Vaneyeva E and the history of Byzantine literature. History of Byzantium

Bagranogenic born in 905. He was the son of Leo VI from the Macedonian dynasty. His figure is of particular interest among historians. The fact is that this ruler throughout its location on the throne did not have so much politics as devoted to his time science and study of books. He was a writer and left behind a rich literary heritage.

Heir to the throne

The only son of Leo VI philosopher Konstantin Bagrynorovnoye was born of his marriage with the fourth wife. Because of this, he could not hold the throne in Christian rules. Nevertheless, the lion wanted to see his son with the emperor and therefore in his life made him his co-program. With his death in the 912, the younger brother of the deceased Alexander came to power. He removed the juvenile Constantine from the business management, and also deprived the influence of all supporters of the nephew. It seemed that the new emperor firmly took power into his hands. However, already in 913, not old Alexander died from a long illness.

Loss of real power

Now Konstantin finally became the emperor. However, he was only 8 years old. Because of this, the Regency Council was established, which was headed by Patriarch Nikolai Mystic. Always differed by the instability of power, which was transferred from hand to hand through conspiracies and military coups. The shaky position of the Regent Council allowed the fleet of Roman Lacipin to stand at the head of state.

In 920, he declared himself the emperor. At the same time, at first, the new autocrats declared itself only as a defender of a legitimate minor emperor. However, Lacapin managed to be paralyzed by the will of Konstantin, who was not at all interested in power and treated it as a burden.

With a novel lacipine

The new ruler did not belong to the previously reigning dynasty, so he decided to legitimate, marrying Constantine on his daughter Elena. The young man was removed from the real power. He dedicated his youth science and reading books. At this time, Constantinople was one of the world's education centers. Thousands of unique foliants devoted to various disciplines and cultures were kept here. It was they who were fascinated by a young man for life.

At this time, Roman Lacipin surrounded Konstantin loyal to himself by the people who watched the legal monarch. Since the real ruler has increasingly prescribed power, conspiracies aimed against him began to appear among the aristocracy. Almost every year, new traitors were revealed, with which they were straightened without special ceremonies. Any methods were going to move: intimidation, confiscation of property, tonsuring monks and, of course, execution.

Return of the Imperial Titula

Konstantin Bagrynorodnaya received his nickname in honor of the name of the hall in the imperial palace in which he was born. This epithet emphasized his legitimateness, which Father Lion VI wanted.

Konstantin Bagryanorogenic most of his life was content with what was only attended by formal ceremonies. He was not trained to manage the army, so the military career did not interest him. Instead, Konstantin was engaged in science. Thanks to his works, modern historians can make the most complete picture of the life of Byzantium in the X century.

In 944, the usurper Roman Lacipin was overthrown with his own sons. Riots began in the capital. Simple residents did not like chaos in power. Everyone wanted to see the state of the legitimate heir to Konstantin Bagryanorogennoe, and not children of the usurper. Finally, the son of Lev VI finally became the emperor. He stayed until 959, when suddenly died. Some historians are supporters of the theory that the ruler poisoned his son Roman.

Literary works Konstantin

The main book, which the Emperor Konstantin Bagryanorogennoe left behind, was the treatise "On the Management of the Empire". This document was drawn up by the ruler for its predecessors. It was hoping that his state management advice would help future autocrats to avoid conflicts within the country. The book was not intended for the general public. She was published after the fall of Byzantium, when several copies miraculously hit Europe. The name was also given by the German publisher (Konstantin VII Bagryanorovna did not give the title of secret treatise).

In his book, the author considered the life and foundations of the state in detail. In it, 53 chapters. Many of them are devoted to the peoples who inhabid the empire or adjacent to it. Alien culture has always been the area that Konstantin Bagryanorogennoe. About the Slavs, he left unique essays that are no longer found in any source of that era. It is curious that the emperor even described the visit of the Kiev Princess Olga to Tsargrad. As you know, in Constantinople, the Slavic government adopted Christian baptism when her people still confessed the pagan faith.

