War between Rome and Macedonia. Rome vs Hellas: Conquest of Greece
From the point of view of Rome, of all the Hellenistic states, Macedonia posed the greatest danger. The Macedonian kingdom consolidated at the end of the 3rd century. under Antigonus Gonatas (276-240), who gathered under his rule a variety of regions, including some Greek cities.
The policy of Aptigon Gonatas was continued by his Antigonid successors: Demetrius (239-229), Antigonus Dozon (229-220), Philip V (220-178) and his son Perseus (178-168). Like their predecessors, the founders of the Macedonian state, Philip II and Alexander, the Macedonian kings considered themselves real philhellenes and in every way introduced Hellenic orders in the countries under their control, built cities, and promoted the development of trade and crafts. Most of all, the Macedonian, like all Hellenistic kings in general, cared about creating an exemplary army of mercenaries and the splendor of their courts. The main sources of income for the Macedonian kings were: tribute from conquered peoples, trade duties, taxes on crafts, exploitation of state domains - forests, mines, land and pastures, leased out. With these funds, the Macedonian kings could maintain a mercenary army, pay officials, give them gifts, maintain a magnificent court and pay for scientists, poets and artists who lived at the Macedonian court. The tone was set by the founder of Hellenistic Macedonia, Antigonus Gonatas, who dreamed of creating an enlightened monarchy as the embodiment of the Stoic ideal or Platonic polyteia. All the celebrities of that time visited the Macedonian court: Arat, the author of “The Seasons” and the didactic poem “Phenomena”, Alexander of Aetolia, librarian and poet, etc. Among the “distinguished guests” of the Macedonian king was also the wandering Cynic philosopher Bion Borysthenes. The fame of the Macedonian kings even reached the Indian king Asoka, who sent his embassy to the capital of Macedonia, Pella.
The weakest point of the Macedonian monarchy was Balkan Greece, which was part of it, divided into many small tribes, communities and alliances. Actually, because of Greece, the first Macedonian war of the Romans with the Macedonian king Philip V (214-205) began. With the goal of mastering the Illyrian coast and the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea, and indirectly strengthening his authority in Greece, Philip entered into an alliance with Hannibal during his stay in Italy and was preparing to attack Italy from the sea. However, the calculations of the Macedonian king did not come true. The Romans not only upset this alliance, but even organized a counter-alliance in Greece itself, winning over to their side the Aetolian Union, which did not put up with the hegemony of the “Macedonian barbarian.” The king of Pergamon, who was afraid of Macedonian expansion, was not slow to join the anti-Macedonian coalition. With this turn of affairs, Philip was forced to renounce his claims and conclude a peace with Rome that was generally quite beneficial for him. However, peaceful relations between Rome and Macedonia did not last long. The reason for the new, second, Macedonian war (200-197) was the death of the Egyptian king Ptolemy IV. Its neighbors, Syria and Macedonia, took advantage of the weakening of Egypt and attacked the Thracian possessions of Egypt and the islands of the Aegean Sea. The capture of the islands most sensitively affected the interests of the Rhodes Republic, which declared war on Macedonia; Philip's attempt on the shores of Asia Minor led to a war with Pergamum. Not relying on their own strength, the allies of Rome sent an embassy to their patron - “the Roman people and the Senate.”
In their speeches, the ambassadors outlined the state of affairs in the East in gloomy tones, pointing out the dangers that threaten Rome in the event of the unification of the Hellenistic countries under any one powerful state - be it Macedonia, Syria or Egypt. The arguments of the Rhodian and Pergamon ambassadors convinced the Senate of the need for Rome to intervene in the affairs of the Hellenistic states. The Romans did not have any special economic interests in the East at that time, but political considerations seemed all the more important.
The embassy sent to Philip invited him to recognize the autonomy of the Greek cities, renounce the Egyptian possessions he had seized and, in addition, reward Rhodes and Pergamon for the damage caused to them. Philip did not accept any of these conditions. After this, in 200, the Romans launched an attack on Illyria, and through Illyria they entered Macedonia. At the same time, the Roman fleet, reinforced by Rhodian and Pergamon ships, operated in the Aegean Sea. From the Greek states, the Aetolians joined the Romans and invaded Thessaly, where the first major clash between the Macedonians and Romans took place, which decided the outcome of the entire campaign.
In Thessaly, under Cynoskefsigae (Cynoscephalae), among the sharp, parallel hills that resembled dogs' heads, the Romans defeated the Macedonians (197). The victory over the Macedonians, who were considered the invincible descendants of Alexander the Great, had, first of all, enormous moral significance for Rome. Philip's attempt to continue the war was unsuccessful, and the proud Macedonian king was forced to conclude a peace treaty with Rome.
The most difficult of all the conditions imposed on Philip was the demand for recognition of the autonomy of the Greek cities. The Romans, in their political considerations, attached exceptional, in a certain sense global, significance to this circumstance, considering it as the restoration of ancient Hellenic freedom, trampled upon by the Macedonian enslavers. In 196, the Roman commander Titus Quinctius Flamininus, at a solemn meeting in Corinth with a huge crowd of people, proclaimed the independence of Greece. An artistic description of this event is given in the biography of Flamininus compiled by Plutarch:
“The Isthmian games have begun. The stadium was covered with a mass of spectators watching gymnastics competitions. Now, after a long time, after the end of the wars, Greece celebrated the holiday in the hope of enjoying the benefits of freedom and lasting peace. The sound of a trumpet was heard, and amid the general silence, the herald stepped forward and announced publicly that the Roman Senate and the consul-commander Titus Quinctius Flamininus, having defeated the Macedonian king Philip, were giving independence, freeing them from garrisons and taxes, with the right of autonomy for the Corinthians, protection, Phocians, Euboeans, Achaeans, Boeotians, Magnets, Thessalians and Perebians.
