What is psychoanalysis? Psychoanalysis.
Academic Psychology and Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis developed primarily outside the mainstream of academic psychology. A similar situation persisted for a long time. American Academic Psychology did not accept the psychoanalytic doctrine. An unsigned editorial in the Journal of Anomalous Psychology for 1924 expressed clear irritation with this "endless stream of European psychologists' work on the unconscious." In this article, they were hardly mentioned as completely unworthy of attention.
It is clear that in such a situation, very few psychoanalytic works have been awarded publication in professional publications. Such discrimination continued for at least 20 years. Many academic psychologists have fiercely criticized psychoanalysis. In 1916, Christina Ladd - Franklin wrote that psychoanalysis is the product of an "underdeveloped ... German mind." It should be noted that this judgment was made at a time when all German was perceived with great suspicion against the backdrop of German aggression in the First World War.
Robert Woodworth of Columbia University called psychoanalysis a “creepy religion,” which even sane people lead to completely absurd conclusions. John B. Watson generally defined the Freudian position as shamanism, voodoo. Despite all these caustic attacks on psychoanalysis by the leaders of academic psychology and their attitude to him as yet another “crazy” theory, nevertheless, some Freudian ideas made their way into American psychology textbooks in the early 1920s. The problem of psychological defense mechanisms, as well as the explicit and latent (latent) content of dreams, was quite seriously discussed in psychological circles. However, since behaviorism remained the dominant school, psychoanalysis as a whole was simply ignored.
The Psychology of Psychoanalysis
However, in the 30s and 40s, psychoanalysis was unexpectedly widespread among the public. The combination of sex, violence and hidden motives, as well as the promise to cure a wide range of various emotional disorders, looks very attractive, almost irresistible. Official psychology is furious because, from her point of view, people can confuse psychoanalysis and psychologybelieving that they are doing the same thing. The official psychologists were sick of the thought that someone might consider that sex, dreams, and neurotic behavior - this is all that psychology does. “In the 1930s, it became clear to many psychologists that psychoanalysis is not just another crazy idea, but a serious competitor that threatens the very foundations of scientific psychology, at least in the minds of the general reading public.”
In order to cope with this threat, psychologists decided to check psychoanalysis for its compliance with the strict criteria of science. They conducted "hundreds of studies whose ingenuity could argue only with the futility of the results." A similar flurry of research, although, for the most part, poorly executed, proved that psychoanalysis is significantly behind the level of experimental psychology, at least from the point of view of the adherents of experimental psychology themselves. As a result, this allowed them to once again take the position of "arbiters and guardians of psychological truth." In addition, these studies have shown that academic psychology may be of interest to the general public, since it deals, in essence, with the same issues as psychoanalysis.
In the 50s and 60s of the last century, many behaviorists were engaged in translating psychoanalytic terminology into the language of their concept. We can say that Watson himself laid the foundation for this trend when he defined emotions as just a set of habits, and neurosis as a result of an unfortunate set of circumstances. Skinner also turned to the Freudian idea of \u200b\u200bthe protective mechanisms of the psyche, describing them as a form of operant conditioning. In the end, psychologists learned many of the Freudian ideas, which even eventually became part of the main body of psychological theories. Recognition of the role of unconscious processes, the importance of referring to children's experiences, the study of the action of protective mechanisms - this is an incomplete list of psychoanalytic ideas that have become widespread in modern psychology.
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Psychology Articles
Carl Jung and Analytical Psychology
Jung gradually developed his own psychology of unconscious processes and the analysis of dreams. He came to the conclusion that the methods by which he analyzes the symbols of patients' dreams can also be applied to the analysis of other forms of symbolism, that is, he selected the key to the interpretation of myths, folk tales, religious symbols and art \u003e\u003e\u003e
Psychology of the unconscious
Let us follow in what way Freud came to the discovery of the unconscious. It goes from a mental symptom to an unconscious. Symptoms are ascertained. They enter reality as functional disorders of the body or thinking and become the cause of suffering for the affected subject, moreover, the cause of complaints. Before Freud, these complaints remained stubbornly impenetrable to the psychology of a psychiatrist. But he did not take the direct path, from symptom to unconscious. He chose a roundabout way through thickets of dreams, erroneous actions and even acuity. Before him, all this was considered insignificant and especially not serious in the eyes of psychiatrists \u003e\u003e\u003e
The Psychology of Breastfeeding
The psychoanalysts who created the psychology of the emotional development of a person are also, to some extent, responsible for some reassessment of the significance of the breast for the infant's psyche. No, they were not mistaken, but time has passed and now “good breast” is a slang psychoanalytic word meaning completely satisfactory maternal care and parental attention in general. Psychologists say that the ability to babysit a baby, hold it in hands and handle it is a more important indicator that a mother is successfully coping with her task than the fact of actual breastfeeding \u003e\u003e\u003e
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Psychoanalysis is one of the areas in psychological science that is based on the definition of anxieties and internal conflicts of a person hidden in the depths of the subconscious. Such conflicts can be one of the causes of psycho-emotional injuries. The founder of this trend is Sigmund Freud, who devoted his life to the study of unconscious processes. Thanks to his teachings, psychologists from all over the world got the opportunity to work with the motives of the behavioral model hidden in the subconscious of the individual. Let's find out what psychoanalysis is in psychology and talk about the basics of this doctrine.
Psychoanalysis is a psychological theory founded by Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud, as well as the eponymous treatment of mental disorders.
Psychoanalysis is one of the psychological teachings that considers the human person in the form of a struggle between consciousness and the subconscious. This confrontation affects the level of emotional perception and self-esteem, and also determines the degree of interaction with the outside world. More often than not, the source of the conflict between the subconscious and the conscious is the negative life experience gained by a person throughout his life. Human nature is designed in such a way that each person tries to avoid various types of pain and is aimed at seeking pleasure.
Psychoanalysis is a direction that studies the interaction between the unconscious and conscious areas.
The theory of psychoanalysis is based on the assertion that the human person is based on three components: the unconscious, preconscious and conscious parts. Each of these components is interchangeable and interdependent. The preconscious part contains human desires and fantastic ideas. Focusing on such stimuli redirects them from the preconscious part to the realm of consciousness. Morality and morality are social values \u200b\u200bthat define a human person. Their influence on the perception of certain life events can make the consciousness perceive various life situations as painful or permissible. With a painful perception, memories of traumatic circumstances are deposited in the unconscious area.
Such a life experience, as it were, is separated from the rest, with the help of invisible barriers. Human psychoanalysis is based on two analytical mechanisms:
- The study of spontaneous acts that occur throughout life.
- Analysis of personality, through associations and interpretations of dreams.
Freud's Theory
The human behavioral model is regulated through consciousness. Research on this topic, helped Sigmund Freud to identify the existence of a certain layer, which is responsible for various lusts and inclinations. Since Freud was a practitioner, in his studies he determined the existence of a whole layer of motives, which are called unconscious.
The goal of psychoanalytic therapy is to unravel a person’s personality, and not just calm him down According to Freud’s teachings, precisely such motives are the root cause of the occurrence of diseases of the nervous system and the human psyche. Thanks to this discovery, scientists were able to find the means that can stop the struggle within the patient’s personality. One of these tools was the method of psychoanalysis, which is a method of resolving internal conflicts. The treatment of neuropathic pathologies was not the main goal of Freud. This great scientist sought to find methods that will help to restore the patient’s mental health as much as possible. Thanks to the trial and error method, a theory of analysis of the patient’s personality has been developed, which is widely used today.
The uniqueness and effectiveness of Freud’s methodology has become very widespread and has become one of the most famous “tools” for restoring the psyche. The classical version of psychoanalysis should be considered as a kind of revolution in psychological science.
What is the theory of psychoanalysis
What does psychoanalysis study? The basis of this teaching is based on the assumption that the behavioral model has inherently unconscious motives that are hidden deep inside the person. The middle of the last century can be described as a revolution in psychological science, since methods were presented to the world that allow you to look at internal psychological stress from a new point of view.