In addition, the author considered the Administrative and Economic Device of Ancient Russia. In various chapters there are descriptions of Slavic cities: Novgorod, Smolensk, Vyshgorod, Chernigov, as well as Kiev. The emperor paid attention to other neighboring peoples: Bulgarians, Hungarians, Arabs, Khazaras, etc. The original of the treatise was written in Greek. Later, the book was translated into Latin, and then - to other European languages. In this work, a variety of narrative genres, which skillfully used Konstantin Bagrynorogennoe was mixed. "On the management of the Empire" is a unique sample of medieval literature.

"On ceremonies"

Another important book written by the emperor was the collection "On Ceremonies". In it, the autocrats described all the rituals adopted in the Byzantine yard. The collection also includes a curious application dedicated to military tactics. According to Constantine, these notes should have become a teaching manual for future rulers of a huge state.

Philanthrop and enlightener

Konstantin not only wrote books, but also patronized various authors and institutions. Having matured, he first of all engaged in the treatment of a huge literary massif, which accumulated Orthodox Byzantium. These were the various lives of the saints, stored in the libraries of monasteries. Many of them existed in a single copy, and rare books were corrupted from the antiquity and bad storage conditions.

In this company, the emperor helped logo and master Simeon Metaphraus. It was in its processing to our times a lot of Christian literary artifacts came. Master received money from the emperor, to which he purchased rare copies of books, and also contained a stationery with a large staff: painters, librarians, etc.

Encyclopedia Konstantin

The emperor became an inspirer and sponsor of other similar enlightenment events. Thanks to him in Constantinople, an encyclopedia was published, which consisted of more than fifty volumes. This meeting included knowledge from various fields of both humanitarian and natural sciences. The main merit of the Encyclopedia of the Epoch of Constantine was to codification and streamlining a huge array of disparate information.

Many knowledge was necessary for practical purposes. For example, Konstantin financed the compilation of a collection of articles dedicated to agriculture. The knowledge set forth in these documents was helped for several generations to achieve the greatest crop on the expanses.

Evangelist Mark. Sheet of evangeliaria. Beginning of the XI century Walters MS. W.530.A, St. Mark / The Walters Art Museum

Scientific literature on Byzantium is immense. Twice a year, the most authoritative International Byzantine Magazine Byzantinische Zeitschrift (literally - "Byzantine Journal") is an annotated bibliography of new jobs on Byzantinistics, and usually the release of 300-400 pages includes from 2500 to 3000 points. Navigate in such a squall of publications is not easy. Especially since this literature in different languages: Byzantinology (as well as, for example, classical philology), it has not been an English-speaking discipline, and each Byzantinist is obliged to read at least in German, French, Italian, Novogreic and Latin (Latin for Byzantinists not only language Sources, but also a working tool: In accordance with the tradition, it is to this day they have been written for critical editions to this day). At the beginning of the 20th century, the Russian language was also included in this mandatory list, and now the Turkish conquers more severe positions.

That is why even important books are very rarely translated. Paradoxically, even the Karl Krumbacher's software book "Geschichte der Byzantinischen Litteratur" ("The History of Byzantine Literature"), laid down at the end of the 19th century, the fundamentals of scientific visyantinology, not translated into any European language, except Novogreic. The situation with translations into Russian is still crying - it is impossible to read the fundamental work on it.

The following list fell one popular monograph, designed to explain what Czantium, a person who first led this issue, and five "classic" books that had a great influence on the development of the Byzantine thought thought. This is either the work of Russian-speaking scientists, or the monographs of European researchers, available translated (however, the translation quality is not always high, and if possible, it is always better to access the original). The list did not include important books, devoted to the individual figures of Byzantine culture For example, Lyubarsky Ya. N. "Mikhail Pwell. Personality and creativity. To the history of the Byzantine predgumanism "(M., 1978); Meyendorf I., Protopres. "The Life and Proceedings of St. Gregory Palama: Introduction to the Study" (2nd ed. St. Petersburg., 1997)., or deep research that reveal some narrow reservoir of Byzantine culture Osterhaut R. "Byzantine builders" (M., Kiev, 2005); Taft R. F. "Byzantine church rite" (SPB., 2000).Because recommending this kind of private research for the first acquaintance with Byzantium would be wrong.