At first, not everyone heard the herald’s words clearly - it was restless and noisy in the stadium. Everyone was surprised, turned to each other with questions and demanded that the announcement be repeated. There was silence again. The herald, raising his voice, repeated his words louder than before for all to hear. Everyone recognized them. An incredibly strong cry of joy reached the king himself. Those present rose from their seats. No one paid attention to the participants in the gymnastic competitions, everyone was in a hurry and ran to shake hands and say a word of greetings to the savior and defender of Greece.”
After this, Flaminin became the most popular person in Greece. “If Titus had not retired after the end of the games, avoiding the excitement of the people and evading their enthusiasm, he would hardly have emerged alive from the dense, huge crowd that surrounded him everywhere. Those present screamed to the point of exhaustion in front of his tent until night fell. When meeting friends or fellow citizens, they kissed and hugged them and invited each other to dinners and feasts. Here their delight, of course, increased. They began to reason and talk about Greek affairs. “How many wars did Greece fight for its freedom,” they said, “but never has its happiness been more durable and joyful!”2.
In 195, Flamininus, having defeated the tyrant Nabis, who was unpopular among the wealthy classes of the population of Sparta, went to Argos, where he was appointed manager of the Nemean games. After the celebration of the games, Flaminin once again carried out the
proclaimed the restoration of Hellenic freedom. Traveling around the cities of Greece, Flaminin everywhere restored old laws and customs, administered justice, calmed unrest, reconciled quarrels, returned emigrants - in a word, acted as a benefactor and savior of the Hellenic people.
“He was equally pleased to see the success of his words and convictions in restoring calm in Greece, as he was to be the conqueror of Macedonia, so that freedom seemed to the Greeks the least of the blessings that befell them.” The political significance of the declaration of Greek freedom was enormous. In this way, the Romans were able to isolate Macedonia and create an outpost from “free” Greece for further actions in the East.
The proclamation of Hellenic freedom, however, also had another side - increased hostility between the Greek communities. Before the Roman legions had even left the soil of Hellas, old feuds began between the liberated Greek cities. Within the cities themselves, class contradictions intensified to the extreme, and all the negative aspects of slave states came to light on an unprecedented scale - the ruin of small producers, the overcrowding of large cities with the poor, poverty, vagrancy, mercenarism, etc. Hellenistic societies at that time, it is true According to Polybius, they resembled a turbulent sea, in which one wave constantly replaced another. The Romans took into account the internal and external strife of Hellenic societies and used the current situation to their own advantage. However, complete subjugation of the Hellenic communities to Rome did not occur. In each state there was a Macedonian party that united anti-Roman elements around itself. Not counting on their own strength, the anti-Roman elements of Greece and Macedonia turned their gaze to the Syrian king Antiochus, who was preparing a war against Rome.
The outbreak of the First Macedonian War was preceded by military operations in Illyria. In the early summer of 216, the Macedonian fleet entered the Ionian Sea and rose north almost to Apollonia. But, having learned about the approach of the Romans and having no information about the size of their squadron (they had only 10 battleships), Philip became frightened and hastily retreated to Macedonia. At this time Cannes broke out. Contrary to the general opinion of all the enemies of Rome, the brutal defeat did not force the Romans to bow their heads: they bravely continued the fight. Hannibal's position in Italy, as we have seen, was not at all as brilliant as it might seem at first glance. This forced him to agree to an alliance with Macedonia, which Philip had long dreamed of.
In the summer of 215, Macedonian ambassadors came to Hannibal’s camp, with whom a preliminary treaty of alliance was concluded. The text of the treaty is given by Polybius in one passage of Book VII. Its beginning sounds like this: “The following oath was given by the military leader Hannibal, Mago, Mirkan, Barmokar, all the members of the Carthaginian council of elders who were with him, and all the Carthaginians who participated in his campaign, to the son of Cleomachus, the Athenian Xenophanes, whom he sent to us from himself, the Macedonians and from his allies King Philip, son of Demetrius: “In the face of Zeus, Hera and Apollo; in the face of the deities of the Carthaginians, Hercules and Iolaus; in the face of Ares, Triton and Poseidon; in the face of the co-gods, the Sun, the Moon and the Earth; in the face of rivers, harbors and waters; in the face of all the deities that rule over Carthage; in the face of all the deities who rule over Macedonia and the rest of Hellas; in the face of all the deities of war who are present at this oath.
The contents of the agreement were as follows. Macedonia undertakes to wage war with Rome in alliance with Carthage, for which the Carthaginians recognize Philip's right to the Illyrian coast, Corcyra, Apollonia, Epidamnus and other cities. The allies undertake, if necessary, to help each other by sending armed force. After the end of the war, the contracting parties remain in a defensive alliance: in the event of an attack by Rome or some other power, the allies must help each other.
The agreement was theoretically beneficial to both parties: Philip could count on the assistance of the Carthaginian fleet in the Adriatic waters, Hannibal hoped on Philip’s help in Italy. If the treaty had been carried out, it would have created enormous difficulties for Rome. But the alliance between Hannibal and Philip actually gave nothing to either side.