According to Freud, the human person consists of three components. They received the names “Superego,” “I,” and “It.” “It” is the unconscious part of the personality in which various objects of gravity are hidden. “I” is a continuation of “It” and arises under the influence of external forces. “I” is one of the most complex mechanisms, the functionality of which covers both the conscious and unconscious levels. Based on this, it follows that the "I" is one of the tools to protect the psyche from external influences.
Many of the mechanisms that protect the psyche from damage at birth are prepared for the influence of external stimuli. However, a violation of the process of personality formation and the negative microclimate that reigns within the family can become a source of various pathologies. In this case, the influence of objective reality leads to a weakening of protective mechanisms and becomes the cause of curvature. It is the strength of the curvature of the adaptive defense mechanisms that leads to the occurrence of mental disorders.
Psychoanalysis is a method of scientific observation, the study of personality: its desires, drives, impulses, fantasies, early development and emotional disorders Psychoanalysis as a direction of psychology
The definition of the characteristics of the human psyche, proposed by Freud, is widely used in psychology. To date, many modern methods of psychotherapeutic correction have been built on this theory. Jung’s analytical psychoanalysis and Adler’s individual psychoanalysis are some of the main “tools” for identifying internal conflicts that are sources of pathological perception.
The theories of the aforementioned scientists are based on the research of Sigmund Freud. The main difference between these techniques is the limited importance of sexual motives. Thanks to Freud's followers, the unconscious part of the personality received new characteristics. According to Adler, the manifestation of love of power is a compensation for the inferiority complex.
Jung's research was based on the study of the collective unconscious. According to the scientist, the unconscious part of the psyche of the individual is based on hereditary factors. According to Freud himself, the unconscious level is filled with phenomena that were pushed out of the conscious part of the psyche.
The use of psychoanalysis in psychology
The method of psychoanalysis is based on three main elements that fully reveal the whole concept of this teaching. The first element is a kind of stage at which the material for study is collected. The second element involves a thorough study and analysis of the data. The third element is the interaction using data obtained from the analysis. A variety of techniques are used to collect information, including opposition, association, and transference.
The method of constructing free associations is based on creating a model of situations that exactly repeat certain life events. This approach allows you to identify certain processes that occur at an unconscious level of the psyche. The use of this method allows you to obtain data on pathological processes, with the aim of further correction of mental disorders. Correction is carried out by recognizing internal conflicts and the causes of their occurrence. One of the important conditions in the use of this method is the creation of a strong communicative connection between the psychologist and the patient, aimed at eliminating psychological discomfort.
Psychoanalysis studies the internal, proceeding from the subconscious, guided by instincts and the principle of pleasure, human tension For this, the patient must voice every thought that is born in his head. These thoughts may be obscene or on the verge of absurdity. In order to achieve a high result, it is necessary to create the right connection between the doctor and the patient. The transfer technique implies an unconscious transfer of the characteristic personality traits of the patient's parents to the attending physician. Thus, the patient treats the doctor in the same way as he treated close relatives in early childhood. At the same time, the substitute has the opportunity to identify children's desires, grievances and psychological injuries received during the formation of personality.
It is important to pay attention to the fact that psychotherapeutic intervention often encounters the phenomenon of internal resistance coming from the patient. It manifests itself in the form of a refusal to comprehend causal relationships and a violation of the process of creating a new behavior model. The reason for the resistance is an unconscious refusal to touch internal conflicts, which is accompanied by the appearance of obstacles to identifying the causes of mental disorders.
The main task of personality analysis is to perform four sequential actions:
- interpretation;
- mining;
- clarification;
- contrasting.
Further, the joint efforts of the patient and the psychologist are aimed at achieving a specific goal, which was identified as a result of the analysis. The interpretation of dreams involves the interpretation of dreams, which are a deformed form of unconscious motives.
The modern theory of psychoanalysis
Representatives of psychoanalysis such as Alfred Adler, Jacques Lacan, Karen Horney and Karl Jung made an invaluable contribution to the development of this area of \u200b\u200bpsychology. It was their modified theory of classical psychoanalysis that made it possible to create new methods for revealing the hidden properties of the human psyche. Over the hundred years that have passed since the advent of the method of psychoanalysis, various principles have appeared, on the basis of which a multi-level system has been built that combines various approaches to solving internal conflicts.
Thanks to Freud's followers, whole complexes of psychotherapeutic correction have appeared, which contain methods for studying the unconscious part of the human psyche. One of these methods is the release of personality from those restrictions that are created in the subconscious area and impede personal development.
To date, the technique of psychoanalysis includes three main branches that are complementary and interconnected with each other:
- Applied Psychoanalysis - It is used to identify and study general cultural factors by which certain social issues are resolved.
- The clinical form of psychoanalysis - a methodology for therapeutic assistance to people faced with internal conflicts that provoke the emergence of neuropsychiatric pathologies.
- Psychoanalytic ideas - which are a kind of soil for the construction of methods of actual correction.
A person who has undergone psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic therapy will be able to fundamentally change himself and his life. Psychoanalysis has a high degree of spread in various fields of science. Psychoanalysis in philosophy is a peculiar method of interpreting the principles and customs established in society. The classical form of psychoanalysis has become one of the reasons for the development of the sexual revolution, since it is in it that the concept of sexual attraction is most clearly expressed. Today's form of psychoanalysis is based on ego psychology and the teachings associated with object relations.
Today, the use of the method of analysis of the patient’s personality helps to cope with both neurotic diseases and complex mental disorders. Thanks to the continuous improvement of this area, scientists every day identify new ways to eliminate various pathologies. A huge contribution to the improvement of this branch was made by the followers of Freud, whose teaching was called neo-Freudianism. However, despite the high prevalence and application in various fields, the theory of psychoanalysis is often faced with criticism. According to some scholars, this area is pseudoscience and has undeservedly gained such high popularity.
Chapter 3. Basic concepts of psychoanalysis
crowding out
Crowding out -the process of removal from consciousness and retention outside of its mental content, one of the mechanisms for protecting a person from conflicts that are played out in the depths of his psyche.
The basis of psychoanalysis was composed of several ideas and concepts about the nature and functioning of the human psyche, among which the idea of \u200b\u200brepression occupied an important place. As noted in the section devoted to the consideration of the philosophical origins of the emergence of psychoanalysis, in the work “On the History of the Psychoanalytic Movement” (1914), Freud emphasized that he came to the theory of repression on his own and for many years considered it original. But once O. Rank drew Freud's attention to the work of the German philosopher A. Schopenhauer, “The World as a Will and a Representation” (1819), which contained the idea of \u200b\u200bresisting the perception of a painful condition, and it became obvious that this coincided with a psychoanalytic understanding of repression. It is possible that the acquaintance of 3. Freud with the work of A. Schopenhauer, to which he referred in his work “The Interpretation of Dreams” (1900), served as an impetus to his advancement of the concept of repression. It is also possible that he could have gained the idea of \u200b\u200brepression from G. Linder's textbook on empirical psychology. This textbook was a generalized presentation of the main ideas of I. Herbart, the author of the position according to which much of what is in consciousness is “squeezed out of it” (it is known that during the last year of study at the gymnasium, Freud used the textbook of G. Linder).
Otto Rank (1884–1939) - Austrian psychoanalyst, one of the first students and associates of Freud. In 1906 he met the founder of psychoanalysis, presenting him a letter of recommendation from A. Adler and a manuscript of the work “Art and Artist”. On the advice of Freud received a university education, becoming a doctor of philosophy. Over the years - Secretary of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, editor of the psychoanalytic magazine Imago, director of the International Psychoanalytic Publishing House in Vienna. He possessed considerable erudition and analytical gift of interpretation of myths, legends, dreams. In 1924, he put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bbirth trauma, according to which this traumatic event underlies the occurrence of neurosis. In 1935 he emigrated to the United States, practiced psychoanalysis and taught at various universities. He advanced the concept of volitional therapy. The author of the works “The Myth of the Birth of a Hero” (1909), “The Incest Motif in Poetry and Saga” (1912), “Trauma of Birth” (1924), “Volitional Therapy” (1936) and others.
