary. Thus, the Exxon Valdes oil spill is classified as type B.
Type B requires master data collected by the government agencies responsible for the affected resources. Highlights :
1. Establish (determine) the relationship between damage and oil spill. This clause requires documents on the movement of oil from the spill site to the affected resources.
2. Determination of the degree of damage caused. Data on the geographic magnitude of the hazard and the degree of pollution will be required.
3. Determination of the “before the start of the spill” state. This requires data from previous, normal conditions in areas affected by spills.
4. Determination of the amount of time required to restore the previous "pre-spill" state. This will require historical data on environmental conditions and the impact of oil on the environment.
The term "harm" defines changes in the biology of the surrounding world. Type B of the rules identifies 6 categories of harm (death, disease, behavioral deviations, the occurrence of cancer, physiological dysfunctions, physical changes), as well as various allowable (taken into account) biological deviations that can be used to confirm harm.
Inadmissible (disregarded) deviations can be used if they meet the 4 criteria that were used to identify the tolerances. The extent of harm is based on data that distinguish between pre-harm and post-harm, or between the affected and control areas.
The procedure defined by CERCLA ensures that a thorough and legal assessment of the impact of an oil spill on the environment is being carried out. However, the CERCLA procedure is complex and time-consuming, especially for a Type B harm assessment. For example, after a harm assessment has been made, either a valid “damage” assessment must be made using either a Type A computer program or a thorough financial assessment and justification. type B recovery.
Court decision of July 1989 ruled that the funds collected from defendants for recovery should be minimal. Losses are not an obligatory alternative to planned, more expensive and complex restoration measures, but should be included in the cost of restoration work.
The Administration for the Problems of National Oceanography and Atmosphere, in accordance with the requirements of the Oil Pollution Act, adopted in 1990, develops the Rules for assessing damage to natural resources directly by oil. Once completed, the new Rules will be used to assess oil spills instead of the existing Damage Assessment Rules.
The best approach for a biologist or surveyor is to collect a large amount of evidence to document the impact of an oil spill. Relevant evidence includes animal bodies (carcasses), examination of affected animals, types of tissues or bodies for chemical examination of oil availability, population surveys, reproductive capacity, documentary photographs of spills, documentary records of all correspondence; spill-related activities, inventory of species (animals), description of sites.
2. Impact of oil pollution on the environment
Oil externally affects birds, food intake, nest egg contamination and habitat change. External oil contamination destroys plumage, entangles feathers, and irritates the eyes. Death is the result of exposure to cold water, birds drown. Medium to large oil spills typically kill 5,000 birds. Birds, which spend most of their lives in the water, are most vulnerable to oil spills on the surface of water bodies.
Birds ingest oil when they peel feathers, drink, eat contaminated food, and breathe fumes. Swallowing oil rarely causes immediate death of birds, but leads to extinction from hunger, disease, and predators. Bird eggs are very sensitive to oil. Contaminated eggs and plumage of birds will oil their shells. A small amount of some types of oil may be sufficient to kill during the incubation period.
Habitat oil spills can have both rapid and long-term effects on birds. Oil fumes, food shortages, and clean-up measures can reduce the use of the affected area. Soggy areas heavily polluted with oil, tidal muddy lowlands can change the biocenosis for many years.
The direct or indirect impact of oil spills on bird populations has always been evaluated. The recovery of species depends on the reproductive capacity of survivors and on the trait for migration from the disaster site. Deaths and reduced reproduction caused by oil spills are easier to detect locally or in colonies than at a regional or species scale. Natural death, vital activity, weather conditions, feeding and migration of birds can hide the consequences of single or periodically occurring disasters. For example, seabird populations in western Europe continue to increase despite the accidental or pollution-related deaths of many native bird species.
