What is a paradigm in simple words? A paradigm is in simple words.

The word " paradigm"was borrowed from the Greek language" paradeigma"and translated, as an example, model, sample. The set of achievements in science recognized in the scientific community in a specific period of time and serving as a model and basis for new scientific research.On the one hand, the paradigm rejects all inconsistent and non-related theories and concepts, on the other hand, it indicates to the scientific world the use of theory to study the new, which ultimately leads to the improvement of the paradigm itself.

"A paradigm is a method of perceiving the world, it is for us like air for a bird. A paradigm opens our eyes to the structure of the world and helps to predict its behavior. "(" Powers of the Mind "" Power of the Mind "philosopher and economist Adam Smith)

Paradigm examples:

In Game

Success criterion, ability to solve a problem, clear rules;

In politics

The equality of all before the law, the predominance of individual rights over the rights of the state (false liberal concept);

In cosmogony:

The sun, planets and satellites appeared as a result of the concentration of cosmic dust;

In physics:

The movement of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is a given, the inability to exceed the speed of light in a vacuum;

In economics:

Market relations are the foundation;

In art:

The combination of content, form, texture and harmony;

In cosmology:

The evolution and development of the universe begins with time " Big bang";

"A paradigm is the main way to comprehend and cognize the surrounding reality. The paradigm is almost never formulated in an obvious form, it is only implied and transmitted to other generations through direct experience and culture, and not through direct learning"(W. Harmon scientist, Stanford Research Institute)

A paradigm shift - the scientific revolution

A crisis has been taking place in science for some time. This crisis gives rise to uncertainty in the paradigm. The end of the current crisis is marked by a scientific breakthrough, the meaning of which is the emergence of new paradigms.

Examples of scientific breakthroughs

Aristotelian Physics OK " worked"as a paradigm from antiquity to the late Middle Ages. The mathematical and physical discoveries of the 16th - 17th centuries of Newton, Descartes and Galileo created a situation where a scientific breakthrough was made, and Newtonian physics, which was quite complicated for that time, appeared as a paradigm of scientific research, which later relativistic physics and Decentralization changed the theory of relativity. Old dogmas required a complex hierarchy, centralization. For this reason, serious difficulties arose. And then it was discovered that there nother method to cope with the urgent tasks - to decentralize and simplify the structure of the organization.

The term "paradigm" was first coined by positivist G. Bergman, who received widespread recognition as well as fame after this publication was published. In the scientific and philosophical works of T. Kuhn, this word was often used. The author decided to present even to the court of the public and the public his own view on how scientific revolutions are gradually replacing the usual paradigms, while acting as a kind of primary and, to some extent, even conceptual and theoretical schemes. They can dominate science, at some historical period. What is the meaning of this word? A special concept, which for the most part characterizes the totality of a number of scientific beliefs, as well as several methods and values \u200b\u200bthat have been accepted as the norm in society.

The paradigm in psychology

It is very important to identify several approaches that characterize the concept of a psychological view and the “paradigm” itself. Usually this term is used in science for psychology, as well as for a number of laws that characterize its manifestation as a whole and on its basis relatively three general approaches have been formed that answered the question, “how do they explain the meaning of this term in psychology?” Let's start with the first approach, in which the paradigm is called natural science, that is, the extra-paradigmatic field of knowledge. The problem here will only be that, from a scientific point of view, the paradigm has not yet been able to develop properly. The second approach includes the term multi-paradigm science, and this happened because several key paradigms were formed in it at the same time, starting with psychoanalytic and ending with humanistic. According to the third approach in psychology, the paradigm is called extra-paradigmatic science and this is because the definition is rarely used in this field of activity.

About natural-scientific and humanitarian paradigms

Scientist Dilthey said that psychology should definitely be divided into several separate sections, starting with an explanatory one, which is most characterized and tends to different methods of the exact sciences, as well as descriptive and understanding. This view of things can be safely called relevant today, and a number of numerous methods and methods that allow you to know the human psyche continue to be actively discussed. New theories and hypotheses are being put forward, some of which are confidently and unshakably confirmed thanks to which the arguments, while others remain at the development stage. As soon as psychologists are carried away by mathematical methods and processes of describing mental aspects, they strive for clear wording and claims already arise among the humanities. The fact is that the human psyche is very complex and it is impossible to formulate all this in words. This situation is observed in psychology itself.