Judith Herrin. "Byzantium: the amazing life of the medieval empire"

Professor Judith Herrin (r. 1942) wrote his popular monograph about Byzantium - if, of course, to believe the preface, and not consider it a literary game - after it failed to answer the question of workers who made repairs in her office in the London Kings College : "What is Byzantium?" (This is the mysterious word they noticed her office on the doors.) From the book, which is unlikely to open something new specialist, but will be useful anyone who is asked the same question as the heroes of the preface, you should not wait for the consistent presentation of the Byzantine history - The author's recognition is only a "assorted mez" (this initially, the Persian words call snacks throughout the Mediterranean), designed not to saturate, but only to annoy the reader's appetite. The book is built according to the chronological principle (from the foundation of Constantinople to its fall), but its chapters were made consciously multiple - at the same level, at first glance, the immense topics "Greek Orthodoxy" or "Byzantine economy" and quite private "Vasily II Bulgarian" and "Anna Comnina."

Herrin proposes to look at the story of Byzantium not as an endless series of emperors, commander and patriarchs with unusual names for the European ear, but as a history of people who created a civilization, which in the VII century defended Europe from the Arab threat,
And in the XIII-XV centuries, the foundations of the European Renaissance launched - and nevertheless the average modern Europeans is not at all acquainted and comes down in his submission to stereotypes about cunning, obscurantism, bowl and pretend. Herrine masterfully spreads with these stereotypes, inherited from Montopecia and Eduard Gibbon, at the same time stricter, and approaching Byzantium. It describes the Byzantium with the help of elegant paradoxes ("the cultural influence of Byzantium grew back proportional - now its political power"), but simultaneously shows how this seemingly, an infinitely distant civilization breaks into the world around us, sharing the children's impressions from Mosaics equal or analyzing The performance of Pope Benedict XVI 2006, in which he referred to (however, if he believing Herrin, not quite correctly) on the anti-Islamic statements of the emperor Manuel IKKOMNINA.

Herrin J. Byzantium: The Surprising. Life of a Medieval Empire. PrinceTon, N. J., 2008.
Alternative: Herrin J. Byzantium. Amazing life of the medieval empire. M., 2015.

Alexander Kujdan. "The History of Byzantine Literature"

The unfinished project of Alexander Kahdan (1922-1997), to which he walked for many years, gradually moving from him in the youth of socio-economic issues to the history of the Byzantine literary aesthetics. Work on the volumes began in 1993 and by the time he left his life, none of them were completely ready for printing. The books were published only nine years later, and in Greece, because of what they practically did not fall into libraries and books.

Published volumes - only a small part of what was supposed to be written. They cover the period of the dark centuries (Ser. VII - Ser. VIII century), the era of monastic revival (approx. 775 - approx. 850 years) and the time of Byzantine encyclopedism (850-1000 years). Each did not have time to write neither about Mikhail Pwell, nor about so beloved by Nikita Honiata (however, there can be some compensation a collection of his articles "Nikita Choniat and his time" (St. Petersburg, 2005).

The name of the books of Cahuses is unlikely to pay attention to the reader, unfamiliar with circumstances. Meanwhile, for the simplicity of the title, there is a controversy with the founder of Byzantinistiki Karlom Krumbacher and his immense and in German meticulous reference book "The History of Byzantine Literature" (in drafts and personal correspondence, even reduced his book as GBL, as if he wrote her not in English, but German). Books, replaced in the middle of the 20th century, obsolete compendium of the Krumbahmer (for example, the work of Herbert Hungarian in high secular literature or Hans Georg Beck on church writing and people's literature), also represented directory - detailed, complexly structured, but deprived of any Aesthetic estimates of the lists of texts with an exhaustive source characteristic and complete bibliography.