Less is known about the effects of oil spills on mammals than on birds; even less is known about the effects on non-marine mammals than on marine mammals. Marine mammals that are primarily distinguished by the presence of fur (sea otters, polar bears, seals, newborn fur seals) are most often killed by oil spills. Oil contaminated fur begins to tangle and lose its ability to retain heat and water. Adult sea lions, seals and cetaceans (whales, porpoises and dolphins) are distinguished by the presence of a layer of fat, which is affected by oil, increasing heat consumption. In addition, the oil can irritate the skin, eyes and interfere with normal swimming ability. There have been cases where the skin of seals and polar bears absorbed oil. The skin of whales and dolphins suffers less.
A large amount of oil that has entered the body can lead to the death of a polar bear. However, seals and cetaceans are more resilient and digest oil quickly. Ingested oil can cause gastrointestinal bleeding, renal failure, liver intoxication, and blood pressure disorders. Vapors from oil fumes lead to respiratory problems in mammals that are near or in close proximity to large oil spills.
There are not many documents on the impact of oil spills on non-mammals. A large number of muskrats were killed by a fuel oil spill from a bunker on the St. Lawrence River. In California, huge marsupial rats died after oil poisoning. Beavers and muskrats were killed by an aviation kerosene spill on the Virginia River. In an experiment in the laboratory, rats were killed as they swam through oil-contaminated water. The harmful effects of most oil spills can be attributed to food cutbacks or changes in certain species. This influence can have a different duration, especially during the mating season, when the movement of females and juveniles is limited.
Sea otters and seals are particularly vulnerable to oil spills due to their density, constant exposure to water and the effect on fur insulation. An attempt to simulate the impact of oil spills on the seal population in Alaska has shown that a relatively small (only 4%) percentage of the total will die in “emergencies” caused by oil spills. The annual natural mortality (16% females, 29% males) plus deaths due to entry into marine fishnets (2% females, 3% males) was much higher than the planned losses from oil spills. It will take 25 years to recover from an “emergency”.
The exposure of reptiles and amphibians to oil pollution is not well known. Sea turtles eat plastic items and oil clots. The absorption of oil by green Atlantic sea turtles has been reported. Oil could kill sea turtles off the coast of Florida and in the Gulf of Mexico following an oil spill. Turtle embryos died or developed abnormally after the eggs were exposed to the oil-covered sand.
Weathered oil is less harmful to embryos than fresh oil. Recently, oil-covered beaches could pose a problem for newly hatched turtles, which must cross beaches to reach the ocean. Various types of reptiles and amphibians have died as a result of fuel oil spills from Bunker C on the St. Lawrence River.
The frog larvae were exposed to fuel oil no. 6, which could be expected in shallow waters as a consequence of oil spills; mortality was higher in larvae in the last stages of development. Larvae of all groups and ages presented showed abnormal behavior.
Larvae of forest frogs, marsupial rats (salamanders) and 2 fish species were exposed to several effects of fuel oil and crude oil under static conditions and in motion. The sensitivity of amphibian larvae to oil was the same as that of 2 fish species.
Fish are exposed to oil spills in the water through the consumption of contaminated food and water, and from contact with oil during the movement of eggs. Fish deaths, excluding juveniles, usually occur with serious oil spills. Consequently, a large number of adult fish in large reservoirs will not die from oil. However, crude oil and petroleum products have a variety of toxic effects on different fish species. A concentration of 0.5 ppm or less of oil in water can kill trout. Oil has an almost lethal effect on the heart, changes respiration, enlarges the liver, slows down growth, destroys fins, leads to various biological and cellular changes, and affects behavior.
Larvae and juveniles of fish are most sensitive to the effects of oil, the spills of which can kill fish eggs and larvae on the surface of the water, and juveniles - in shallow waters.
The potential impact of oil spills on fish populations was estimated using the Georges Bank Fishery model of the US northeastern coast. Typical contamination determinants are toxicity,% oil in water, location of the spill, seasons and species affected by contamination. The normal fluctuations in the natural mortality of eggs and larvae for marine species such as Atlantic cod, common cod, and Atlantic herring are often much larger than those caused by a huge oil spill.