First of all, the ratification of the treaty by the Macedonian king and the Carthaginian Senate was greatly delayed. The Macedonian ambassadors, leaving Italy, were captured by the Romans, so Philip had to send a new embassy. This caused a delay of six months. The Roman Senate became aware of the contents of the treaty, and it could take the necessary precautions: the praetor Marcus Valerius Levin, who commanded the troops and fleet near Tarentum, was instructed to carefully monitor the Adriatic Sea. When Philip reappeared in these waters in the summer of 214 and began preparing the siege of Apollonia, Levin came to the rescue. He strengthened the population of the city with reinforcements, so that the citizens, together with the Romans, managed to capture and plunder the Macedonian camp. Philip, whose retreat by sea was cut off, could only burn his fleet and retreat to Macedonia by land. After this, the Romans firmly occupied the Illyrian coast. Without the help of the Carthaginians, Philip could not undertake any major operations there. But, as we know, the Carthaginian fleet, starting from 213, was busy with extremely important operations in Sicily and in the first years of the Macedonian war could not provide any assistance to Philip.
The most decisive circumstance that completely paralyzed Philip's activities in the Italian war was relations in Greece. Not only the hostile Greeks, such as the Aetolian alliance, but even the Achaeans friendly to Philip were very suspicious of any strengthening of Macedonia. Despite the temporary circumstances that sometimes forced them to be friends with Macedonia, for the Greeks it was primarily a hereditary enemy, an eternal threat to the independence of Greece. That is why Philip's alliance with Hannibal was bound to strain relations. Philip himself helped this with several tactless attempts to intervene in the affairs of the Peloponnese.
Nevertheless, in Illyria in 213 he achieved major successes on land, as a result of which the Romans held out only in a narrow coastal strip. Then Roman diplomacy came into play. In 212, secret negotiations between Levin and the leading officials of Aetolia began, which quickly led to the conclusion of a Roman-Aetolian alliance. The Aetolians were not supposed to act against Philip on land, the Romans were not supposed to act on the sea with a force of at least 25 ships of the line. With joint conquests, the Aetolians received territory, the Romans received booty. In particular, the Romans pledged to help the Aetolians in the conquest of Acarnania. Neither side should have made a separate peace with Philip.
So, instead of moving the war to Italy, Philip found himself surrounded on all sides by enemies on the Balkan Peninsula. The anti-Macedonian coalition quickly expanded: the Eleans, Spartans, Messenians and, finally, the Pergamon king Attalus I took part in the war. The northern border of Macedonia was constantly under attack by the Illyrians and Dardanians.
Philip defended himself bravely and successfully. The territory of Greece, especially the coastal areas, was brutally devastated. The war reached its highest tension in 208, when the Roman and Pergamon fleets united for joint action, and a Carthaginian squadron came to the aid of Philip. But Attalus was soon forced to return home, since the king of Bithynia Prusias invaded his possessions, and the Carthaginian fleet remained passive. In 207, Philip's position changed for the better: Hasdrubal invaded Italy, which required Rome to exert maximum effort. Therefore, the Romans could not provide any assistance to their Greek allies. Philip launched a decisive offensive against the Aetolians and invaded their borders. This prompted the Aetolian union to conclude a separate peace with Macedonia, which neutral states - Egypt, Rhodes, etc. - had been working on for a long time. In 206, a peace treaty was signed. Rome again, as in 214, was left alone with Philip. But now the situation was completely different. The alliance with Carthage lost all meaning for Philip, because it was already difficult to doubt Hannibal’s defeat. The Romans also did not have too much desire to continue the war, since the goal of their Greek policy was achieved: Philip could not help Hannibal in any way in the decisive years of the war.
All this created the ground in the fall of 205 for concluding peace between Rome and Macedonia. The Romans retained their most important Illyrian possessions - the Greek cities, ceding part of the lands on the mainland to Philip. After concluding an alliance with each other in the winter of 203/202, Macedonia and Syria began military operations against Egypt.
Antiochus invaded southern Syria, defeated the Egyptian army and reached Gaza in southern Palestine. Here he was detained by the courageous resistance of the city (201). Meanwhile, Philip, in alliance with the king of Bithynia, Prusius, began to take not so much Egyptian possessions as the independent cities of the Aegean Sea, the Hellespont and the Bosporus.
These seizures, accompanied by destruction and the sale of inhabitants into slavery, caused great indignation in the Greek world. The Rhodians were especially indignant, as they did not want the straits to fall into the hands of Macedonia. They declared war on Philip, winning Byzantium, Chios and other Greek communities to their side. Attalus of Pergamum also joined the alliance, extremely alarmed by Philip’s successes.
While Philip was besieging Chios, he was attacked by the combined fleets of Rhodes and Pergamon. The battle was inconclusive, although Philip portrayed himself as the winner. However, the victory cost him very dearly: he lost more than 10 thousand soldiers, 28 battleships and about 70 light ships. Nevertheless, he managed to defeat the Rhodian fleet at about. Lada (near Miletus) and make an attempt, albeit unsuccessful, to capture Pergamon with lightly armed troops. In southern Caria, he was finally blocked by the Rhodian and Pergamon fleets in the winter of 201/200. “As a result of this,” says Polybius, “Philip was in great difficulty, but circumstances forced him to remain in place and lead what is called a wolf’s life. By robbery and theft from some, violence against others, flattery, alien to his nature, before others he obtained meat, figs, and bread in small quantities for the starving army” (XVI, 24). Only in the early spring of 200 did he manage to escape to Macedonia.