The task of Cahotan was different - to return to the question of the "pleasure received when reading the Greek medieval literary text," try to appreciate the Byzantine literature "According to her own standards," to understand the literary style issues. That is why the form of the Book of Impressionistic - Caudhan refused to attempt to cover all the literary heritage of Byzantium and created a cycle of chronologically consecutive literary sketch-essays, sometimes almost deprived of reference bibliographic apparatus. In the center of each of them there is a key writer's figure for a particular era, and the authors of a smaller magnitude acting in the orbit of the main character or continuing the vector given to them are mentioned only casual.

The History of Byzantine Literature "has finally approved the rights of a literary, and not a source approach to the monuments of the Byzantine literature and caused avalanche-like growth in the number of works on the Byzantine literary aesthetics.

KAZHDAN A. A HISTORY OF BYZANTINE LITERATURE (650-850) (IN COLLABORATION WITH L. F. SHERRY AND CH. ANGELIDI). Athens, 1999.KAZHDAN A. A HISTORY OF BYZANTINE LITERATURE (850-1000). ED. Ch. Angelidi. Athens, 2006. Alexander Kujdan wrote his latest books in English - since since 1979 he lived in the United States and worked in the Byzantine center of Dumbarton Oks..
Alternative: KUDAN A. P. The history of Byzantine literature (650-850). St. Petersburg., 2002.
KUDAN A. P. The history of Byzantine literature (850-1000). The era of Byzantine encyclopedism. St. Petersburg, 2012.

Igor Medvedev. "Byzantine humanism of the XIV-XV centuries"

The first edition of the book of the current Head of the St. Petersburg School of Byzantinology, Igor Medvedev (R. 1935) took place in 1976; For the second edition of 1997, it was supplemented and recycled. Medvedev's monograph raises the question of humanistic trends in the culture of Late Byzantium (XIV-XV centuries) and the type-geological similarity of these trends with the features of the Western European Renaissance.

The central figure of the book - the philosopher-neoplate-nickname of Georgy Gemist Plong, who on the extension of Byzantine history suggested a program for the radical update of the empire based on the revival of the Public Olympic cults. The devotee of oblivion in Byzantium (his scandalous book, "laws" was destroyed by the Konstantinople Patriarch Gennady Scholaria), Plonphon, imagined the unimaginable combination of Byzantine - intellectual and neo-pagan, invariably intrigued and intrigues researchers (for example, last year In the prestigious English publishing house ASHGATE, a new four-page book was published about the plophone with a subtitle "between Hellenism and Ortodoxy"). Added by Medvedev in the second edition of the book The head of the "Apotheosis of the Fleephon" is a characteristic subtitle "New Historibovy Fashion Wave".

According to Medvedev, in the XIV-XV centuries in the Byzantine elite, a special environment was formed, in which the trend was distributed, in something related ideas of Italian humanism. The brightest representatives of this environment (Plong and Writer Theodore Metohit) were ready to offer the Byzantium "Hellenistic" future, based on the ideology of "secular humanism" and the open recognition of the unity of Greek culture from antichnya to the Middle Ages. However, the possibility of this alternative story never became a reality, since "Byzantine Church," approved the teaching of St. Grigory Palamas ... resolutely turned away from the revival According to Medvedev, the Gregory Palama, Isikhm - Monastic and ascetic practice, allowing a person to connect with God, was "obscurantism", and his victory did not leave any space for free discussions about faith: the system of "political persecution of the Catholic Inquisition" arose, And now for the "Principles of a new vision of the world, a new worldview, born by the Renaissance Epoch, people had to shed blood.""(Quote from John Meyendorf John Meyendorf. (1926-1992) - American historian of the Church, researcher of Isychasm.), and in 1453 the Turkish blade interrupted the final political existence of Byzantium. " Today, when the church component of the Byzantine culture overshadows in the mass consciousness, all the others, such an adoption of "merit" of the Constantinople church and the Turks, as well as the entire anti-ache patos of the book, sounds especially relevant.

Medvedev I. P. Byzantine humanism of the XIV-XV centuries. 2nd publication, corrected and complemented. St. Petersburg., 1997.