Oil spill in the Baltic Sea in 1969 led to the death of numerous species of fish that lived in coastal waters. As a result of studies of several oil-polluted sites and a control site in 1971. it was found that fish populations, age development, growth, state of the body did not differ much from each other. Since such an assessment was not carried out prior to the oil spill, the authors could not determine whether individual fish populations had changed over the previous 2 years. As in birds, the rapid effects of oil on fish populations can be determined locally rather than regionally or over time.
Invertebrates are good indicators of pollution from discharges due to their limited movement. Published data from oil spills are often more fatal than impact on organisms in the coastal zone, in sediments or in the water column. The impact of oil spills on invertebrates can last from a week to 10 years. It depends on the type of oil; the circumstances under which the spill occurred and its effects on organisms. Colonies of invertebrates (zooplankton) in large volumes of water return to their previous state (before the spill) faster than those in small volumes of water. This is due to the greater dilution of emissions in the water and the greater potential to expose zooplankton in adjacent waters.
Much work on invertebrates has been carried out with oil in laboratory tests, experimental ecosystems, closed ecosystems, field trials, and other studies. Less work has been done with invertebrates in fresh waters, in laboratory and field trials. The result of these studies was a document on the effect of various types of crude oil and petroleum products on the survival of invertebrates, their physiological functions, reproduction, behavior, populations and colony composition, both over short and long periods of time.
Plants, due to their limited movement, are also good objects to observe the impact of environmental pollution on them. Published data on the impact of oil spills contain facts of death of mangroves, sea grass, most algae, strong long-term destruction of marsh and freshwater animals from salt; increase or decrease in biomass and photosynthetic activity of phytoplankton colonies; changes in the microbiology of colonies and an increase in the number of microbes. The impact of oil spills on major native plant species can last from several weeks to 5 years depending on the type of oil; the circumstances of the spill and the species affected. Work on mechanical cleaning of damp places can increase the recovery period by 25% -50%. Full restoration of a mangrove forest will take 10-15 years. Plants in the water column of large volumes return to their original state (before the oil spill) faster than plants in smaller bodies of water.
The role of microbes in oil pollution has led to a huge amount of research on these organisms. Studies in experimental ecosystems, field trials were conducted to determine the ratio of microbes to hydrocarbons and various emission conditions. In general, oil can stimulate or inhibit microbial activity, depending on the amount and type of oil and the state of the microbial colony. Only persistent species can consume oil as food. Microbial colonies can adapt to oil, so their numbers and activity can increase.
The effects of oil on marine plants such as mangroves, seagrass, salt marshes and algae have been studied in laboratories and experimental ecosystems. Field trials and studies were carried out. Oil causes death, reduces growth, reduces reproduction of large plants. Depending on the type and amount of oil and the type of algae, the number of microbes either increased or decreased. Changes in biomass, photosynthetic activity and colony structure were noted.
The effect of oil on freshwater phytoplankton (periphyton) has been studied in laboratories and field trials have also been conducted. Oil has the same effect as seaweed.
The remote ocean environment is characterized by water depth, distance from shore, and a limited number of organisms that are susceptible to oil spills. Oil spreads through water, dissolves in the water column under the influence of wind and waves.
The number of seabirds, mammals, and reptiles in the remote area is less than off the coast, so large oil spills in the coastal ocean do not have a strong impact on these species. Adult fish are also not often victims of oil spills. Phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish larvae at the surface of the water are exposed to oil, so it is possible for these organisms to be reduced locally.
The remote ocean area is not a priority during cleanup operations. Usually nothing is done with oil until it poses a threat to the islands. A detailed description of the marine habitat and cleaning choices can be found in the US Petroleum Institute (API), publication 4435.
The coastal ocean environment stretches from the deep waters of the remote area to the low water level, and therefore is more complex and biologically productive than the environment of the remote area. The coastal zone includes: isthmuses, isolated islands, barrier (coastal) islands, harbors, lagoons and estuaries. The movement of water depends on the ebb and flow, complex underwater currents, wind directions.