Term in sociology

Numerous opponents of the scientist approach often cite psychoanalysis as general evidence. So, the famous Kizhi were built in some magical way without a single nail, and this psychological direction does not have a single mathematical sign and an exact definition. The discussions of each of the parties continue to this day and they are not tired of giving various arguments and facts that are direct evidence of the truth, that in fact everything is just that. If we consider this term from the point of view of sociology, you should definitely know that in relation to this concept of “paradigm”, a very ambiguous situation develops in science, which was similar to the one described above.

In sociology, there are a number of special fundamental theories, thanks to which it can be safely considered in the same way as psychology, and further boldly correlated with multi-paradigm science, that is, relate it to a scientific discipline that has several paradigms. Assessing her current state, the sociologist Osipov noted a number of very important schemes that are based on the popular theories of Marx, Weber and Durkheim.

Characteristics

In foreign literature, you can find the answer to the question, what is the paradigm? Sociological literature with its terms has been submitted to the public for review and trial. Different authors interpret the word “paradigm” in different ways. For instance. E. Giddens considers it exclusively as paradigmatic scientific theories that were previously put forward by Weber, Marx, Comte and Durkheim. Along with this, we can safely consider and continue to conduct an active dialogue that in sociology this term is also considered from the point of view of the classical concept and from the point of view of the modern one. Most foreign sociologists say that eras are changing and each of them has its own peculiarities and it is impossible to explain these social processes with the help of the so-called theoretical construction of the judgments of scientists of the last century.

One can safely say that the picture of social reality that he created constitutes a special idea of \u200b\u200bsociety, and it acts as the so-called sociological paradigm. You can argue for a long time and put forward a number of theories that will allow you to understand what can be called a paradigm. Only one thing is clear that in different sciences the meaning of this word will change in different ways and the word is unlikely to ever come out of common use. Scientists will argue and prove, but most importantly, there remains a word that has already been strengthened not only in psychology, but also in sociology. It is not known what other theories will be advanced by modern scholars, but there is ongoing active discussion and clarification of what is worth investing in this concept and what is not worth it. Time flies rapidly, and the “paradigm” remains as the main characteristic and fundamental term.

If the ancient Greeks knew the modern meaning of the words they invented, they would be very surprised. When an Athenian speaker cited a parable or fable as a vivid example, it was called a paradigm. What this means in simple words now depends on the specific scientific field.

What does the word paradigm mean?

The word is of Greek origin, where it meant "pattern, example, pattern." In Antiquity, it was used mainly in rhetoric and meant kind of evidence in discussion or during public speaking.

In modern times, the first science that mastered the ancient Greek term was linguistics. Back in 1900, the token was considered a technical term from the field of grammar. Subsequently, it was picked up by other areas of knowledge and received new, multifaceted meanings.

In the modern sense, a paradigm is a recognized scientific achievement, which for a certain period of time are a model for solving and searching for problems for a community of practitioners.

She defines:

What should be reviewed and investigated;
What issues need to be studied within the framework of a specific issue;
How should these issues be structured?
What forecasts should be made in the framework of the theory that dominates the discipline;
How to interpret the results of scientific research;
How to conduct an experiment and what equipment to use.

In this video, Andrey Kutsenko will tell how the term “paradigm” was formed, about its definition:

Significance in Linguistics

In relation to the science of language, this Greek word means the whole set of word forms with different grammatical content belonging to one unit of speech.

In russian language paradigm analysis is a list of case forms, for example:

The sun;
The sun;
The sun;
The sun;
The sun;
Oh the sun.

For the verb you need to make a conjugation table.

Depending on the section of linguistics, the meaning of the term “paradigm” varies:

Morphology: Many forms of a word that match specific grammatical categories. With any changes, a certain part of the word (root) remains the same;
Lexicology: a category of words that are opposed to another category by a certain attribute (meaning, pronunciation, spelling);
Word formation: many derivatives originating from one root;
Syntax: differing constructions of sentences and phrases. For example, a category of modality (assumption, wish, opportunity).

Paradigms in Sociology

In the social sciences, a paradigm is understood to mean the concept that prevails at a certain historical stage, which defines the mechanism for searching for problems and their solutions.