Freud's ideas about crowding out really formed the basis of psychoanalysis. So, in the work “Research on Hysteria” (1895), published in collaboration with J. Breyer, he suggested that some psychic force not located on the side of the Self initially displaces the pathogenic idea from the association, and subsequently prevents it from returning to memory. In The Interpretation of Dreams, he developed this idea: the main condition for crowding out (crowding out) is the presence of a children's complex; the process of crowding out concerns a person’s sexual desires from childhood; repression is easier to remember, rather than perception; repression is appropriate at first, but in the end it turns into a pernicious rejection of psychic dominance.
Freud did not have a clear definition of repression. In any case, in his various works he understood by repression:
¦ the process by which a mental act that can be conscious is made unconscious;
¦ return to an earlier and deeper stage of development of a mental act;
¦ pathogenic process, manifested in the form of resistance;
¦ a kind of forgetting, in which memory “wakes up” with great difficulty;
¦ one of the personal protective devices.
Thus, in classical psychoanalysis, repression revealed similarities with phenomena such as regression, resistance, and the defense mechanism. Another thing is that, along with the recognition of the similarities, Freud at the same time noted the differences between them.
In particular, in “Lectures on the Introduction to Psychoanalysis” (1916–1917), he emphasized that although repression falls under the concept of “regression” (a return from a higher stage of development to a lower one), repression is still a topically dynamic concept, and regression is purely descriptive. Unlike regression, repression deals with spatial relationships, including the dynamics of mental processes. Repression is a process that is primarily characteristic of a neurosis and characterizes it best. Without crowding out, the regression of libido (sexual energy) does not lead to neurosis, but results in perversion (perversion).
When considering crowding out, Freud raised the question of his powers, motives, and conditions of exercise. The answer to this question came down to the following: under the influence of external circumstances and internal motives, a person has a desire that is incompatible with his ethical and aesthetic views; the clash of desire with opposing norms of behavior leads to intrapsychic conflict; the resolution of the conflict, the cessation of the struggle are carried out due to the fact that the idea that arose in the human mind as a carrier of incompatible desire is subjected to repression into the unconscious; performance and its related memory are removed from consciousness and forgotten.
According to Freud, displacing forces serve the ethical and aesthetic requirements of a person arising from him in the process of education and cultural development. That displeasure which he experiences when it is impossible to realize an incompatible desire is eliminated by repression. The motive for repression is the incompatibility of the corresponding representation of a person with his self. Repression acts as a mental defense mechanism. At the same time, it gives rise to a neurotic symptom, which is a substitute for what was prevented by crowding out. Ultimately, repression is a prerequisite for the formation of neurosis.
To illustrate the process of crowding out, one can use the comparison used by Freud in his lectures on psychoanalysis at Clark University (USA) in 1909. In the lecture room there is a person who breaks the silence and distracts the attention of the lecturer with his laughter, chatter, and stamping of feet. The lecturer announces that under such conditions he cannot continue reading the lecture. Several strong men from among the listeners assume the function of restoring order and after a short struggle put the violator of silence out of the door. After the troublemaker has been ousted, the lecturer can continue his work. But so that the negligent listener doesn’t get into the audience again, the men who have forced them out sit near the door and assume the role of security guards (resistance). If we use the language of psychology and name the place in the audience with consciousness, and behind the door with the unconscious, this will be a picture of the process of repression.
The study and treatment of neurotic disorders led Freud to the conviction that neurotics are not able to completely supplant ideas associated with incompatible desires. This idea is eliminated from consciousness and memory, but it continues to live in the unconscious, at the first opportunity it activates and sends a distorted substitute from itself into consciousness. Unpleasant feelings, which, it would seem, a person got rid of due to repression, join the substitute idea. Such a substitute idea is a neurotic symptom, as a result of which, instead of the previous short-term conflict, prolonged suffering occurs. As Freud noted in his work “The Man of Moses and the Monotheistic Religion” (1938), the previously repressed idea, awakened under the influence of a new reason, contributes to the intensification of a person’s repressed attraction. And since the path to normal satisfaction is closed for him by what may be called a “crowning scar,” it paves a different path for itself somewhere in a weak spot. The path to the so-called ersatz-satisfaction, making itself felt now in the form of a symptom that arises without “consent”, but also without understanding from the side of consciousness.
To recover from a neurotic, it is necessary that the symptom be translated into a repressed representation along the same paths as the repression from consciousness to the unconscious. If, thanks to overcoming the resistances, it is possible to translate the repressed back into consciousness, then the intrapsychic conflict, which the patient wanted to avoid, under the guidance of the analyst can get a better way out than with the help of repression. In this regard, repression was seen by Freud as an attempt of a person “to escape into illness”, and psychoanalytic therapy as a good substitute for unsuccessful repression.
An illustration of the analytical work is the same comparison that was used by 3. Freud when giving lectures at Clark University. So, despite the crowding out, the expulsion of the violator of silence from the audience and the establishment of a guard in front of the door do not give a full guarantee that everything will be in order. Forced from the audience and offended by his cries and knocking with his fists at the door, he can make such noise in the corridor that it will interfere even more with lecturing than his previous indecent behavior. It turned out that crowding out did not lead to the expected result. Then the organizer of the lecture takes on the role of mediator and restores order. He negotiates with the violator of silence and turns to the audience with a proposal to once again allow him to lecture, and he gives the word that the latter will behave in an appropriate manner. Relying on the credibility of the organizer of the lecture, students agree to stop the crowding out, the troublemaker returns to the audience. Peace and silence come again, as a result of which the necessary conditions for normal lecture work are created. Such a comparison is suitable for the task that, according to Freud, falls to the lot of the doctor in the psychoanalytic therapy of neurosis.
The founder of psychoanalysis distinguished between the unconscious in general and the repressed unconscious. The concept of “unconscious” is purely descriptive, in a sense indefinite and static. The concept of “crowded out” is a dynamic one, which speaks of the occurrence of various, often opposing, mental processes and indicates the presence of some kind of internal force (resistance), which is able to restrain mental actions, including actions to realize material distanced from consciousness.
According to Freud, the repressed unconscious represents such a part of the human psyche that contains forgotten perceptions and pathogenic experiences that are the source of neurotic diseases. In the repressed unconscious is everything that can manifest itself not only as a neurotic symptom, but also in the form of a dream or an erroneous action.
In the article “Some remarks on the concept of the unconscious in psychoanalysis” (1912), Freud wrote that in the most visual form the repressed unconscious makes itself felt in a dream. During the night, a string of thoughts brought to life by a person’s daily spiritual activity is connected with any unconscious desires that the dreamer has from early childhood, but which are usually crowded out and excluded from his conscious being. These thoughts can become active again and emerge in consciousness in the form of a dream, the hidden meaning of which, as a rule, he knows nothing and, therefore, does not guess the content of what is in the repressed unconscious.
In the work “I and It” (1923), which outlined a structural approach to the examination of the human psyche, Freud noted that the repressed is a typical example of the unconscious. At the same time, he emphasized that the psychoanalytic concept of the unconscious follows directly from the doctrine of repression, and that in the strict sense of the word, the term “unconscious” applies only to the repressed dynamic unconscious.
In the process of analytical work, based on the topical (spatial) and dynamic idea of \u200b\u200bthe human psyche, it was found that the distinction made between the preconscious and the repressed unconscious turned out to be insufficient and almost unsatisfactory. It turned out that the consciousness connected with the consciousness of I, on the one hand, organizes repression, due to which part of the psyche becomes saturated with the material of the repressed unconscious, and on the other hand, resists attempts to approach the repressed in analytical therapy. Since the resistance, about which the patient does not know anything, proceeds from his Self and belongs to him, then, therefore, in the Self itself there is something unconscious, which manifests itself like a crowded out one, but is not such. As Freud noted later in his work “The Man of Moses and the Monotheistic Religion” (1938), it is true that everything repressed is unconscious, but it is not true that everything that belongs to me is conscious. Hence the need arose for a structural understanding of the human psyche, for recognition, along with the preconscious and repressed unconscious, of such an unconscious in the Self, which was called Freud of the Super-Self. Moreover, he began to proceed from the fact that the repressed unconscious merges with It, but represents only part of it. Thanks to the resistance to repression, this repressed unconscious is isolated only from the Self. With the help of It, it opens up the possibility of connecting with the Self.