The war went on with varying degrees of success. It would be extremely important for Philip's enemies to win over European Greece and especially Rome to their side. In the summer of 201, the Rhodes and Pergamon ambassadors came to the Senate asking for help against Philip. Even earlier, the Egyptian embassy had visited there, asking for protection and inviting Rome to accept guardianship over Ptolemy V. The Senate again faced a task of enormous importance, since intervention in eastern affairs would mean a new stage in Rome's foreign policy. The difficulty of the decision was aggravated by the fact that the war with Carthage had just ended: Italy was devastated, its population had greatly decreased, the public debt in the form of a forced loan from citizens (the so-called tributum) had grown to a huge figure, the people passionately longed for peace. Nevertheless, the Senate, after a long discussion, spoke in favor of war.
The reasons that forced the Senate to make this decision were varied, but they can all be reduced to two main ones. The first is fear of Philip and Antiochus as potential opponents of Rome. If they achieved their goals (which would inevitably happen without Roman intervention), two powerful powers would emerge in the east, which could become the greatest threat to Rome. The Romans had a special score to settle with Philip: they well remembered the recent hostility of the Macedonian king and did not forgive him for his alliance with Carthage. We do not know whether the Senate guessed about Hannibal’s new plans (these plans, as we will see below, were to form a coalition of eastern states against Rome along with Carthage). But even if the Romans did not know anything definite about them, they experienced vague anxiety: Hannibal was defeated, but not destroyed, and while the terrible enemy lived, all sorts of troubles could be expected from him. In such conditions, the growing strength of Macedonia became especially dangerous.
As for Antiochus, until now Rome has not had any conflicts with him. But after his brilliant successes in the east, an idea (of course, erroneous) was formed of him as a new Alexander the Great. The title "Great King", adopted by Antiochus after the eastern campaign, could only strengthen this idea. Rumors about a secret alliance between Philip and Antiochus, through the Rhodian and Pergamon ambassadors, of course reached the Senate. In general, in the interests of Rhodes and Pergamon. It was to inflate all these alarmist rumors and gossip as much as possible in order to drag Rome into war. And this had its result: not only Philip, but also Antiochus, and even more so, the alliance between them began to appear to the frightened imagination of the senators as a completely real threat. Consequently, a preventive war was needed, the time for which seemed most favorable: Antiochus was bogged down in Egyptian affairs, and Philip was suffering setbacks in Asia Minor.
But this is only one side of the matter. It is impossible to explain Rome’s intervention in eastern affairs by “preventive” considerations alone. The aggressive aspirations of the ruling Roman circles played a significant role here. If before the First Punic War aggressive aspirations were not of decisive importance in the foreign policy of the Senate, then by 200 the situation became different. A lot of water has passed under the bridge in these 65 years. The shocks of the two great wars were not in vain: the slave-owning economy of Italy made great progress; strong Italian estates began to take shape, later so beautifully described by Cato; a large fleet appeared; the money economy, tax farming and wholesale trade expanded (remember the law of Claudius); The Roman nobility and the rich developed a taste for good things, which until recently were alien to the semi-peasant way of life of the nobility - for refined furnishings, fine dishes, elegant clothing, Greek literature. All these were elements and symptoms of the rapidly emerging Roman slave system and aggression in foreign policy. True, by 200 the system had not yet fully formed: this would happen several decades later. But even now the aggressive tendencies were strong enough to create a certain military mood in the Senate. Of course, had it not been for the Eastern crisis, this mood would not have manifested itself soon. But the crisis came at a very opportune time: the preventive war served as a screen for aggressive goals.
In the spring of 200, a Roman embassy of three people was sent to the Balkan Peninsula with the goal of attracting the Greek states to the anti-Macedonian coalition and presenting Philip with demands that he obviously could not fulfill. The latter was necessary for the Senate to create a turning point in Roman public opinion, which was clearly hostile to the war. The first problem was almost impossible to solve. Although the ambassadors passionately campaigned in Greece for a war with Philip, presenting the Romans as the liberators of Hellas, the Greek communities remained wait-and-see and did not make any commitments. Only Athens, which had an acute conflict with Philip, declared war on him, and even then not at the insistence of the Romans, but at the suggestion of Attalus. One of the Roman ambassadors arrived to Philip, who at that moment was busy besieging the city of Abydos on the Asian coast of the Hellespont. The king was presented with an ultimatum: to stop all hostile actions against the Greeks, return Egypt to its possessions, and transfer all supporting issues between Macedonia, Pergamon and Rhodes to the decision of an arbitration court. Philip refused to comply with these demands, and by decree of the Roman comitia, war was declared on him. 1. It is characteristic of the peaceful mood of the masses that at the first vote the centuries rejected the proposal, and only at the insistence of the consul a second vote gave a positive result. In the autumn, two Roman legions, recruited from volunteers, veterans of the Second Punic War, under the command of the consul Publius Sulpicius Galba, crossed into Apollonia and began the war by attacking Philip's Illyrian possessions. At the same time, hostilities began near Athens.