In shallow coastal waters, there may be brown algae, seagrass beds or coral reefs. Oil can collect around islands and along the coast, especially in sheltered areas. Large amounts of oil on the surface of the water at a depth of only a few meters can create a large concentration of oil in the water column and in sediments. The movement of oil near the surface of the water in shallow waters will have direct contact with the ocean floor.
The concentration of birds varies greatly depending on the place and time of the year. Many birds in this habitat are very sensitive to the oil that is on the surface. Oil spills pose a great threat during the mating season in the nesting areas of colonies and in places of stopping during migration.
Sea otters can be severely affected by oil spills. Sea lions, fur seals, walruses, seals are most endangered during the mating season. Adult couples and calves can be exposed to oil in coastal areas as they travel to remote cliffs or islands. Polar bears can also be exposed to oil if spilled oil collects along or under the edge of coastal ice.
Whales, porpoises, dolphins and sea turtles are not heavily exposed to oil. Adult fish do not die in large numbers, but eggs and larvae when moving in the sea are more sensitive to the effects of oil than adults. Organisms that live on the surface of the water (phytoplankton, zooplankton, invertebrate larvae) can be exposed to oil. Molluscs, crustaceans, various types of worms and other organisms of underwater flora and fauna can also be severely affected on the surface of the water.
Protective actions and clean-up operations are usually carried out during an ocean oil spill when contact with land or important natural resources is possible. The clean-up effort depends on the circumstances of the spill. Proximity of oil spills with densely populated areas, harbors, public beaches, fishing grounds, places of concentration of wildlife (important natural areas), nature reserves; endangered species; also the habitat of the coastal line (sheltered from the tides, swamps) affects the protection measures and cleanup. While high winds and storms interfere with major protective and clean-up efforts, they also tend to dissolve oil in water until it reaches the shore.
The coast consists of zones between high and low waters, adjoining areas of land inhabited by animals and plants related to the marine environment. This environment includes: rocky cliffs, sandy beaches, gravels, cliffs, mudflats, swamps, mangroves and areas of adjoining highlands. The susceptibility to oil spills in the coastal environment increases with increasing porosity of the lower soil layer (substrate) and decreasing wave strength.
In some places, densely populated nesting sites of birds during the mating season and a large number of birds during the migration period can be found. The sheltered areas also protect against fish-eating predators and large numbers of birds on the shore. Therefore, during this period, oil on the coast is a huge danger. It also poses a danger to seals during the mating season when small seals move to the water's edge. Oil-flooded beaches pose a threat to sea turtles when they lay their eggs in sand that has been recently contaminated with oil, or in sand that has been contaminated during incubation and when juveniles move towards the ocean. Living organisms in shallow waters can be seriously affected by oil spills along the coastline.
The coastline of non-porous origin (rocks), or of low porosity (dense sandy soil, fine-grained sand), exposed to intense wave action, are usually not objects of treatment measures, since nature itself quickly cleans them. Coarse sand and pebble beaches are often cleaned with heavy mobile equipment. Cleaning up rocky beaches is difficult and intensive work. Ebb and flow mud bars, mangroves and marshes are very difficult to clean due to the unsteadiness of the substrate, vegetation and the lack of efficiency of cleaning methods. These areas typically employ techniques that minimize degradation of the substrate and enhance natural clean-up. Limited access to the coast often severely hinders cleanup operations.
Lakes and enclosed bodies of water vary in percentage of salt from fresh (less than 0.5 ppm) to highly saline (40 ppm). Lakes vary widely in size, configuration and water characteristics, making the impact of spilled oil and biological consequences difficult to predict. Little is known about the impact and impact of oil spills on the freshwater ecosystem. A review was recently posted regarding this issue. Below are some important observations about lakes:
The chemical and physical properties of oil should be similar to those found in the oceans.
The level of change and the relative importance of each change mechanism may differ.
The influence of wind and currents decreases as the size of the lakes decreases. Small lakes (compared to oceans) increase the likelihood of spilled oil reaching the shore when the weather is relatively stable.