Sergey Averintsev. "Poetics of the Rannevianizan Literature"

The book of Sergei Averintseva (1937-2004) is perhaps the most popular publication with the word "Byzantine" in the title, ever published in Russia. It was reprinted repeatedly and included in lists of literature for students not only by specialized Byzantine departments.

The book is simultaneously easy, and difficult to read. It is almost deprived of a reference bibliographic frame and deliberately confronts the reader with the headlines of the riddles formally not structured sections: "Being as perfection is a beauty like being", "consent to disagreement", "the world is like a mystery and a solution." The book is not a consistent presentation of the stages of the literary process in the Mediterranean region and not a reference book on genre, and the meeting written by the bright, figurative language of cultural and essays, in which the author is trying to fill the specifics of the Byzantine culture through literary texts, formally not related to the Byzantine period ( As a rule, the Byzantine literature is spoken in relation to monuments not earlier than VI or even the VII century).

Averintsev offered to abandon an infinite dispute about where the border between antiquity and Byzantium runs, recognizing that the texts of which he argues (the authorship of Nonna Panopolitan or Grigory Theologian) can be attributed to the antique and to the antique, and to the pre- or early-) Byzantine literature. According to him, we are talking only about focus - about the look forward or backward: "We were looking for in these texts, first of all, not the echoes of the old one, but the features of the new one; We did not occupy the harmony of the inertia, as far as the fruitful disharmony of the shear ... The most fundamental literary principles we sought to take in their mobile, self-contradictory, transitional state.<…> No era can be quite "equal to myself" - otherwise the next era would not have a chance to occur. "

Another fundamental decision of Averintsev is the inclusion of sources of texts in the new European understanding of the literature not: theological treatises, sermons, liturgical poetry. These texts, familiar to many at least in church services, but thereby discarded from the Byzantine, and even more so that caused their ancient context, they are revealed precisely as works of literature and acquire their place in the history of literary aesthetics.

Averintsev S. The poetics of the Runnevizanist literature. M., 1997.

Dmitry Obolensky. "Byzantine Commonwealth of Nations"

In the book of Dmitry Obolensky (1918-2001), the concept of the "Byzantine Commonwealth of Nations" was proposed (by analogy with the British Commonwealth - British Commonwealth). Obolensky postulates the opportunity to "assume [Byzantium and the countries of Eastern Europe] by the Unified International Community", "the Super-National Association of Christian States", between whose parts there are opposite-false tension lines: Centrifugal (struggle of eastern European peoples with Byzantium on political, cultural, church and military level) and centripetal (gradual perception and recognition of the primacy of the Byzantine cultural tradition in Eastern Europe). The geographical boundaries of the world described on the pages of the book, moving. The focus of the researcher's attention is moved both by temporary and geographic scale, since new peoples in the influence of Byzantine culture influenced the influence of the Byzantine culture: "core" of the Byzantine world in the Balkans remained unchanged, but over the time of Byzantium, some regions (Moravia, Croatia, Hungary) were departed from Byzantium And others approach (Russia, Moldova, Valahia). The cycle of chronologically organized essays is replaced by reasoning about the factors of the cultural penetration of Byzantium.

According to Obolensky, "Commonwealth", which was fully at the beginning of the XI century, had exceptional stability and existed until the fall of Byzantium. Insisting on the fact that it is "not intellectual abstraction", Obolensky admits that the Byzantines themselves and their neighbors did not always fully realize the nature of their relations and could not conceptualize them themselves. However, the flexibility of terminology described these relationships had its advantages, and modern attempts to "describe them in exact legal terms<…> Excessively simplify and distort their nature. " A fundamental decision of the author was the refusal to see in the relations of Byzantium with the Eastern European countries and regions, a simplified scheme of the struggle of the Byzantine "imperialism" and "local national movements".

The idea of \u200b\u200b"Commonwealth" removed the predecessors of the Obolensky predefoliated contradiction between the "political independence of medieval peoples of Eastern Europe" and "the recognition of the supreme power of the emperor." Its crosses were the confession of the Eastern Christian and the recognition of the rule of the Konstantinople Church, the norms of the Roman-Byzantine law, the highest political authorities of the Byzantine emperor over the Orthodox world, as well as the standards of Byzantine literature and artistic aesthetics.