Meanwhile, the Roman embassy continued its diplomatic mission. It remained to convince Antiochus to remain neutral during the war between Rome and Macedonia. The king was made to understand that the Romans were giving him freedom of action in relation to Egypt. Although Antiochus did not give a definite answer, he actually remained neutral throughout the Macedonian war. This fact is very indicative for Antiochus in particular and for the policy of the Hellenistic monarchies in their relations with Rome in general. Never during their wars in the east did the Romans encounter a united front of Hellenistic states. The contradictions between the latter were so great that they prevented the formation of a single anti-Roman coalition, which alone could save them. In particular, Antiochus, fearing the strengthening of Philip, left his ally to his own fate, preferring to “quietly” take the Syrian possessions of Egypt. For such a short-sighted policy, Antiochus was very soon punished.
The first two years of the Macedonian war passed without decisive successes. However, the Aetolians soon joined the war. The Dardanians and Illyrians were Roman allies from the very beginning. The Rhodian and Pergamon fleets operated together with the Roman in the Aegean Sea and off the coast of Macedonia.
In the summer of 199, Publius Sulpicius invaded northern Macedonia through Illyria. Philip avoided a decisive battle, fearing the numerical superiority of the enemy. By autumn the Romans had returned to their Illyrian base without making any major gains. This enabled Philip to throw all his forces against the Dardanians, who attacked Macedonia from the north, and the Aetolians, who invaded Thessaly.
In the campaign of the next year, 198, the Roman command planned to penetrate Gaecia from Illyria and unite with the Aetolians. But Philip took a strong position in the mountain passes leading to Epirus and Thessaly. The Romans camped against him in inaction.
Revival came only with the appearance at the theater of military operations of the 198 consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus with large reinforcements. He was still a young man, about 30 years old, energetic, capable and extremely ambitious. He belonged to the Scipionic circle, was an ardent admirer of Greek culture and dreamed of becoming the liberator of Greece from the yoke of Macedonia. If we add to this that Flaminin had great diplomatic abilities, then his appointment to the Balkan Peninsula will be quite understandable.
Soon after Flaminin's arrival, an attempt was made to begin peace negotiations. The Roman consul set the first condition for the cleansing of all Greek territories by Macedonia. Philip, of course, refused, especially since he felt very firmly in his impregnable positions. However, Flaminin, with the help of local guides, managed to bypass the Macedonian positions. Philip retreated to Thessaly, to the Tempean Pass. The Romans followed him and linked up with their Greek allies. The allied fleet approached Corinth, the main stronghold of Macedonian power in Greece. The Achaean League, although under strong pressure, broke off relations with Philip and joined his opponents. The position of the Macedonian king became extremely difficult. In the winter of 198/197, new peace negotiations began, but now the situation was even less favorable for Macedonia. Naturally, the Allies did not give up any of their previous demands, and the negotiations ended without any results.
Meanwhile, Philip's isolation grew: even the Spartan tyrant Nabis and Boeotia, an old friend of Macedonia, opposed him. Philip had one last option: to risk a general battle. Flamininus also sought this, fearing that his successor would arrive from Rome. Philip collected all the reserves that he still had, enlisting even 16-year-old boys into the troops. In June 197, the last battle of the Second Macedonian War took place in Thessaly on the hills called “Kinoscephali” (“Dog’s Heads”). The opposing forces were almost equal: about 26 thousand people on each side. The nature of the terrain did not make it possible to use the fighting qualities of the phalanx. Philip was completely defeated, losing more than half of his troops. He retreated to Macedonia and sent envoys to Flamininus for negotiations.
The Roman commander-in-chief was not inclined to prolong the war: Antiochus with an army and fleet at that time appeared in Asia Minor, and Flamininus feared that the Syrian king was coming to the aid of Philip. Therefore, he accepted the Macedonian proposals. A truce was concluded with Philip for 4 months under the condition of payment of 200 talents and the surrender of hostages. The text of the peace treaty was finally approved in Rome, and its implementation was entrusted to a Senate commission of 10 people together with Flaminin.
Philip had to renounce all conquests, cleanse Greece, hand over the navy, with the exception of a few ships, return prisoners and defectors and pay 1 thousand talents of indemnity: half immediately, and the rest in equal installments over 10 years. The relative moderation of the treaty of 196 shows the prudence and foresight of the Senate, which did not want to embitter Philip, seeking to use him as an ally in the inevitable war with Antiochus.
The first article of the peace treaty proclaimed the freedom of the Greeks: “In general, all Hellenes, both Asian and European, be free and enjoy their own laws” 1.
For the Roman Senate, the proclamation of Greek freedom was, first of all, a certain stage of its eastern policy. This policy was only taking its first steps. The Romans still felt very unsteady in the Balkans, despite the victory over Philip. Antiochus already had one foot in Europe, his intentions were unknown. Under such conditions, it was necessary to win the sympathy of the Greeks, wrest them from the influence of Philip and, most importantly, contrast their policies in Greece with those of Antiochus. If Rome does not liberate Greece, what will prevent Antiochus from liberating it in the near future?
Thus, objectively, the “liberation” of Greece was, if not a comedy in the full sense of the word, then, in any case, a clever political move. Recent events confirmed this. First of all, the Roman government understood the “freedom” of the Greek city-states only in the sense of freedom from taxes, foreign garrisons and laws imposed from outside. But it retained supreme control over Greek political life. The Commission of the Ten, led by Flamininus, began to redraw the political map of the Balkan Peninsula in favor of its allies, regardless of the wishes of those who were forcibly annexed to the Achaean or Aetolian alliances or subordinated to the dynasts of Greece and Asia Minor. And the Greeks did not immediately receive freedom from the Roman garrisons. At first, the Romans occupied the most important strategic centers with their troops - Corinth, Chalkis, Eretria, etc. (This disposition of troops was also caused by fear of Antiochus, who in 196 was already on the Thracian coast, i.e. in threatening proximity to Greece ). Only in the summer of 194 were they cleared of Roman garrisons, mainly thanks to the insistence of Flamininus, who pointed out the Greeks' dissatisfaction with such a long occupation.