The selection in the structure of the psyche of the unconscious Super-Self made it necessary to consider the relationship between it and the repressed unconscious. Having made an attempt of this kind, Freud expressed the idea that the Super-Self has a double face of the Ideal Self: one personifies duty ("you must be like a father"); the other is a ban (“you do not have the right to do everything that your father does, since only he has the right to much”). The prohibition emanating from the Super-I is associated with the crowding out of the Oedipus complex. Moreover, from Freud’s point of view, it is noteworthy that the very occurrence of the Super-I in the human psyche is due to repression, the presence of the repressed unconscious. The stronger the Oedipus complex was at a certain stage of the child’s psychosexual development, the faster it was supplanted by upbringing, the more severe the Superself subsequently turns out to dominate the I in the form of conscience, unconscious guilt.
As psychoanalysis developed and developed, Freud introduced various refinements to his understanding of repression. At the approaches to psychoanalysis, he preferred to talk more about protection than about crowding out, which was reflected, in particular, in his article “Protective neuropsychoses” (1894). Subsequently, he shifted the emphasis of research to the plane of extension of the theory of repression, according to which:
¦ the ousted remains legally competent;
¦ one can expect the repressed to return, especially if the erotic feelings of the person join the repressed impression;
¦ the first act of repression is followed by a long process, when the struggle against attraction is continued in the fight against the symptom; with therapeutic intervention, resistance appears to act in defense of crowding out.
So, in the article “Repression” (1915) 3. Freud put forward the idea of \u200b\u200b“primary repression”, “repression in the aftermath” (“pushing through”, “post-repression”) and “returning the repressed” in the form of neurotic symptoms, dreams, erroneous actions.
Later, the founder of psychoanalysis again returned to the concept of “protection” in order to establish the relationship between defense mechanisms and repression. In particular, in the work “Inhibition, Symptom and Fear” (1926), he emphasized that there is every reason to again use the old concept of “protection” and include repression as one special case (in Russian-language editions of this work, translated under the name “Fear”, the term “reflection” is used instead of the concept of “protection”). Along with this refinement, he identified five types of resistance (three emanating from the I, one from It, and one from the Super-I), among which the “repression resistance” was related to one of the types of resistance of the I.
In his last works, for example, in The Final and Endless Analysis (1937), Freud once again drew attention to the problem of crowding out and noted that all crowding-outs occur in early childhood, representing primitive protective measures of an immature, weak self. In subsequent periods of development new repressions do not arise in man, but old ones remain, the services of which I resort to, seeking to control my drives. New conflicts are resolved through post-crowding. The true achievement of analytical therapy is the subsequent adjustment of the initial displacement process. Another thing is that, as Freud noted, the therapeutic intention to replace the previous repressions, which led to the emergence of the patient's neurosis, is not always carried out in full by reliable forces of the Self.
The idea expressed by Freud in the work “Inhibition, Symptom, and Fear” that repression is one of the forms of protection served as an impetus to the disclosure of the mechanisms of protection of the Self by other psychoanalysts. A. Freud published the book “I and Defense Mechanisms” (1936), in which, along with crowding out, nine more defense mechanisms were identified, including regression, projection, introjection, and others. Subsequent psychoanalysts began to pay special attention to defense mechanisms. Freud emphasized in his work “Finite and Endless Analysis” that he never had any doubts that “repression is not the only method that I have for my purposes”, but it is something “completely special, more sharply different from other mechanisms than how they differ from each other. ” The essence of analytical therapy remains unchanged, since the therapeutic effect, according to Freud, is associated with the awareness of the repressed in It (unconscious), and the repressed is understood in the broadest sense.
Anna Freud(1895–1982) - daughter and follower of Z. Freud, founder of child psychoanalysis. Received teacher education, worked as a teacher. In the years 1918-1921 she underwent an analysis with her father. Since 1918, she participated in meetings of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society and in international congresses. In 1923 she opened her own psychoanalytic practice, in 1924 she headed the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute, in 1926 she became secretary of the International Psychoanalytic Society. In 1938, she emigrated with her father to England, where a year later she opened a children's military shelter-nursery. From 1944 to 1947 she was elected Secretary General of the International Psychoanalytic Association. She opened training courses for child psychoanalysts and in 1952 became director of the Children's Therapy Clinic in Hempstead. Honorary Doctor of Harvard and Columbia Universities. In 1973 she was elected honorary president of the International Psychoanalytic Association. He is the author of the books Introduction to the Technique of Child Psychoanalysis (1927), I and Defense Mechanisms (1936), Norm and Pathology of Childhood (1965). She worked on the publication of the collected works of 3. Freud, which was published in London in 1942-1945.
When considering the psychoanalytic understanding of repression, it must be borne in mind that Freud's interpretation of it was refined as psychoanalysis developed. This concerned not only the relationship between protection and displacement, but also the driving forces that drive the displacement process. After the founder of psychoanalysis carried out the structural division of the psyche into It, I and the Super-I, the question arose of which psychic authority should relate repression to. Answering this question, he came to the conclusion that repression is a Super-Self affair, which either conducts repression on its own or “gives a task” to repress the obedient I. This conclusion was made by him in the “New cycle of lectures on the introduction to psychoanalysis” ( 1933), which contained various additions to his previous views, including an understanding of dreams, fear, and the components of the psyche.
Ultimately, in psychoanalysis, importance is attached to the repressed unconscious, the nature, conditions and forces of education of which are the subject of both research activity and therapeutic practice. It is no accident that the analysis of dreams, erroneous actions and neurotic symptoms by means of psychoanalysis revealed the essential role of the repressed unconscious in the formation of these phenomena.
Sayings
Z ... Freud: "The theory of crowding out is both the cornerstone on which the building of psychoanalysis is based, and the most important part of the latter."
Z. Freud: “Everything repressed is unconscious, but we cannot say with respect to everything unconscious that it is repressed.”
Z. Freud: ““ The crowded out ”is a dynamic word that takes into account the play of psychic forces and indicates that there is a desire to exert all psychic influences, among them a desire to become conscious, but there is also an opposite force, resistance, which can contain some of these psychic actions, among them the action of awareness. A sign of the repressed remains that, despite its power, it is not able to become aware. ”
Z. Freud: “We recognize that culture and high education have a great influence on the development of repression, and we assume that this changes the mental organization, which may be introduced by an inherited predisposition. As a result of such changes, what is usually perceived as pleasant now seems unpleasant and is rejected with all psychic powers. As a result of the repressive activity of culture, the primary, but now rejected by internal censorship, opportunities for enjoyment are lost. ”
Fixation and Regression
Commit -the person’s continued attachment to certain objects and goals, phases and stages of development, images and fantasies, methods of behavior and satisfaction, relationships and conflicts.
In psychoanalysis, the concept of fixation refers to the description of unconscious processes occurring at various stages of the child's psychosexual development. They are associated with the fixation of libido on a specific sexual object or sexual target, as well as with regression, focusing on trauma, mental delays and disorders, displacing pathogenic material from the human mind.
Reflections on the nature and specifics of fixation were contained in many of Freud's studies, from his first works to the works of a later period of his life, in which psychoanalytic ideas and theories underwent a change. So, in the “Interpretation of Dreams” (1900), when examining the psychic apparatus, the founder of psychoanalysis proceeded from the fact that in different psychic systems the same irritation may have one or another fixation. If one system includes fixing the association by simultaneity, then in the other system the same material can be located in other forms of coincidence. In the context of understanding the work of the dream, he distinguished between fiction and regression.