Rivers are moving fresh waters that differ in length, width, depth and water characteristics. General river observations:
Due to the constant movement of water in a river, even a small amount of spilled oil can affect a large amount of water.
An oil spill is significant when it comes into contact with river banks.
Rivers can carry oil quickly during floods that are as strong as the sea tide.
Shallow waters and strong currents of some rivers can facilitate oil penetration into the water column.
The most susceptible to oil spills on lakes and rivers are birds, such as: ducks, geese, swans, loons, grebes, chasers, coots, cormorants, pelicans, kingfishers. The highest concentration of these species in northern latitudes is observed in the pre- and migration periods. In southern latitudes, the highest concentration of these birds is observed in winter. Cormorants and pelicans also settle in colonies for nesting. Muskrats, river otters, beavers and nutria - mammals - are the most vulnerable to pollution.
Reptiles and amphibians fall prey to oil spills when they encounter it in shallow waters. Amphibian eggs laid in close proximity to shallow water surfaces are also affected by oil.
Adult fish die in shallow streams where oil gets into. Species inhabiting shallow waters off the coast of lakes and rivers also suffer losses. The mortality of fish in rivers is difficult to determine because dead and crippled fish are carried away by the current. Phytoplankton, zooplankton, eggs / larvae in close proximity to the water surface of lakes are also affected by oil. Aquatic insects, molluscs, crustaceans and other flora and fauna can be severely affected by oil in shallow lakes and rivers. Many dead and crippled freshwater are carried away by the current.
The measures to protect and cleanse lakes are identical to those used to clean up the oceans. However, these measures are not always suitable for the protection and treatment of rivers (suction with pumps, use of absorbents). The rapid spread of oil by the current requires a quick response, simple methods, and the cooperation of local authorities to clean up polluted riverbanks. Winter oil spills in northern latitudes are difficult to clean up if the oil mixes or freezes under the ice.
Wet areas occur along the sea coast in closed places where the influence of wind is minimal and the water brings a lot of sedimentary material. These areas have a slightly sloping surface on which salt water tolerant grasses, woody plants grow; tidal canals without any vegetation. These areas also vary in size, from small, isolated areas of a few hectares to low-lying coastlines stretching for miles. Damp land areas, which receive water from streams, differ in the amount of salt (from salty to fresh). Damp land areas are either permanently underwater or dry until spring streams appear.
Non-marine wet areas occur at the boundaries between lakes (fresh and salty), along streams; or it is an isolated habitat that depends on rainfall or groundwater. Vegetation ranges from aquatic plants to shrubs and trees. Most birds use wet temperate areas during the ice-free months. In some damp areas, the activity for reproduction is high, in others it is limited. Damp areas are actively used during migration and after the end of winter. The most dangerous are oil spills for the following species: ducks, geese, swans, grebes, chasers and coots. Muskrat, river otter, beaver, nutria, and some small mammals in damp areas can also be affected by pollution. Reptiles and amphibians can be affected by oil spills during egg-laying and when adults and larvae are in shallow waters.
Adult fish die in damp areas if they are unable to enter deep waters. Fish eggs, larvae, phytoplankton, zooplankton, marine insects, molluscs, crustaceans and other representatives of fauna and flora that are in shallow waters or near the surface can be severely affected by oil spills.
Damp areas deserve priority protection due to high productivity, substrate instability and abundant vegetation. Once spilled, oil gets into wet areas where it is difficult to remove. The tidal action carries oil along the wet coastlines, while fresh and saltwater vegetation traps it. Protective measures and cleaning methods usually consist of non-destructive measures (rapid rise, absorbents, low pressure washing, use of natural drainage). Natural cleaning is most preferable when the pollution is not very severe. Ice, snow and cold temperatures prevent people from cleaning these areas.
Quite often, environmental pollution is carried out involuntarily, without a definite intent. Great harm to nature is caused, for example, from the loss of oil products during their transportation. Until recently, it was considered acceptable that up to 5% of the produced oil is naturally lost during its storage and transportation. This means that on average, up to 150 million tons of oil gets into the environment a year, not counting various accidents with tankers or oil pipelines. All this could not but have a negative effect on nature.