Obolensky D. The Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe, 500-1453. London, 1971.
Alternative: Obolensky D. Byzantine Commonwealth of Nations. Six Byzantine portraits. M., 1998.

Paul Lemerl. "First Byzantine Humanism"

The classical monograph of the French Visan-Tinist field of Lemerl (1903-1989), which is only available in Russian only after forty years after the publication, is devoted to the cultural transformation of Byzantium of the Macedon Renaissance (IX-X century) - the time of the "first" humanism, which did not make it possible Only the "second", much more famous, the humanism of the era of Paleologists, but also indirectly influenced the GUM-bottom of the Western European Renaissance. The luggage of knowledge about the ancient culture of the Byzantines who fled to Italy after 1453 was accomplished by scientists of the XIV-XV centuries, however, they, in turn, relied on the intellectuals of the Macedonian era, the first to escape from the oblivion of the dark centuries of the works of Plato, Aristotle, Eschila and Euripid.

The second half of the 9th century - the time of the new acquaintance of the Byzantines with the ancient culture and the accumulation and codification of knowledge in all spheres of life. Asking the issue of the causes of this cultural surge, Lemerl refuses to see in it the external (Caroling Western or Siro-Arab Eastern) effect. In his interpretation, the possibility of such a revival was always laid in the Byzantine culture, which formally declared hatred for the pagan past, but in reality carefully referred to the preservation of its cultural heritage. The relations of Christianity and the pagan antiquity LEMERL describes in terms of "gap and continuity". Eastern Christianity condemned paganism, but was a paradoxically and the binding element between the epochs. It turned the ancient tradition of education "into one of the guns of his victory", but (in contrast to the Western Church) did not go along the path of complete subordination of school education. According to Lemerral, the "first salvation of Hellenism" occurred at the dawn of the Byzantine era, when in Constanti-Nopol, by order of the emperor, Constance II began a large-scale copying of antique papyrus.

In the center of each of the heads of the main part of the book, there is some important figure of the era - the Lion Mathematician, the Patriarch of Fotius, Arefa Caesarian, Konstantin VII buggernogenic. Independent sections are devoted to the development of school education and a technical revolution, which has happened due to the invention, which is minus - that is, letters with lower case letters, which allowed to significantly accelerate rewriting, and hence the distribution of texts. Formally, without claiming anything more than "comments and notes" (Notes et remarques), LEMERL comes to important conclusions about the specifics of the Byzantine civilization: "imperial" or "baroic" Hellenism in it combines with the decision of the Church "to learn [pagan culture] And not destroy it, "that he gave rise to typically Byzantine" duality or, if you like, ambiguity "of all the Byzantine culture.

Lemerle P. Le Premier Humanisme Byzantin: Notes et remarques sur enseignement et culture à byzance des origines au x e siècle. Paris, 1971.
Alternative: LEMERL P. First Byzantine Humanism. Remarks and notes on education and culture in Byzantium from the beginning to the C century. St. Petersburg, 2012.  

The period from IV VI V. n. e. In the meantime, during which the eastern part of the Roman Empire turned into the Byzantine Empire. This process was in three directions: the development of elements of feudal relations in the economy, strengthening the absolute imperial power in politics and the growth of the influence of Christianity in ideology. All these moments are clearly scheduled for the Board of Constantine I (306-337. N. E.).

The name of Constantine is associated with the two largest events of the era - with the basis of the new capital of the Roman Empire and with the legalization of Christianity. The first event was caused by the fact that Rome is already in the III century. It has lost its former importance: it was opened for victims from the north of the Varvarov, his trading connections weakened. The emperors began to elect by their residence, then Milan, then Trier, then Niccoming. Konstantin managed to find the most successful place for the new capital - it was the Greek city of Byzantine, which was at the trading path from Europe to Asia, between the eastern and western half of the Empire.