In the work “Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality” (1905), Freud examined the issues of fixing preliminary sexual goals, delays on an intermediate sexual goal of emphasized sexual staring, and fixing libido on people of their gender. Paying special attention to the conditions of the occurrence of sexual perversions, he expressed a number of considerations about the possible attachment of a person to certain stages of psychosexual development and certain features of a sexual object. In particular, he emphasized that perversions are explained not only by the fixation of infantile inclinations, but also by the regression to them as a result of blocking other ways of sexual attraction. In addition, Freud emphasized such a psychic phenomenon as “increased tenacity”, by which he understood the ability to fix the early impressions of sexual life, characteristic not only of perverse persons, but also of neurotics. And finally, he developed the idea that he had previously expressed in the mid-90s of the XIX century that random childhood experiences related to the influence on sexuality (for example, seduction from other children and adults) provide such material that can be captured and entail persistent mental disorders.
Freud's notion of fixation on trauma as a source of neurosis arose at the initial stage of psychoanalysis. Later he expanded the concept of fixation, relating it to sexual objects and goals, stages of psychosexual development and human activity in general. At the same time, in many of his works written at different periods of his life, fixation on trauma retained its pathogenic significance.
In his work On Psychoanalysis (1910), Freud noted that the fixation of mental life is a characteristic feature of neurosis, and that due to affective attachment to past painful experiences, neurotics cannot get rid of the past and for the sake of it leave the present unattended. In “Lectures on the Introduction to Psychoanalysis” (1916–1917), he gave a clear illustration of the causes of neurotic diseases. In this work, Freud demonstrated how and how patients are fixed on a certain segment of their past and cannot be freed from it, as a result of which the present and future remain alien to them. In the work “Beyond the Principle of Pleasure” (1920), he again emphasized that the patient was “psychologically fixed” on an injury and that this kind of fixation on the experiences that caused the disease was often observed with hysteria. At the same time, the founder of psychoanalysis correlated fixation with the obsessive repetition characteristic of all living organisms. In the book “The Man of Moses and the Monotheistic Religion” (1938), he not only examined neurosis through the prism of fixation and obsessive repetition, but also emphasized that negative reactions of the neurotic represent the same fixation on trauma as their antipodes, that is, positive reactions.
Only in this case we are not talking about the desire for an obsessive repetition, but about pursuing the opposite goal so that there are no memories and repetitions of a forgotten injury.
In "Lectures on the Introduction to Psychoanalysis," Freud expressed an idea that served as an impetus for the further development of psychoanalytic ideas about both fixation and neurosis. This idea boiled down to the fact that the phenomenon of fixation at a certain stage of the past goes beyond the scope of neurosis and may not coincide with it.
As an example of affective fixation on something, one can take such a person's condition as sadness. It leads to a complete departure from both the present and the future. But sadness, as Freud noted, is different from neurosis. Another thing is that there are neuroses, which are a pathological form of sadness.
From Freud's point of view, fixation leading to the onset of neurosis is nothing more than a halt to private attraction at an early stage of a person’s psychosexual development. The stronger any fixation on the path of development, the greater the likelihood that a person can regress to this fixation. In research terms, this leads to the assumption that fixation and regression are not completely independent of each other. In therapeutic activity, it is important not to lose sight of the relationship between fixation and regression, in which the inability to resist external obstacles and the corresponding regression depend on the degree of fixation on the patient’s psychosexual development path. In general, the fixation of libido is, according to Freud, a powerful factor in mental illness. However, in the etiology of neurosis, fixation of libido is a presumptive, internal factor. But it becomes pathological only when a forced refusal to satisfy the attraction, acting as a random, external factor, is added to it. In addition, it is important to consider how I relate to the strong fixation of my libido at some stage of its development. If it refers to it negatively, then an intrapsychic conflict arises, and the I resorts to repression where fixation is observed in the libido.
Thus, a psychoanalytic understanding of the causes of neurosis includes an idea of \u200b\u200bfixation and boils down to the following:
¦ first there is a forced refusal of attraction;
¦ then libido is fixed, restricting attraction in a certain direction;
¦ and finally, there is a tendency to mental conflict as a result of the development of the self, which rejects such a manifestation of libido.
Fixation is closely related with regressionwhich represents, in general terms, a return from a higher stage of development to a lower, in the psychoanalytic sense, a return to the previously passed stages of psychosexual development, to the original primitive ways of thinking and behavior.
Freud showed an interest in the problem of regression in connection with a consideration of the nature and specificity of dreams. In the work “Interpretation of Dreams”, the formation of a dream correlated with the regression process inside the supposed psychic apparatus, when all the correlations of thoughts disappear or find a vague expression, and the ideas turn back into sensory images, on the basis of which they were previously formed. In Freud's understanding, in an awake state of excitement and irritation, they are oriented toward the successive passage of systems of the unconscious, preconscious, and consciousness. During sleep, they flow in the opposite direction, rush to acts of perception. In this way, the pattern of the primitive and rejected due to its inexpediency of the work of the mental apparatus is preserved in a regressive way.
In The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud also drew attention to the fact that regression is characteristic not only of dreams, but also of normal thinking. For example, when intentional recollection corresponds to a return from some complex act of presentation to a simpler material of perception. Different visions of mentally normal people also correspond to regressions, not to mention hallucinations in hysteria and paranoia, which are really regressions and are thoughts that have turned into images. In this sense, Freud distinguished between regression of normal mental life and pathological cases of regression.
Subsequently, he repeatedly turned to understanding the phenomenon of regression. In one of the supplements to the reprint of The Interpretation of Dreams in 1914, Freud identified three types of regression:
¦ topicalassociated with the functioning of the mental apparatus with its characteristic systems of the unconscious, preconscious and consciousness;
¦ temporaryincluding regressions in relation to libidinal objects and stages of psychosexual development;
¦ formalcorrelated with the replacement of ordinary, developed forms and methods of figurative representation and thinking with more primitive, ancient ones.
As psychoanalytic ideas about the psychosexual development of man and the etiology of neurotic diseases deepened, Freud began to pay more and more attention to the processes of regression. In “Lectures on the Introduction to Psychoanalysis” (1916–1917), he singled out two types of regression: a return to the first libidinal objects of a narcissistic nature and a return of the general sexual organization to earlier stages of development. Both types of regression were perceived by him as typical, characteristic and playing a significant role in transfer neuroses.
Considering regression from the point of view of the return of sexual organization to an early stage of development, Freud warned analysts not to confuse regression and repression. In general terms, that is, in the sense of returning to an earlier, deeper stage of development of a psychic act, regression and repression are similar processes that he gave the name topical. But if the concepts of “regression” and “repression” are used in a special (psychoanalytic) sense, then it should be borne in mind that there is a fundamental difference between them, the essence of which can be reduced to the following: regression is a purely descriptive concept, repression is a topically dynamic; regression is not entirely a mental process, the organic factor plays a significant role in it, while repression is a purely mental process that has "nothing to do with sexuality."
Such ideas of Freud about the difference between regression and displacement were not only theoretical, but also had a practical orientation related to understanding the etiology of neurosis and the treatment of neurotic diseases. In particular, he proceeded from the fact that with hysteria, most often there is a regression of libido to primary incestuous objects, but there is no regression to an earlier stage of sexual organization and, therefore, when studying hysteria, the significance of regression becomes clear later than the role of repression in this disease. In case of neurosis of obsessive states, on the contrary, along with repression, libido regression to the early stage of sadistic-oral organization is a decisive factor in symptom formation.
In the work "Inhibition, symptom and fear" (1926) 3. Freud gave a metapsychological explanation of regression. In accordance with it, the decisive role in its formation is played by split, disconnected drives and distinguished erotic components, which from the initial phase of their development join the destructive drives of the sadistic phase. In the same work, he considered regression as one of Ya's defense mechanisms.
Freud's understanding of regression necessitated a further study of this phenomenon. Along with the conceptual developments that are in line with classical psychoanalysis, some researchers expressed such considerations that testified to the revision of the traditionally psychoanalytic view of the phenomenon of regression. So, K. G. Jung raised the question of recognizing the teleological significance of regression. He believed that a return to the infantile level is not only a regression, but also the possibility of finding a new life plan. That is, regression, in essence, is also a basic condition for a creative act.