The sight of animals affected and suffering from oil is of great concern to people. Compassion for animals is a guarantee of widespread coverage of the problem by the mass media (media) that oppose oil spills.
Thus, every action taken against oil spills is a concern for animal recovery. Public pressure to help oil-affected animals resonated with the public in many parts of the world; voluntary organizations responsible for the restoration of contaminated wildlife. Improvements in treatment procedures and the professionalism of animal rehabilitation personnel over the past 15 years have markedly improved the success of rehabilitation efforts.
Rehabilitation of animals affected by pollution is a small part of the concern for animal populations, as the number of animals contaminated by oil during oil spills is so great and the work of collecting and cleaning up oil is so enormous that only a small number of birds and mammals can actually get real help. Uncertainty about the fate of rehabilitated animals further diminishes the importance of this work. However, rehabilitation efforts can be essential for affected or rare animal species. The greater impact of rehabilitation is noticeable in animals with low reproductive capacity than in long-lived animals with high reproductive capacity.
Rehabilitation of animals affected by oil pollution is expensive and not so biologically important, but it is a sincere expression of human concern.
3. Industrial enterprises of the Astrakhan region and the environment
The main sources of air pollution are Astrakhangazprom LLC, Astrakhanenergo LLC. The main sources of pollution of water bodies are housing and communal services in Astrakhan, sea transport
In the region, there is a low quality of return waters discharged into open water bodies by enterprises - users of natural resources. The excess is most often noted for such ingredients as ammonium nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, oil products, iron, copper. Discharges from 26 enterprises, 43 sewage treatment plants and water pipelines, 4 fish-breeding enterprises, 6 storm and drainage sewers were checked.
118.5 thousand tons of pollutants entered the atmosphere from stationary sources, including 9.2 thousand tons in the city of Astrakhan (Fig. 1).
The main air pollutant in the region is the Astrakhangazprom LLC - its emissions are 102 thousand tons or 86% of the regional volume. The increase in gross emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere at the LLC Astrakhangazprom enterprise in comparison with 2002 by 3.2 thousand tons is associated with an increase in the volume of processing of reservoir gas (Fig. 2).
According to the inventory of waste disposal and storage facilities in the city and 439 settlements of the Astrakhan region, more than 440 waste dumps were identified, of which about 300 are unauthorized, 7 waste landfills, of which 6 solid waste landfills and 1 industrial waste landfill. The total area of \u200b\u200bland occupied by landfills is 634 ha, landfills - 65 ha. Of the total number of unauthorized landfills in the city of Astrakhan, there are 91 landfills. The total area of \u200b\u200bland occupied by unauthorized waste dumps is 182.4 hectares, incl. in the city of Astrakhan - 63.0 hectares.
Unauthorized landfills contain solid household waste, waste from dwellings generated by the population, consumer waste in production similar to household waste, street waste, selectively construction waste and scrap metal.
The amount of waste accumulated at authorized landfills is 282.2 thousand tons, unauthorized ones - 47.7 thousand tons, at landfills for solid waste and industrial waste 2677 thousand tons.
On the territory of the city of Astrakhan, 30.8 thousand tons of waste have been accumulated at unauthorized dumps. In the right-bank part of the city, a tense ecological situation is again created, associated with the lack of areas for the placement of solid industrial and domestic waste. A similar situation in the next 1-2 years may develop in the left-bank part of the city, since the existing solid waste landfill located in the village. Poundovo, Privolzhsky district, can receive waste until 2006.
An unfavorable environmental situation has developed with the disposal of liquid sewage and domestic wastewater from the cesspools of the non-sewerage part of the city, which are currently placed on the sludge (drain) maps of the southern treatment facilities for biological sewage treatment. At this time, their elimination and construction of drainage pumping stations is required in accordance with the requirements of building codes and regulations.