Depending on the particular sociological school, several basic concepts are distinguished:

Social facts. The position established in society does not depend on the will of its individual members;
Understanding. Every participant in the public process is guided in their actions by certain logic;
Social behavior. Man acts on the basis of impulses laid down from birth;
Socio-historical determinism. The role of an individual in history is negligible compared to the role of the collective;
Psychological determinism. The instincts of the individual are in a continuous struggle with stereotypes;
Naturalism. In research, mathematical methods must prevail;
Interpretation. It is necessary to take the place of each individual in order to understand his actions;
Grading. The scientist should prefer pure research to a critical view of the problem.

The paradigm in philosophy

In relation to philosophy, the set of basic concepts has the following form:

Speculation. A look at a problem should have nothing to do with reality. Logical methods are not applied. The role of philosophy is reduced to an abstract discussion of the fate of the world;
Scientism. The logical method is the basis for cognition. Every premise must be supported by rational arguments. Knowledge must be subjected to critical reflection and classification;
Analytics. The philosopher must study the exact meaning of the word, because the problems come from the incorrect designation of objects and phenomena;
Anti-scientism. The problems of previous eras have no significance for the true essence of human existence;
Aestheticos. Every philosopher is an artist and creator, who proceeds more from his intuition than from common sense;
Practicality. Science should be the basis for changing the unjust system;
Metaphysics. The subject of study is matter, spirit and God;
Religious philosophy. The study of spiritual methods and religion.

The concept of scientific revolution

As the prominent American historian Thomas Samuel believed, scientific thought in its development passes through three stages:

Everyday existence, when every phenomenon fits into the current picture of the world;
Gradually, the array of “incorrect” and inexplicable facts becomes so large that a crisis situation occurs;
The previous stage lasts until a new system of knowledge is developed, within which the old model will be only a special case.

When moving from the 2nd to the 3rd level, skepticism reigns in society. So, in 1900, physicist William Kelvin wrote that “there is nothing new in physics. Only more or less accurate measurements remain. ”

Examples of a dramatic paradigm shift are:

The transition from geocentric to heliocentric picture of the world (1543);
The adoption of the principles of classical mechanics and a departure from the ideas of Aristotle (1687);
Adoption of the Lavoisier theory of chemical reactions (1783);
The affirmation of genetics thanks to the research of Georg Mendel (1866);
The adoption of quantum mechanics (1905);
The development of the theory of relativity (1920).

A picture of the world that dominates for some time in a certain field of knowledge is called a paradigm. What are these simple words? The closest analogues “Method”, “model”, “concept” . When one basic method replaces another, they talk about revolution.

Video on the meaning of the word "paradigm"

In this video, Gennady Malyshev will talk about what a paradigm is and how it affects our lives:

A set of stable and universally valid norms, theories, methods, schemes of scientific activity, implying unity in the interpretation of the theory, in the organization of empirical research and the interpretation of scientific research. P. was introduced into modern philosophy of science by T. Kuhn to explain the functioning of “normal science”. According to Kuhn, the development of science goes through several stages. The pre-paradigm stage of the development of science is characterized by the presence of many theoretical directions, a variety of methodological approaches. At this stage, there is no single theoretical concept orienting the activities of the scientific community. Stage so-called “normal science” is characterized by the adoption of a stable and recognized by the whole scientific community of P. The main conceptual load of P. lies in the fact that, on the one hand, it excludes all concepts, theories, methods that are not related to P. and do not agree with it, on the other On the other hand, it orientates the scientific community and research activities on the use of theory to predict new phenomenal areas, as well as on the improvement of P. itself by reinterpreting the available theories. The guarantee of the stability of “normal science” is its conservatism: all research activities are carried out within the framework of the accepted P. But “normal science” over time begins to survive the crisis. The latter is associated with the occurrence of scientific anomalies leading to scientific discoveries. Most scientific anomalies occur in strict accordance with paradigm rules and requirements. With the discovery of anomalous phenomena, the search for solutions begins, and the search is mainly carried out within the framework of this P. in order to preserve it. “Any crisis begins with a doubt in the paradigm and the subsequent loosening of the rules of normal research” (Kuhn). The end of the crisis is marked by a scientific revolution, the essence of which is the emergence of new P. New P. are qualitatively incommensurable with the old and non-cumulative. "Scientific revolutions are considered here as such non-cumulative episodes of the development of science, during which the old paradigm is replaced in whole or in part by a new paradigm incompatible with the old" (Kuhn). As a result of the adoption of the new P., the totality of norms, values \u200b\u200band attitudes adopted by the scientific community is significantly changing. Due to the uncertainty of the concept of P., associated primarily with the contradiction of the logical and psychological and historical connotations of the term, Kuhn later explicated the initial characteristics of P. through the disciplinary matrix, the disciplinary matrix includes several elements: firstly, a symbolic generalization of laws. Symbolic generalization helps the scientific community to formalize the basic theoretical propositions. Secondly, Kuhn distinguishes the "metaphysical" component of P. - a system of methodological principles used to interpret these laws. Thirdly, a set of standardized tools and methods for solving common problems. Examples of P. are Aristotelian dynamics, Ptolemaic astronomy, Newtonian mechanics, Einstein's theory of relativity. The concept of P. is used in modern socio-philosophical theories to diagnose its present state and predict the prospects, although it is hardly possible to unequivocally talk about the applicability of P. as a unified system of norms, attitudes, values \u200b\u200bto socio-philosophical theories. T. X. Karimov