In modern psychoanalytic literature, the problem of regression is discussed from the point of view of the causes of its occurrence, stages of development, depth of manifestation, object and subject of the goal, work results, the appropriateness of containment or activation in the process of analytical therapy. Along with the negative value of the regression leading to symptom formation, its positive values \u200b\u200bare also considered as an incentive to restore disturbed balance, an intermediate state to the implementation of adaptive reorientation. Analysts are also focusing attention on regression as a defense mechanism of the Self, “bad” regression as a state of disintegration, and “good” regression as a progressive process necessary for human life.
Sayings
Z. Freud: "The fixation of mental life on pathogenic injuries is one of the most important characteristic features of neurosis."
Z. Freud: “Every neurosis has such a fixation in itself, but not every fixation leads to a neurosis, coincides with it, or gets in its way.”
Z. Freud: "Regression is, of course, one of the most important psychological features of the dream process."
Z. Freud: “Regression of libido without repression would never lead to neurosis, but would result in perversion.”
Libido(from lat. libido–“Lust”, “desire”, “aspiration”) is a concept used to denote psychic energy, which gives impetus to various manifestations of sexuality, aimed at various objects and makes itself felt during the course of mental processes and the formation of structures of an individual, personal and sociocultural order .
The concept of "libido" was used by Cicero, according to whom, libido (or unbridled desire) is contrary to the mind and can be found among all fools. It was introduced into the scientific literature in the second half of the 19th century in the works of M. Benedict “Electrotherapy” (1868), A. Moll “The Study of Sexual Libido” (1898) to denote sexual desire, sexual instinct. At the beginning of the 20th century, the term "libido" was widely used in the framework of psychoanalysis to describe the various manifestations of sexuality.
Freud used the concept of "libido" before psychoanalysis arose. If the term "psychoanalysis" was introduced by him in scientific circulation in 1896, then his first use of the concept of "libido" refers to the middle of 1894. It is reflected in the work "Project of Scientific Psychology", which was sent in parts to his Berlin doctor V. Fliss and which was not published during Freud's lifetime. Drawing a distinction between neurosis of fear and melancholy, he wrote that the first phenomenon is characterized by the accumulation of physical sexual tension, while the second is the accumulation of mental sexual tension. The external source of excitation in the psyche causes such a change, which, increasing, turns into mental excitement. Having reached a certain amount, physical sexual tension generates a mental libido, which then leads to coitus. Fear neurosis is characterized by a deficiency of sexual affect, mental libido.
A few months later, at the end of 1894, Freud wrote that a patient who explains his reluctance to be lack of appetite actually has a different reason, since loss of appetite in sexual terms is nothing but a loss of libido. In this regard, he believed, melancholy is mourning for lost libido. More than two decades later, these ideas were further reflected in his work “Sorrow and Melancholy” (1917), where it was emphasized that with melancholy many fights for an object are established in which hatred and love are opposed to each other. The first is to free the libido from the object, the second is to maintain the libido position under the onslaught.
Letters to V. Fliss in 1897 contain Freud’s thoughts on infantile sexuality, according to which a delay in the realization of libido at an early age can lead to suppression and neurosis. Subsequently, these reflections were further developed in the work “Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality” (1905), in which, when examining the stages of the child’s psychosexual development, he correlated libido with a person’s sexual desire by analogy with hunger corresponding to eating instinct. In subsequent editions of this work, Freud advanced the psychoanalytic theory of libido. In accordance with it, libido was understood as a force capable of quantitative change, which can measure all processes and transformations in the field of sexual arousal.
For Freud, libido is, first of all, a special kind of energy that differs from the energy that underlies mental processes. Its specificity is that the libido has a special origin associated with sexual arousal, and has the character of a mentally pronounced amount of energy. Based on this understanding of libidinal energy, Freud believed that its increase or decrease, distribution or shift should and can explain the observed psychosexual phenomena. If the libido finds its psychological use in order to enter into a relationship with sexual objects, then in this case you can see how it is fixed on objects, moves from one object to another and directs a person’s sexual activity leading to satisfaction, that is, partial and temporary weakening , attenuation of libidinal energy.
In the work On Narcissism (1914), the theory of libido was further developed by Freud: he distinguished between the object-libido, self-libido, and narcissistic libido. This was due to three circumstances: a more thorough than earlier study of the question of a person’s attitude to his own body as a sexual object; therapeutic activity, during which the psychoanalyst experienced the narcissistic behavior of patients whose narcissism was not perversion, but a libidinal addition to the egoism of the self-preservation instinct; observations of the life of primitive peoples and children. The latter allowed us to make the assumption that initially the libido concentrates on its own Self (primary narcissism), then part of the libido is transferred to objects (the libido object), but this transfer may not be final, as a result of which the libido can again turn inside (secondary narcissism).
Speaking about different types of psychic energy, Freud believed that in a state of narcissism both types of energy are merged together and a crude analysis cannot distinguish between them. In the early works of the founder of psychoanalysis, the drive was divided into sexual drives and the self drive. Libido was understood as sexual energy, in the form of which the sexual drive tends to its realization and ultimately leaves an indelible mark on a person’s life.
The Freudian theory of libido presented in On Narcissism was a kind of response to the innovations that K. G. Jung introduced into the psychoanalytic understanding of libido, which was reflected in his book Libido, Its Metamorphoses and Symbols (1912). The final gap between them in 1913 was due to a number of circumstances, among which an important place was occupied by a divergence in views on libido. If in the first part of “Libido, its Metamorphoses and Symbols”, Jung still adhered to the Freudian understanding of libido, expressing only a few considerations about the possibility of using the concept of libido to explain what he called the “inversion neurosis”, then in the second part of this work he already unequivocally wrote not only about the need to transfer the Freudian theory of libido to the psychotic area, but also about the expanded interpretation of libido as such.
Having familiarized himself with the first part of the material that later became part of the publication Libido, Its Metamorphoses and Symbols, Freud, in one of his letters to Jung at the end of 1911, noticed that Jung’s thoughts on libido seemed interesting to him. At the same time, he expressed concern about possible misunderstandings in connection with an expanded interpretation of libido. He emphasized that for him the libido is not identical to any desire and that, according to his hypothesis, there are only two drives (sexual and self drives) and only the energy of sexual desire can be called libido. Freud was concerned that Jung might disappear for a long time, he said, "in clubs of religious-libidinal fog." Anticipating a negative attitude towards his innovations, the Swiss psychiatrist did not send the founder of psychoanalysis a handwritten version of the second part of his work. Meanwhile, in it, instead of the “descriptive psychological” or “actual sexual” concept of libido, he proposed a “genetic” definition, according to which the term “libido” began to mean psychic energy that went beyond sexuality in general. Jung's understanding of libido actually meant desexualization, since in an expanded interpretation of libido it covered, in addition to sexuality, other forms of “spiritual energy”. Therefore, it is not surprising that, after reading Jung's book on libido, Freud in his next letter answered him that he liked this work very much in particular, but did not like it in general.
From Jung's point of view, libido is not so much sexuality as psychic, spiritual energy as such, manifested in the life process and subjectively perceived by a person as an unconscious desire or desire. Since the libido undergoes a complex transformation, taking a variety of symbolic forms, the decoding and interpretation of libidinal symbolism is recognized as one of the essential tasks of analytical psychology put forward by Jung as opposed to Freud's classical psychoanalysis.
In The Libido, Its Metamorphoses and Symbols, Jung argued that the Freudian theory of libido turned out to be untenable in patients with schizophrenia. That is why he, Jung, had to resort to the expanded concept of libido, especially since, in his opinion, when analyzing Schreber’s case, carried out by Freud in the work “Psychoanalytic notes about one autobiographically described case of paranoia” (1911), the founder of psychoanalysis himself refused sexual meaning libido and identified it with mental interest in general. Such a statement caused sharp criticism from S. Ferenczi, who tried to defend the Freudian theory of libido. In turn, polemicizing with the Swiss psychiatrist about this, Freud, in his work On Narcissism, remarked that Jung’s statement was too hasty, the evidence he cited was insufficient, and he never stated such a rejection of the theory of libido.