The bookmark of the new capital took place in 324, consecration - May 11, 330 and those and other celebrations took place in the presence of pagan priests and the Christian clergy. The new capital received the official name of the "New Rome" - it was stated about her in the Edicte, carved on the marble column on the day of consecration. A second later, the second, named founder of the city, was added somewhat later, by the name of the city - Constantinople (κωνσταντίνου πόλις), which remained for the next centuries.

In a short time, the city reached external shine and splendor. The luxurious imperial palace was built, decorated with antique statues building for meetings of the Senate, Terms, Library, Large Hippodrome; To decorate Constantinople from all over the empire, the best works of an ancient sculpture were latter.

The second event was caused by those changes in ideologies that became most noticeable at the turn of III-IV centuries. Originated in Palestine I c. n. e. Despite two hundred years of semi-legal existence and periodic persecution, at the beginning of the IV century. Significantly strengthened. Crowds of citizens of different classes flocked to listen to Christian sermons, which also mentioned about the origin of the world, and about the debt of a person in life, and about the bliss, which everyone can achieve after death, if only his life was righteous. Numerous supporters also found the ethics of Christianity - disregard for property and class differences, calls to console poor and suffering. The logical application to the human society of the basic principle of Christianity is the monotheism - approved the need for the existence of a single rule and in the state - the governor of God on Earth. It historically led to the recognition of Christianity by Roman emperors. More precursors of Konstantin Maxencies and Galery understood that religious distribution only weaken the state standing on the edge; They owned the first decrees to ban the persecution of Christians and the free construction of Christian temples. In 313, Konstantin and his co-guide of Likiniy jointly issued a decree on Christianity equality with pagan religions in the empire - the so-called "Milan Edict".

"Recognizing that God is the source of all the benefits sent to them," writes Christian historiographer III-IV centuries. Eusevia, - both they are unanimously and unanimously published in favor of Christians the most perfect and most thorough law "(" Church History ", X, 86). Konstantin himself remained the pagan for a long time - he was all his life, the priest title of "Great Pontification" - and yet in every way contributed to the transformation of Christianity into the state religion. He participated in the clergy meetings, and sometimes he had offered church laws. On his initiative, in 321, the rite of liberation of slaves in front of the bishop was established, and in 323, it was forbidden to force Christians to participate in the pagan festivals. Ecumenical Cathedral, i.e., the general congress of the clergy of the Empire, since contented by Konstantin Cathedral in Naquea (325), received the rights of the general amperm institution and the highest legislative authority of the Church.

After the death of Konstantin, the power over the empire moved to three of his sons, the internecine wars of which lasted until 351, when one of the brothers, constant, managed to focus all the power in her hands. By the Board, the Constantia follows a short, but bright episode of the two-year rule of the Emperor-pagan Julian (361-363). For an attempt to revive the ancient Ellensky cults (though, in conjunction with some ethical provisions of Christians), Julian was nicknamed by the church of the apostate. The direct harassment of Christians did not undergo; They were only removed from top posts and teaching in schools. A widely educated person, an adherent of Neoplatonism, Julian enjoyed the support of the educated pagan nobility, but did not have popularity in the lower estates or in the army. After his death during the campaign on the Persians, it was not found by the continuers. Iovian replaced him on the throne canceled his orders to limit the rights of Christians - so after a small break resumed a victorious procession of a new religion.

With the last emperor of the Dynasty of Constantine, Valente, right in the second half of the IV century. Together with Valentinian, who arranged a residence in Milan, the separation of the Western and eastern parts of the empire became apparent; There was a process of formation of two independent cultures. After seventeen years after the Valentine, the founder of the next dynasty, Feodosii I, dying (395), left in the will the sons of the Empire divided into two parts: the East Hallery received Arkady, Western - Horoni. Thus, by the end of the IV century. The scale and limits of the Byzantine state are clearly defined: it occupied the Balkan Peninsula, the island of the Aegean Sea, Malny Asia, Syria, Palestine, Armenia, Kerenaica, Egypt and owned by the colonies on the Black Sea (Chersonese, etc.); This huge territory was inhabited by Greeks, Macedonian, Thracians, Goths, Copts, Syrians, Armenians, Slavic tribes. The estate composition of the empire on motion did not inferrect national. Large landowners are the descendants of the Roman slave-owned aristocracy - together with the courtesty, the imperial officials and high officials of the clergy were the highest estate. The middle and lower estates were ordinary clergy, merchants, heterogeneous, combined city population, peasants, rural tenants - Colons. Despite the well-known progress of feudal relations, in some regions of the Byzantine economy, slave labor continued.