Definitions, meanings of the word in other dictionaries:

Dictionary of Logic

Paradigm (from the Greek. Paradeigma - example, sample) - a set of theoretical and methodological principles adopted by the scientific community at a certain stage in the development of science and used as a model, model, standard for scientific research, interpretation, evaluation and ...

Philosophical Dictionary

(from Greek. paradeigma - example, sample) - a set of theoretical and methodological principles adopted by the scientific community at a certain stage in the development of science and used as a model, model, standard for scientific research, interpretation, evaluation and ...

Philosophical Dictionary

(Greek paradeigma - example, model) - 1) the concept of ancient and medieval philosophy, characterizing the sphere of eternal ideas as a prototype, a model, according to which the demiurge god creates the world of existence; 2) in modern philosophy of science - a system of theoretical, methodological and ...

Philosophical Dictionary

1. The totality of theoretical, methodological, value and other attitudes adopted at each stage of the development of science (the concept was introduced by the American scientist T. Coon); 2. In a broad sense, the original conceptual idea, value as a diagram or a kind of map of the area, helping ...

Philosophical Dictionary

One of the key concepts of modern philosophy of science. Introduced by Coon. Designates a set of beliefs, values, methods and technical means adopted by the scientific community and ensuring the existence of a scientific tradition. The concept of P. is correlative to the concept of the scientific community: ...

The latest philosophical dictionary

PARADIGMA (Greek paradeigma - example, model) - 1) the concept of ancient and medieval philosophy, characterizing the sphere of eternal ideas as a prototype, a model, according to which the demiurge-god creates the world of existence; 2) in modern philosophy of science - a system of theoretical, ...

Political Science: Reference Dictionary

Paradigm

(from greek paradeigma example, sample)

in philosophy, political science, sociology - the initial conceptual scheme, a model for posing problems and their solutions, research methods that dominate the scientific community for a certain historical period. A paradigm shift is a scientific revolution.

Paradigm

(greek paradeigma - example, sample).

1) The system of inflectional changes, which are an example of morphogenesis for a given part of speech. The paradigm of the first declension of nouns. The paradigm of mild declension of adjectives. The paradigm of the second conjugation of the verb.

2) The set of inflectional forms of the same word. The paradigm of the noun table.

The beginnings of modern science. Thesaurus

Paradigm

(from greek paradeigma - example, sample) - the initial conceptual scheme, recognized scientific achievements, a way of organizing scientific knowledge that for a certain time gives the scientific community a certain vision of the world, a model for posing problems and their solutions. A paradigm shift is taking place in the course of scientific revolutions. The concept of a paradigm was introduced into science by the positivist philosopher G. Bergman and was widely used by the American physicist Thomas Kuhn (creator of the theory of scientific revolutions) to designate the leading representatives and methods of obtaining new data during periods of extensive development of knowledge. Sometimes replaced by the concept of a picture of the world.

Culturology. Reference dictionary

Paradigm

greek paradeigma - example, pattern.

a set of theoretical and methodological prerequisites that determine a specific scientific study, which is embodied in scientific practice at this historical stage.

☼ sample or model. As a special term, the concept of P. introduced Amer. methodologist of science T. om in the book. "Structure of scientific revolutions" (1962) to designate prevailing in the activities of def. scientific community of problems and solutions.