The controversy between Jung and Freud in connection with the understanding of libido led to the fact that for a long time the founder of psychoanalysis did not recognize the extended interpretation of this concept. True, speaking out against various kinds of accusations of him of pansexuality, he emphasized that in psychoanalysis there is indeed an expanded interpretation of sexuality, if we understand this as a study of child sexuality and the so-called perversions (sexual perversions). But only in the 20s he began to use the more harmonious concept of “Eros”. At the same time, he invariably emphasized that the expanded sexuality of psychoanalysis is close to Eros of the “divine” Plato.
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Psychoanalysis (German Psychoanalyse) - a set of psychological theories and methods of psychotherapy put forward by Sigmund Freud at the beginning of the 20th century. This method is widely used in Europe (from the beginning of the XX century), the USA (from the middle of the XX century) and Latin America (from the second half of the XX century). Subsequently, the ideas of Z. Freud were developed by such psychologists as A. Adler and C. Jung.
Psychoanalysis was proposed by Freud as a scientific theory of the human psyche. Currently, the scientific status of psychoanalysis is a subject of controversy: some researchers claim that it is scientific, others question scientific viability, some researchers rank it as pseudoscience. At the same time, in the 20th century, psychoanalysis became widespread in philosophy, the humanities, literary and artistic criticism as a discourse, a method of interpretation, and a philosophical concept.
The most important areas of psychoanalysis
The theory of human behavior, the first and one of the most influential theories of personality in psychology - see also Psychology of personality. Usually refers to the classical psychoanalysis created by Sigmund Freud, but it is also used for any derivative (even a theory very different from it), for example, Jung’s analytical psychology or Adler’s individual psychology, which they prefer to denote by the term “neopsychoanalysis”.
Research methods for the main motives of human behavior. The fundamental subject of the study of psychoanalysis is hidden unconscious motives leading to disorders. They are detected through free associations expressed by the patient.
Methods and techniques for treating mental disorders based on the above analysis of the unconscious, manifestations carry and resistanceby technician interpretations and elaboration. The goal of the psychoanalyst is to help the patient free himself from the hidden mechanisms that create conflicts in the psyche, i.e. from familiar patterns that are not suitable or create specific conflicts in the realization of desires and in adapting to society.
Key representatives.
Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Karl Abraham, Karl Gustav Jung, Sandor Ferenczi, Hans Sachs, Otto Rank, Max Eitingon, Melanie Klein, Anna Freud, Jacques Lacan, Sullivan, Harry Stack, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, Heinz Kohut, Robert Stoll .
27. Russian cosmism of Nikolai Fedorov, Tsiolkovsky,
Nikolai Fedorovich Fedorov (June 7, 1829, Klyuchi, Tambov province, Russian Empire - December 28, 1903, Moscow, Russian Empire) - Russian religious thinker and philosopher-futurologist, librarian, teacher-innovator. One of the founders of Russian cosmism and transhumanism.
He was called "Moscow Socrates." With respect and admiration, Leo Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Vl. Spoke about Fedorov and his views. Solovyov. He dreamed of resurrecting people, not wanting to come to terms with the death of even one person. With the help of science, he intended to collect the scattered molecules and atoms in order to "put them into the bodies of the fathers."
Science Fedorov assigned a place next to art and religion in the common cause of the unification of mankind, including the dead, who in the future should reunite with the living.
Fedorov laid the foundations of a worldview that could open new paths for understanding the place and role of man in the universe. Unlike many attempts to build a universal planetary and cosmic worldview, relying on Eastern religions and occult ideas about the world, Fedorov considered himself a deeply religious Christian. He believed that the medieval worldview was untenable after the Copernican revolution, which opened up a cosmic perspective for man. But the main thing, according to Fedorov, in the teachings of Christ - the news of the impending bodily resurrection, the victory over the "last enemy" - he preserved unshakably death, putting forward the paradoxical idea that this victory will be accomplished with the participation of creative efforts and labor of mankind united in a brotherly family .
Fedorov at the end of the 19th century already foresaw what at the end of the 20th century they began to call "environmental global problems." He put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bturning a regular army from an instrument of death and destruction into an instrument of confronting the destructive elements of nature - tornadoes, hurricanes, droughts, floods - which today cause billions of dollars of damage to humanity every year. Today's science is already in principle capable of providing funds for the struggle against these elements, and the main factor on which the solution of these problems depends is the disunity of mankind, a deficit of reason and goodwill. However, in accordance with the Christian worldview, the presence of natural disasters does not testify to the disunity of mankind, but to the damage to human nature resulting from the fall.
N.F. Fedorov is called the philosopher of memory, Russian studies. In his works, many pages are devoted to history and culture, both Russian and world. He has repeatedly spoken out on the study and preservation of the cultural heritage of the past, has done a lot for the development of local history in pre-revolutionary Russia, and advocated overcoming historical forgetfulness and discord between generations.
N.F. Fedorov was a deeply religious person, participated in the liturgical life of the Church. The basis of his life position was the commandment of St. Sergius of Radonezh: "Looking at the unity of the Holy Trinity, defeat the hated division of this world." In the works of Fedorov, the Holy Trinity is mentioned more than a hundred times, it was in the Trinity that he saw the root of the impending immortality of man. In social and psychological terms, the image of the Trinity was for him the antithesis of both Western individualism and the eastern dissolution of personality in the universal. In his life and works, a synthesis of religion and science has been revealed. Religious journalist and philosopher Vladimir Ilyin considered Nikolai Fedorov the great saint of his time and compared him to Seraphim of Sarov.
Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky - Russian and Soviet self-taught scientist, researcher, school teacher. The founder of modern astronautics. He substantiated the conclusion of the equation of jet propulsion, came to the conclusion that it was necessary to use "rocket trains" - prototypes of multi-stage missiles. The author of works on aerodynamics, aeronautics and other sciences.
Representative of Russian cosmism, member of the Russian society of lovers of world studies. Author of science fiction works, supporter and propagandist of space exploration ideas. Tsiolkovsky proposed to populate outer space using orbital stations, put forward the ideas of a space elevator, hovercraft. He believed that the development of life on one of the planets of the Universe would achieve such power and perfection that it would allow us to overcome gravity and spread life throughout the Universe.
Tsiolkovsky calls himself “the purest materialist”: he believes that only matter exists, and the whole cosmos is nothing more than a very complex mechanism.
Space and time are infinite, so the number of stars and planets in space is infinite. The Universe has always had and will have one view - “many planets illuminated by the sun's rays”, cosmic processes are periodic: each star, planetary system, galaxy ages and dies, but then, exploding, reborn again - only a periodic transition between the simpler (rarefied) occurs gas) and the more complex (stars and planets) state of matter.
Tsiolkovsky admits the existence of higher beings in comparison with people, which come from people or are already on other planets.
The theory of psychoanalysis takes its roots in the late nineteenth century. Freud's ideas were based on two important stages, which became prerequisites for the creation of psychoanalysis. First of all, this is a method developed by Joseph Breir, a physician from Vienna, the second moment preceding Freud's theory is the method of the psychiatrist Ippolit Burnheim. Sigmund worked with Breyer for a short time, and the professor observed the work of the Burnheim method in one of the demonstrative training sessions. How to characterize the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud briefly? It is worth starting with the origins.
Joseph Breyer Method
For several years, the Austrian psychiatrist worked on the development of a method called catharsis. Studies lasted from 1880 to 1882. The patient of the doctor was a girl aged 21 years with paralysis of both right limbs and a complete lack of sensitivity. Also, the girl had an aversion to food and many other not only bodily, but also mental disorders. Dr. Breyer introduced the patient into hypnosis, through which he brought the girl to the point in life when experiences that traumatized the psyche appeared for the first time. He achieved the psychological and emotional state that was in his possession at that moment of his life and got rid of the symptoms of such a state that got stuck in his mind. The patient's medical history was a real breakthrough, and in 1895 Breuer and Freud published a joint work based on these data - a work called "Studies of Hysteria." The experiences and disorders that provoked the symptoms of the disease were subsequently called mental injuries. Breyr's work had a significant impact on Sigmund Freud's Introduction to Psychoanalysis.