In the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC e. for hegemony in Greece and the Hellenistic countries. In the First Macedonian War (215-205 BC), the Macedonian king Philip V, acting in alliance with Carthage against Rome and learning about Hannibal's convincing victory at Lake Trasimene, tried to take possession of Illyria and expand his possessions in Asia Minor. For this, Philip V was forced to stop hostilities with Aetolia and make peace with it. The Romans fought with their main forces against Hannibal in Italy (see Punic Wars), therefore they allocated insignificant forces for actions in the Balkans. In 214 BC. e. Philip made two attempts to capture Illyria by sea, and in 213-212. BC e. He tried twice to capture it from land, but all his attempts were unsuccessful. Roman troops under the command of Mark Valery Levin managed to maintain their positions in Illyria. By this time, Rome had managed to win over Philip's Greek enemies to its side, from 211 BC. e. The allies of the Romans were the Aetolian League, Elis, Sparta, Messenia, as well as the Pergamon king Attalus I. Since all the forces of Rome were thrown at Carthage at that time, the campaign in Greece took place without active hostilities. As a result, the First Macedonian War did not lead to significant territorial changes in the Balkans, although Rome managed to expand its influence in Greece. Philip V, concluding in 205 BC. e. peace with Rome, continued military operations against Rhodes, Pergamum, and Caria.
After the victory in the 2nd Punic War 218-201. BC e. over Carthage, Rome intensified its policy in the Balkans and accused Macedonia of violating Treaty 205 (establishing contacts with Carthage, attacking Rome’s allies). This became the reason for the start of the second Macedonian War (200-197 BC). Rome managed to strengthen its influence in Greece; Rhodes and the Kingdom of Pergamon became its main allies. Macedonia's material resources were depleted, opposition against the king grew within the country, and the war with Rome was unpopular. Philip V's attempts to make peace with Rome were unsuccessful. In July 197, the Battle of Cynoscephalae took place, in which the advantages of the Roman army organization and the manipular structure of the legion over the Macedonian phalanx were perfectly demonstrated. Philip's Macedonian forces were defeated by Roman legions under the command of Titus Flaminius, and the Romans finally consolidated their influence in Greece. After the liberation of Greece from Macedonian troops, at the Isthmian Games of 196 BC. e. near Corinth, Greece was declared “free” by Flaminius, but in fact found itself under the protectorate of Rome. At the conclusion of peace, Philip V renounced all possessions outside Macedonia, gave Rome the entire fleet, except for 6 ships, pledged to reduce the army to 5 thousand people and not fight with Rome’s allies.
After the death of Philip V (179 BC), his son Perseus began to prepare for war with Rome. He suppressed the opposition of the Macedonian nobility, strengthened the country's economy, created a 40,000-strong army and established connections with countries hostile to Rome (including Carthage). The Roman Senate accused Perseus of violating previous treaties and began the Third Macedonian War (171-168 BC). In 171 BC. e. Roman legions landed in Greece - 30 thousand Italian legionnaires and over 10 thousand auxiliary troops deployed by states dependent on Rome. In addition, the Romans in the Aegean Sea had a fleet of 40 decked ships with a landing force of 10,000. At first, military operations proceeded with varying success, but in 168 BC. e. Consul Lucius Aemilius Paulus took command of the Roman troops in Thessaly, and on June 22, 168 BC. e. near the city of Pidna defeated the Macedonian troops, despite the numerical superiority of the Macedonian troops and the battlefield convenient for the phalanx. The Macedonian king Perseus fled and was later captured. The Roman army occupied and plundered Macedonia. The Roman Senate abolished royal power and divided the country into 4 districts, deprived of political and economic ties with each other. After the suppression of the anti-Roman uprising of Andriska in 148 BC. e. The Roman province of Macedonia was created on the territory of Macedonia, Illyria and Epirus.
The Battle of Pydna in the Third Macedonian War was one of the decisive battles. This confrontation began back in 171 BC. A few years earlier, King Philip V had died and was succeeded by his ambitious son Perseus. He increased the size of the army and found several loyal allies.
At the same time, the oligarchic circles of the Greek states, with which he began to establish contacts, supported Rome. Therefore, Perseus had to turn to the democrats for support. He openly stated that he plans to restore the former power of his country.
Rome was worried about these statements; the Eternal City was afraid of losing its influence in Greece. Then the king of Pergamum, Eumenes II, declared that Perseus had violated the Roman-Macedonian peace agreement and declared war. At this moment, the Macedonian king made an unforgivable mistake, missing the moment when it was possible to win over the majority of the Greek city-states to his side. Roman diplomats, on the contrary, ensured that the Greeks began to send them auxiliary detachments.
Development of the war
At the same time, the war began successfully for Perseus. At Larisseon, he defeated the army of Crassus, but again lost a lot of time while he listened to Marcius Philip, who argued that Rome did not want a bloody war and proposed negotiations. As a result, time was lost; the Romans managed to retreat to the sea.