P. is a classic. scientific development, edge is perceived by representatives of the discipline as a model and becomes the basis of scientific tradition. The work of a scientist is work within the framework of P. It consists in supplementing, refining, deepening the principles formulated in P., in extending them to new subject areas. The formation of a new P. begins in conditions when problems (anomalies) arise, which cannot be resolved and explained within the framework of the existing P. The transition from one P. to another can stretch for tens or even hundreds of years. Kuhn called this period a scientific revolution - the time of the collapse of authorities, models, methodologies, theories, worldviews, images of the world.

P. - a representative culture of scientists acting within its framework, and as long as they recognize the fundamental theory, they will find a theory. arguments in her favor, and experimental evidence.

Change P. - something more than an alternation of theories and concepts put forward by various authors. A change in P. is a change in the relationship to the object of study, suggesting a change in the investigate. methods and goals, and sometimes a change in the subject of research. Primary P. cultural sciences can be called empirical. This is a collection of information about different peoples, their customs, customs, lifestyle during the period, usually referred to as the prehistory or prehistory of science. The next, already fully scientific P., became evolutionist. Its most important representatives: G. Spencer, A. Bastian, Yu., S. Leturno, L. G. Morgan. The main development of evolutionist P. is the idea of \u200b\u200bhuman unity. kind, uniformity and linearity of the development of culture, psychol. substantiation of the phenomena of societies. system and culture.

Evolutionist P. introduced creatures. contribution to the knowledge of the cultural reality of the history of mankind, to the understanding of humanity. nature, functions of culture, laws of its development; thanks to her, the culture gained a certain integrity, was systematized and ordered, although it was this systematicity, in opr. degree imposed, has become one of Ch. reasons for P.'s change in the study of culture.

In the 20th century. researchers' attention has increasingly shifted from studying cultural constantsexisting in a more or less unchanged form in all cultures and thereby giving the opportunity to talk about culture in general, the diversity of a person’s cultural design of his existence and the differences between different cultures. The subject itself has changed culturally. research: not the culture humanity has become the subject, and concr. of culture. Such an approach gradually led to the rejection of global evolutionist constructions, although not to the rejection of the idea of \u200b\u200bevolution in general; the latter began to be observed and captured in det. cultures. Kulturfilos. the basis of this kind of research in empirical. cultural sciences have become the so-called cycle. theories of cultural development. Under cultural cycles, this means ODA. the sequence of phases of change and development of culture, which follow naturally one after another and at the same time are thought of as returning and repeating. There is an analogy with the human. life: childhood, adolescence, maturity, old age and death. The same thing happens with cultures: each culture completes its cycle and goes into decline.

The ancestor of the cycle. theories in sovr. historiography and the science of culture became N.Ya. Danilevsky. Already followed him, L. Common to all supporters is the cycle. view was the idea of \u200b\u200b"historical. individuals", which are all cultural integrity, and the existence of a life cycle for each of these entities.

If on a culture phylos. the basis of the new P. became the cycle. teaching, then on methodology. level -. In cultural anthropology, this doctrine was developed and. They proceeded from the fact that in a culture understood as integrity, there are no "extra" elements - they all have their own def. function in the integrity of culture, understood as a special form of human adaptation. groups to the conditions of its habitat.

The cycle. theories in conjunction with functionalism gave the notions of culture a completely different look than in the framework of evolutionist P. Each culture began to be regarded as a value in itself, regardless of what place it occupies on the evolutionary “ladder”. Since the work of functionalists showed how complex each cultural organism is, it has become impossible to divide cultures into “primitive” and “highly developed” ones. Cultures previously, i.e. evolutionary development, considered primitive, standing on the lower steps of the evolutionary ladder, began to be perceived simply as different, having different from modern. cultures of the structure and patterns of functioning. This was a strong blow to the Eurocentric worldview, the continuation and development of the anthropol. revolution.

The possibility and necessity of theories arose. analysis of culture, the possibility and necessity of finding out why exactly such an instrument, such ideas, such an image of the world, myth or legend are characteristic of this particular culture, what function they perform in it, how they interface with the environment in which this culture arose.

This new scientific P., fundamentally changing the view of culture, was called pluralistic, because its supporters proceeded from the idea of \u200b\u200bpluralism, plurality and diversity of cultures.

Lit.: Kun T. Structure, scientific. revolutions. M., 1977; Tokarev S.A. History abroad. ethnography. M., 1978; Ionin L. Sociology of Culture. M., 1996.