Hippolytus Burnheim Method
The psychiatrist also used hypnosis in the treatment process. The method of collegue had a great influence on Freud's work, since in 1889 Sigmund was present at one of Bernheim’s training classes. The lessons of a psychiatrist made it possible to derive concepts such as resistance and repression. These aspects are the protective mechanism of the psyche of any person. Subsequently, Freud used the method of free association instead of hypnosis. The result of the work was the introduction of the concept of a conscious substitute for crowding out the unconscious.
Psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud
The main ideological component of the theory and the concept of Freud's psychoanalysis is characterized by the following provisions: for both men and women, erotic disorders are the main factor leading to the development of the disease. Freud came to this conclusion because other emotional experiences do not give rise to repression and replacement. The psychoanalyst noted that other, non-erotic emotional disturbances do not lead to the same results, they do not have such significant significance, and even more - they contribute to the action of sexual moments and can never replace them. Such observations and problems of Freud's psychoanalysis were based on many years of practical experience and were described by the professor in his work On Psychoanalysis.
Freud also noted that only childhood experiences explain sensitivity to future injuries. This theory is described in Sigmund Freud's book Introduction to Psychoanalysis. And only by revealing in the minds of these childhood memories that are always forgotten in adulthood, we can get rid of the symptoms. Analytical work should reach the time of sexual development and early childhood. Freud carried out the substantiation of the proposed theory through the concept of "Oedipus complex" and the sequence of phases in the psychosexual development of each person. There are 4 stages in all and can be associated with the basic instincts: oral, anal, phallic, genital.
What is classical psychoanalysis?
The recognition process hidden in the depths of consciousness is carried out through the following methods and basic instincts:
- Free association method;
- Interpretation of dreams;
- The use of random reservations, as well as erroneous human actions.
Any session is based on one main rule - the patient must say absolutely everything, without fear and constraint. Freud wrote that everything that comes to mind should be said, even if at first glance the thoughts seem to the patient incorrect or even meaningless. There is no room for critical choice. And only if you follow this rule it will be possible to "pull out" from the person the material that will enable the psychoanalyst to displace all complexes. This is how the essence of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis in a short form can be explained.
Free association method
The basis of psychoanalysis is precisely the essence of technology is that if some objects are perceived at the same time or in close proximity, then in the future the emergence in the consciousness of one of them may entail the realization of a completely different one.
Freud wrote that the patient sometimes suddenly falls silent and refers to the fact that he has nothing more to say and there are no thoughts in his head. However, if you look, one hundred percent rejection from the side of thoughts never happens in the human mind. Random reservations, erroneous actions - this is nothing but hidden desires, suppressed intentions and fears hidden in the depths of the subconscious. This is all that a person for some reason can not show to others and himself. This is how Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis can be summarized.
Dream interpretation
One of Freud's most popular theories was the interpretation of dreams. The psychoanalyst described dreams as messages of the unconscious part of the brain that are encrypted and represent meaningful images. When Freud was seventy years old, in 1931 the book "Interpretation of Dreams" was reprinted for the third time. The professor himself wrote that this work contains the most valuable of all the discoveries made by him in his entire life. Freud believed that such insights occur once in a person’s life.
Transfer process
The essence of the transfer process is that a person who does not fully satisfy the need for love draws attention to every new face, hoping to throw out his active libido power. That is why it is quite normal when these hopes turn in the direction of their psychoanalyst. The doctor, in turn, must clearly understand that the patient’s love for him is mostly forced, and in no way confirms the superiority of the psychoanalyst. The doctor has no reason to be serious about this state of affairs, and in no case should one be proud of such a “conquest”. In contrast to the transfer process, countertransference is put. When the analyst experiences unconscious responses to the patient. Freud believed that this phenomenon is quite dangerous in the first place for the doctor. This is because such feelings can lead in the future to both mental illnesses. Each of the processes was described by Freud in books on psychoanalysis.
Resistance Processing Process
An important stage is the overcoming of resistance and psychoanalysis of the individual. It begins with the doctor opening to the patient those thoughts, feelings and resistances that have never been recognized before. After which the ward is given time to penetrate as deeply as possible into the resistance unknown to him until now, in order to further process and overcome it.
What are patient resistances? First of all, it is a mechanism that works on an unconscious level, and its task is to impede the realization of those unacceptable thoughts and desires that were previously supplanted. Freud wrote that the processing of resistances is a very difficult part, and in practice it becomes truly painful not only for the patient. A real test of patience passes through a psychoanalyst. However, despite the complexity, it is this part of the work on consciousness that has the maximum changing effect on the patient. This is what distinguishes analytical treatment from suggestion treatment.
Catharsis
This process contributes to the liberation from repressed experiences, which traumatize the psyche through emotional discharge. This internal conflict is resolved at the neurotic level due to those memories and injuries that were once stuck in the psyche as negative emotions.
The technique of classical psychoanalysis
For a general presentation and description of the techniques of classical psychoanalysis, Freud used the following explanations:
- The psychoanalyst insisted that the patient should lie on the couch or couch during the session, and the doctor, in turn, should be behind the patient so that he would not see him, but only hear him. This is because the facial expression of a psychoanalyst should not give the patient food for thought, and even more so did not affect what the patient says.
- In no case should the patient be told what he should or should not talk about. The doctor must know about the patient everything that he knows about himself.
- The patient should say absolutely everything, not hiding names, dates, places and so on. In psychoanalysis, there are no secrets or modesty.
- During the session, the patient should fully surrender to unconscious memory. That is, a person must turn off a conscious effect on his memory. Simply put, you just need to listen and not think about whether you remember something or not.
- We must not forget about working with dreams, because this is one of the main methods of the theory of psychoanalysis. Freud believed that if you understand the unconscious needs of man, which are expressed in dreams, you can find the key to solving the very basic problem;
It is possible to disclose to the patient all the information received, to explain the meaning of his thoughts and condition not earlier than the moment when the transfer process begins. The patient should be tied to a doctor, and this will only take time.
Scope and Warranties
Briefly about the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud and the scope of the theory, the following can be said: the professor mentioned that psychoanalysis in its classical sense is not designed for people older than 50 years. He explained this by the fact that older people had already lost the flexibility of emotional experiences, which the action of therapy is aimed at. It is not recommended to arrange sessions of psychoanalysis in relation to loved ones. Freud wrote that he felt confused about the relatives and said that he did not believe in the individual impact on their subconscious. Also, some patients are asked to eliminate one specific symptom before starting work, but the doctor cannot be held responsible for the selective power of the analysis. You can hurt what is "not necessary", at least by the associative method. Usually, psychoanalysis is a very long process that can take years. Freud noted that it gives each patient the opportunity to say “stop” and stop treatment at any time. However, a short treatment can create the effect of an incomplete operation, which in the future can only aggravate the situation. The scope of the method is described in more detail in the works of Sigmund Freud.
Critique of the Theory of Psychoanalysis
Freud's theory of psychoanalysis is causing a storm of discussion to this day. First of all, because some provisions do not have a method of refutation, which means they are unscientific. Paul Bloom (professor of psychology) expressed his point of view, who wrote that the provisions of Freud's theory are vague and cannot be verified by any scientifically reliable method. That is why they can not be used from a scientific point of view.
The well-known biologist Peter Medawar, who at one time was awarded the Nobel Prize, spoke in the same vein. The professor described the theory of psychoanalysis as the greatest intellectual fraud of the twentieth century. The same opinion was shared by philosopher Leslie Stevenson, who analyzed Freud's theory in his book.
Freud also had followers, among whom there were such well-known personalities as Erich Fromm, Jung, Karen Horney. However, even in their future studies, they refused the key thought and ideas of Freud’s psychoanalysis - the main motive for the occurrence of psychological trauma is nothing more than a sexual factor. The study changed directions in the direction of the impact of social and cultural elements of society and the environment on the mental and mental state of a person.