Then Perseus himself proposed peace, but was refused. At this time, everything was completely unfavorable in the Roman army; due to disciplinary problems, the commanders could not invade Macedonia for a long time. Perseus managed to defeat another Roman army in Illyria and tried to defeat Pergamum, but to no avail.
Finally, in 169 BC, Marcius Philip invaded Macedonian territory. But by this time his soldiers were so tired that he was forced to avoid the decisive battle.
In 168 BC, the Roman troops were led by Lucius Aemilius Paulus, whom everyone knew as an incorruptible and strong-willed commander. He managed to restore discipline to the army, pushing Perseus aside.
On the eve of the general battle, Lucius, in order to force Perseus to leave his positions, sent a separate detachment to the coast, which consisted of 120 cavalrymen and more than eight thousand infantry. Thus, he sought to convince the Macedonians that the Romans would make an attempt to cross the river. By nightfall, Scipio led his troops to the mountains to attack Perseus' troops from the rear.
This was prevented thanks to a Roman deserter who ended up in Perseus’s camp. To block the access route, the Macedonians sent 12 thousand soldiers. But they failed to complete their mission; as a result of a clash with the Romans, they were forced to return to their camp. Then the king led his troops to the north, settling in the Katerini region, not far from Pidna. It was in these positions that the Macedonian phalanx found itself in the best conditions for battle.
The Roman troops continued to unite, and Perseus sent all his forces to repel the attack from Sicily. The Romans discovered that the Macedonian troops were ready for defense. They were located to the west of the main forces of Perseus in the area of Mount Olokrus. On June 21, a lunar eclipse took place, which all Macedonians considered a bad omen. They were sure that this foreshadowed the death of their king.
Now you know the date of the Battle of Pydna. According to the initial arrangement, 29 thousand Roman soldiers took part in the confrontation, which even included two legions. Moreover, 24.5 thousand were infantrymen.
On the Macedonian side, 44 thousand soldiers took part in the Battle of Pydna, of which 21 thousand were considered Phalangists. The cavalry forces were approximately equal - 4 thousand on each side.
The Romans immediately placed their two legions in the center, and placed the allied troops on the flanks, among whom were Greeks, Italians and Latins. During the battle, the legion formed three lines, which were located strictly in a checkerboard pattern. The cavalry was placed on the wings of this formation, and on the right flank 22 war elephants took part in the battle.
The Macedonian army at the Battle of Pydna (148 BC) was located in the center along with a detachment of three thousand elite fighters. The flanks were protected by Thracian infantry and mercenaries, and Macedonian cavalry also lined up on them.
Perseus formed the most powerful contingent on the right flank, where he himself commanded the heavy cavalry.
In fact, the Battle of Pydna (148 BC) began around 15:00 local time. The armies began active rapprochement. The enemy looked so menacing that panic began in the ranks of the Romans. The phalanx simply swept away the advanced units, they began to retreat towards Olkor as planned.
One of the decisive moments of the battle was when the consul turned his attention to the Macedonian phalanx. It turned out that she was moving forward with gaps, very unevenly. He gave orders to parts of his legions to act independently of each other and, in small detachments, to wedge into the gaps that were forming in the phalanx in order to attack at the first opportunity.
The legionnaires who stood in the first two lines were armed with short swords and shields. They began to slip past the Macedonian peak, engaging in close combat, in which they had a definite advantage. Perseus quickly noticed that the course of the battle was changing before his eyes. He takes part in leading the cavalry to leave the battlefield. By that time, the Macedonian army was already virtually defeated, the losses amounted to about 20 thousand people killed and another 11 thousand wounded. The Battle of Pydna (148 BC) lasted only a short time, about an hour, but left an important mark on world history. In addition, the pursuit of the retreating Macedonian units continued until complete twilight.
Perseus himself hastily fled from the battlefield, the Romans overtook him and took him prisoner. At the same time, the life of the Macedonian king was spared in order to produce the greatest effect during his triumphant return to Rome.
The battle once again proved the power and strength of the Roman legion in front of the Macedonian phalanx. First of all, due to its maneuverability. At the same time, some historians are still convinced that the battle was lost primarily due to the fact that Perseus himself did not participate in it, and numerous Geitars took a wait-and-see position and, as a result, decided not to attack the enemy at all.
The main result of the Battle of Pydna was the subjugation of Macedonia. After this triumphant success, the Roman consul Aemilius Paulus set out with an army against Perseus' former allies. First of all, these were Eiprus and Illyrius. He destroyed about 60 Epirus settlements, sold 150 thousand people into slavery, virtually completely devastating these lands.
Macedonia was forcibly divided into four districts, which began to form unions of cities. Each of them was completely independent, had the right to mint coins, but at the same time was deprived of the opportunity to maintain economic and political contacts with their neighbors.
Tsarist officials were deported to Italy; if anyone tried to return, he was immediately punished with death. Residents of the districts were obliged to send an annual tribute to Rome, which was half of what they were obliged to pay to the previous king.
Illyria was also divided into several districts, arranged according to the principle of Macedonia. In Greece, the Romans punished everyone who supported Perseus. For example, about a thousand Achaeans were transported to Rome as hostages. After the final suppression of the anti-Roman uprising, Macedonia became one of the Roman provinces. In fact, the date of the subjugation of Macedonia coincides with the Battle of Pydna.