L. G. Ionin.

Cultural studies of the twentieth century. Encyclopedia. M.1996

Pedagogical terminological dictionary

Paradigm

(greek paradeigma - example, sample)

1. sample, type, model (for example, public relations).

2. In philosophy, sociology - the initial conceptual scheme that changes over time and is typical for a certain stage in the development of science, a model for posing problems and solving them.

3. In rhetoric - an example taken from history for proof, comparison.

4. In grammar, a system of forms of a changing word, construction, for example a name, a verb.

(Bim-Bad B.M. Pedagogical Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M., 2002. P. 185)

the totality of theoretical, methodological and other settings adopted by the scientific pedagogical community at each stage of the development of science, which are guided as a model (model, standard when solving problems; a certain set of difficulties (regulations).

(Shmyreva N.A., Gubanova M.I., Kretsan Z.V. Pedagogical systems: scientific foundations, management, development prospects. - Kemerovo, 2002. P. 99)

Dictionary of linguistic terms

Paradigm

(greek παράδειγμη example, sample)

A pattern of declension or conjugation, a system of forms of the same word: i think you think he (she, it) thinks we think you think they think. A paradigm is formed, for example, by a system of consonants, a set of word-building models, etc.

1) P. (in the broad sense): any combination of linguistic units, united by relations of interconnection, contrasting and conditioning (eg: the paradigm of childishness - a collection of tokens denoting cubs);

2) P. (in the narrow sense): grammar paradigm - a set of similar grammatical forms of the word; derivational paradigm - a combination of the same type of words given in a certain sequence, united by relationships of interconnection, contrasting and conditioning. According to the required number of members in the paradigm, the following types of grammatical paradigms are distinguished: 1 ) complete - a paradigm in which all members are represented by word forms (e.g., case paradigm noun. flower);

2) incomplete - a paradigm in which a set of word forms is missing or a word cannot take on a form that is potentially possible (e.g., the verb tense paradigm to conquer - impossible to say i will win; face paradigm grow light - impossible to say i am shining);

3) defective - a paradigm in which individual members are represented: pour the cheeks; bring a woodman;

4) excess - a paradigm in which parallel variants of word forms are possible (e.g., case paradigm noun. mama: mom - mom).

Gasparov. Records and statements

Paradigm

♦ I asked on the exam: who is Barbus? - Imparfait du conjonctif. - Conjugate. - Que je barbusse, que tu barbusse, quil barbu ... I did not stop: would I make a mistake in 3 persons?

Kinosemiotics Terms

PARADIGM

Philosophical Dictionary (Cont-Sponville)

Paradigm

Paradigm

♦ Paradigme

A particularly striking example or model that serves as a standard of thinking. So understood the word "paradigm" (paradeigma) Plato and Aristotle; Today, this meaning of his is used in epistemology or the history of science. The paradigm is one of the basic concepts used by Thomas Kuhn (***) (“The Structure of Scientific Revolutions”). This is a set of theories, techniques, values, problems, metaphors, etc., which in a given era are shared by representatives of a particular scientific discipline; it is that “subject matrix” that allows them to understand each other and move forward. It is this set that is usually passed on to students, thanks to which they get the opportunity to join the scientific knowledge that is contemporary to them, find their place in science and work fruitfully in it. The normal state of science ("normal science", as Kuhn puts it) implies the dominance of a paradigm. The field of research, therefore, is indicated by the milestones of previous discoveries, and the scientists working in this field adhere to a certain consensus among themselves. They agree with each other not only in recognizing the value of already made discoveries, but also in what should be discovered further, by what methods and for what purpose. On the contrary, the scientific revolution marks a period in which a new paradigm appears, which refutes the previous one, proposing a solution to questions that were previously considered unresolved, sweeping away some questions and putting them in their place. This is precisely the transition from classical (Newtonian) mechanics to relativistic physics (the theory of Einstein and his followers). It is accompanied not only by new solutions, but also by new problems, difficulties and procedures. The two competing paradigms, Kuhn notes, are incommensurable, and the transition from one to the other is possible only through global conversion, not reduced to a purely rational advance. Therefore, one theory cannot be judged in terms of a paradigm to which it does not belong. This, of course, does not cancel progress, but warns against its understanding as a linear and continuous process. Scientific progress does not resemble the smooth and unhurried flow of a large river.