The main sources of air pollution are industrial, transport and domestic emissions.
Every year the industry and transport of the Astrakhan region emit about 200 thousand tons of pollutants into the atmosphere. This means that an average of 200 kg of pollution falls on one inhabitant of the region. A significant part of the region's atmospheric emissions (about 60%) comes from the Astrakhangazprom enterprise.
In order to protect people and other organisms from the effects of pollutants, maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) of pollutants in the natural environment are established.
In recent years, emissions into the atmosphere of pollutants from industrial enterprises have been decreasing. This is due to the decline in production at the enterprises of the city of Astrakhan and some improvement in the work of the enterprise "Astrakhangazprom" in environmental matters. But at the same time, the amount of pollutants entering the atmosphere from mobile sources - vehicles - is increasing.
Pollutants entering the air, as a rule, are not typical of its composition or have an insignificant content in natural conditions. These are substances such as: sulfur dioxide, hydrogen, soot, ammonia, nitrogen oxides, formaldehyde and other volatile organic substances. Carbon dioxide is also a pollutant, since an increase in its content in the atmospheric air causes a "greenhouse effect" - a warming of the Earth's climate.
Any increase in the capacity of industrial enterprises will lead to an increase in atmospheric pollution. Currently, the most acceptable way to reduce environmental pollution by industrial emissions is the use of dust collection and gas cleaning equipment.
The state of the air environment is influenced by utilities. In cold winters, air pollution from these plants increases.
A powerful source of air pollution in the past years was the accidental emissions of pollutants by the enterprises "Astrakhangazprom" and "Astrakhanbumprom". At the same time, methane, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), mercaptans, nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2), soot, but most of all sulfur dioxide, entered the air. Meanwhile, the increased content of sulfur and nitrogen compounds in the atmosphere causes acid precipitation. This has become a major environmental problem for both the Astrakhan region and the country as a whole.
Road transport is one of the main and often the main source of air pollution. Therefore, air pollution can be reduced by using all kinds of devices that reduce the flow of pollutants with exhaust gases. In developed countries, such devices are now widely used - catalysts that provide more complete combustion of fuel and partial capture of pollutants. An important measure to reduce toxic emissions from cars is the replacement of poisonous lead additives in gasoline with less toxic ones and the use of unleaded gasoline. All gasoline produced at the Astrakhangazprom enterprise is produced without additives containing lead, which significantly reduces environmental pollution with this hazardous substance.
In our country, the use of automotive catalysts is not mandatory, therefore, they are not used on domestically produced cars. In recent years, many old imported cars have appeared on the roads of Russia, the use of which in foreign countries without catalysts is prohibited. This significantly deteriorated the quality of atmospheric air on the streets of many cities, including Astrakhan.
An ecological problem remains one of the most urgent for the Astrakhan region. It is associated primarily with air emissions from cars and the gas complex, as well as water pollution. In recent years, the air pollution index from the AGPP in Aksaraysk has significantly decreased. However, the concentration of harmful gases in the atmosphere remains high enough.
Drinking water pollution indicators in the Astrakhan region are lower than in other regions of the Russian Federation, as evidenced by drinking water samples. However, the spread of chemicals along the rivers continues. Particularly acute is the problem associated with sewage treatment plants and sewerage systems. These facilities do not function well. As a result, the water after the flood stagnates, rots, forming a focus of diseases.
Protection of the atmosphere includes constant monitoring not only of its condition, but also of the organization of the work of enterprises and vehicles. Operation "Clean Air" is carried out annually in the Astrakhan region, during which automobile enterprises, car service stations, cars on highways are checked for toxicity and smoke. Then, measures are developed to reduce air pollution: diagnostic posts are created, equipped with modern control devices, and areas for repair, engine adjustment and others are organized.