Acting in alliance with Carthage against Rome, he tried to take possession of Illyria and expand his possessions in Asia Minor. The Romans fought with their main forces against Hannibal in Italy (see. Punic Wars ), and insignificant forces were allocated for operations in the Balkans. However, the Macedonian troops acted hesitantly, and the Romans strongly supported the anti-Macedonian movement in the Hellenistic world. As a result, 1st Macedonian Wars did not lead to significant territorial changes in the Balkans, although Rome managed to expand its influence in Greece. Philip V, having concluded peace with Rome in 205, continued military operations against Rhodes, Pergamum, Caria and others. After the victory in the 2nd Punic War 218-201 over Carthage, Rome intensified its policy in the Balkans and accused Macedonia of violating Treaty 205 (establishing contacts with Carthage, attacking Rome’s allies, etc.). The 2nd has begun Macedonian Wars 200-197. Rome managed to strengthen its influence in Greece. Macedonia's material resources were depleted, opposition against the king grew within the country, and the war with Rome was unpopular. Philip V's attempts to make peace with Rome were unsuccessful. In July 197 at Kinoscephalah Macedonian troops were defeated. At the conclusion of peace, Philip V renounced all possessions outside Macedonia, gave Rome the entire fleet, except for 6 ships, pledged to reduce the army to 5 thousand people and not fight with Rome’s allies. Greece was declared “free” and actually found itself under the rule of Rome. After the death of Philip V (179), his son Perseus began to prepare for war with Rome. He suppressed the opposition of the Macedonian nobility, strengthened the country's economy, created a 40,000-strong army and established connections with countries hostile to Rome (including Carthage). The Roman Senate accused Perseus of violating previous treaties and began the 3rd Macedonian Wars 171-168. A 30,000-strong Roman army landed in Greece. At first, military operations proceeded with varying success, but in 168 the consul Lucius Aemilius Paulus took command of the Roman troops in Thessaly, who on June 22, 168 Pidny defeated the Macedonian troops; Perseus fled and was later captured. The Roman army occupied and plundered Macedonia. The Roman Senate abolished royal power and divided the country into 4 districts, deprived of political and economic ties with each other. After the suppression of the anti-Roman uprising of Andriskus in 148 on the territory of Macedonia, it, along with Illyria and Epirus, was turned into a Roman province.
Lit.: Shofman A.S., History of ancient Macedonia, part 2, Kazan, 1963; Razin E. A., History of military art, vol. 1, M., 1955.
A. A. Malinovsky.
Article about the word " Macedonian Wars" in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia was read 1555 times
A series of wars between Rome and Macedonia during and after the Second Punic War. As a result of the Punic and Macedonian wars, Rome achieved hegemony over almost the entire Mediterranean basin.
First Macedonian War (215-205 BC)
During the Second Punic War, King Philip V of Macedonia entered into an alliance with Hannibal. Fearing the possible strengthening of Hannibal by Macedonian troops, Rome transported the army across the Adriatic Sea, starting the First Macedonian War. Roman legions (reinforced by allies from the Aetolian League, Sparta, Messenia, Athens and Pergamon after 211 BC) captured minor territory along the Adriatic coast. In this war, the Roman goal was not to conquer new territories, but to keep Macedonia and the Greek city-states away from the Punic War. The war ended in 205 BC. e. peace agreement (eng. Treaty of Phoenice). This small conflict opened the way for Rome to military expansion into Greece.
Second Macedonian War (200-196 BC)
In 201 BC e. Ambassadors from Pergamum and Rhodes reported to the Roman Senate that Philip V of Macedon and the Syrian Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great had concluded a non-aggression pact. Although some scholars believe that this pact was completely fabricated by Pergamum and Rhodes, it resulted in Rome, with the support of its Greek allies, starting the Second Macedonian War. The war, which continued with varying success, thoroughly depleted the forces of Macedonia and ended with a decisive victory for the Romans at the Battle of Cynocephalus in 197 BC. e. At the conclusion of peace, Philip V renounced all possessions outside Macedonia, gave Rome the entire fleet, except for 6 ships, pledged to reduce the army to 5 thousand people and not fight with Rome’s allies. Greece was declared “free” and actually found itself under the rule of Rome.
Third Macedonian War (171-168 BC)
After the death of Philip (179 BC), his son Perseus became king of Macedonia. Perseus began to pursue an aggressive policy in order to restore Macedonian influence. When Macedonian aggression affected Rome's allies, the Senate began the Third Macedonian War. At first, this war was unsuccessful for the Romans, but in 168 BC. e. Roman legions defeated the Macedonian phalanx at the Battle of Pydna. Perseus was later captured and Macedonia was divided into four puppet republics.
Fourth Macedonian War (150-148 BC)
For almost two decades, Greece was content with peace, until an uprising began in Macedonia under the leadership of Andriskus, who declared himself Philip, the son of King Perseus and the Syrian princess Laodice. Supported by Thrace, as well as Byzantium and a number of other cities, Andriskus (False Philip) occupied Macedonia, won over most of the country's population, and invaded Thessaly. The Roman legion sent to suppress the uprising was destroyed. Rome sent a new army against Andriska under the command of Quintus Caecilius Metellus, thus unleashing the Fourth Macedonian War. Acting more through bribery than force, the Romans defeated Andriskus's forces in 148 BC. e. Andrisk's second campaign also ended in failure, and he himself was captured, marched around Rome during the triumph of Quintus Caecilius Metellus and executed. In 143 BC. e. The Romans also quickly suppressed the movement of False Philip II.
The Macedonian Wars ended with the loss of Greece's independence.