According to the Information Department of the Administration of the Astrakhan Region, in order to reduce air pollution in the 8-kilometer specially controlled zone of the Astrakhan gas complex and to develop a network for monitoring the air condition in the city of Astrakhan and the region, by the decree of the acting head of the regional administration Eduard Volodin in 2001 a number of related activities. The management of Astrakhangazprom LLC was asked to develop a complex of air protection measures, which would provide for the organization of a sanitary protection zone with the obligatory resettlement of its residents, as well as completion in 2001 of the reconstruction of the automated air pollution control system. In addition, Gazprom will be asked to take measures to reduce specific emissions into the atmosphere and improve the environmental friendliness of its products. The Astrakhan Center for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring was asked to develop and implement by March 1, 2001, methodological recommendations for predicting a high level of pollution of the atmospheric boundary layer in the area of \u200b\u200bthe AGK and the city of Narimanov, as well as regulating emissions. Next year, monitoring of the ecological state of the atmospheric air may also be carried out in Akhtubinsk and Znamensk.
As of December 31, 2006, the network of specially protected natural areas of the Astrakhan region consisted of two state nature reserves, four state nature reserves, three biological reserves and 35 natural monuments.
In general, the state of natural complexes existing on the territory of the region of PAs in the past year was satisfactory. However, there is a need to examine the territories of some natural monuments in order to make a decision on the advisability of their reorganization in connection with the loss to a large extent of the main protected natural objects and complexes and nature conservation functions. As before, fires continue to pose a serious threat to the natural complexes of protected areas. The issue of regulating the residence of citizens and their grazing of their personal livestock on the territory of the Stepnoy State Nature Reserve remained unresolved.
In 2006, the ecological and toxicological situation in the river. The Volga and its delta were characterized by the stabilization of indicators of oil, phenolic, detergent pollution and metals such as cadmium, nickel, cobalt. The most unfavorable situation was observed on the watercourses of the Belinsky Bank and in the river. Volga in the urban area, where increased concentrations of all HMs were noted. The waters of the Volga-Caspian Canal have a high level of oil pollution.
During the hydrobiological monitoring in 2006, it was found that the water area of \u200b\u200bthe Volga-Akhtuba floodplain, according to the classification of surface water quality, is assessed as transitional from “weak” to “moderately polluted”. In general, the toxicological situation in the Caspian Sea was relatively favorable for aquatic organisms.
Conclusion
The development of the oil and gas processing industry and the processing of hydrocarbon raw materials also negatively affects the environmental situation. Product pipelines pose a certain environmental hazard, especially in the places where they cross water bodies.
In the modern world it is impossible to find a densely populated region with developed industry and agriculture, which would not face the problem of environmental pollution. The Astrakhan region did not escape this fate. The main polluting factors are: emissions of gaseous and solid substances into the atmosphere, discharge of contaminated wastewater into water bodies, ill-considered and irrational use of fertilizers and pesticides, non-compliance with their storage standards, excessive plowing of land, littering them with household waste dumps and industrial waste.
Human activities before the start of intensive industrial development negatively affected individual ecosystems. Deforestation and the construction of settlements and cities in their place led to land degradation, reduced their fertility, turned pastures into deserts, caused other consequences, but still did not affect the entire biosphere, did not violate the balance that existed in it. With the development of industry, transport, with an increase in the population on the planet, human activity has turned into a powerful force that changes the entire biosphere of the Earth. Environmental pollution by industrial and household waste is one of the main factors affecting the state of the Earth's ecological systems.
Pollutants change the composition of water, air and soil, which is the cause of many global environmental problems, such as climate change, the appearance of acid precipitation, the decline in the number of many species of plants and animals, lack of clean fresh water and others.
Currently, almost all spheres of human activity associated with the provision of material benefits and energy resources cause a change in the natural environment, which means that in many cases they are ecologically unfavorable.
List of references
1. Federal Law No. 174 "On Ecological Expertise" dated 23.11.95.
2. Federal Law No. 2060-1 "On environmental protection" dated 19.12.91.
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4. Bernard N. Environmental Science. - M .: Mir, 1993.
5. Bolbas M.M. Fundamentals of Industrial Ecology. Moscow: Higher School, 1993.
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