An important role was played by the army, which consisted of representatives of various social groups; Non-permanent, subject to moods, the mass of mercenaries has not yet silent and made government coups. Special community groups were the city pagan intelligentsia and monasticism. The first gradually died out, the second was in the rise stage. Monasticism arose at the end of the III century. Based on the ascetic trends of that part of Christians who were unhappy with the growth of church riches and the participation of the clergy in secular life. Using the traditions of the ancient hermit communities at the temples of Serapis in Egypt, the Christian monasticism created two types of their lifefriend: one (introduced by Anthony) was based on the complete privacy of each person; Another (associated with the name Pakhomy) - in life in the community (film) with centralized power, where the strictest implementation of the monastic charter was required.

The life of the Byzantine society as a whole was determined by two characteristic features. The first of them is a combination of absolutism with very strong democratic elements. Social life in large cities was focused on the racetracks. Horse rhysthanies have been published one of the most common spectacles, they acquired particularly popularity after the prohibition of gladiator fights under the emperors-Christians. According to the ancient tradition, the competed on the racetracks of the venge and their "fans" dressed in clothes of different colors: white, red, green, blue. The origin of this division in the Byzantine scientist literature was built to the mythical times of Romulus, and four colors were explained as symbols of four elements: air, fire, water and land. Under the name of Dimov (or Facts), these parties are also known in the cities of the Byzantine Empire. "Blue" were called venets, "green" - prasins, "white" - left, "red" - Russia. The social composition of each party was rather diverse. The greatest authority and weight used the "blue" and "green": the first to consist mainly from the clientele of large estates, colons, peasants, the second - from artisans, sailors, merchants. Each party had his patrons from nobles.

The activities of Dimov went beyond the scope of disputes and clashes about public games and competitions: to V c. They become a genuine popular representation, and the hippodrome is the place of people's assemblies, where the emperors and know not only took greetings, but also encountered frank expressions of discontent, listened to the claims and complaints who often passed into serious unrest of Ples.

Another side of the public life of the Empire is represented by a religious controversy, which far went beyond the limits of the educated clergy, where its origins were, and captured all the Byzantine society. The beginning of disagreements on theoretical issues on the essence of Christianity belongs to the first centuries of the new era. Their emergence was caused by those dangers that threatened the new religion at the very beginning of its distribution: the excessive passion for the traditions of Gnosticism threatened to turn into a secret teaching, affordable only to the chosen, and tear it away from the people; Following Donatists preaching the omnipotence of God's grace and hidden in every man of prophetic forces inevitably leading to the weakening of the authority of the church. The need for massive, accepted by all and all accepting religion is the need to be equally all from the ruling tops to the plebs, dictated the need for a distinct formulation of the orthodox line of the Christian worldview.

This line was found on the first universal (Nice district) of the Cathedral, in 325, where the symbol of faith was approved - the reduction of the basic dogmas to the short formula, the adoption and the assimilation of which was mandatory for every Christian.

"We believe in a single god of Father, Almighty, the Creator of all visible and invisible," said the text of the symbol, - and in the Unified Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, God from God, of Light from the world, life from life, the son of the only begotten and the Holy Spirit "( Eustian. Church history, VI, 135). In the Divine, the unity of three hatters (entities) was recognized, one of whom was Christ, embodied in a person and sent to the people to redeem their sins. Thus, the defenders of the orthodox direction, the nature of Christ seemed to be a unique Divine start. The immediate cause of the convocation of the Nicene Cathedral was the spread of Arianism - the theory of the Alexandrian preacher of Aria (mind. In 336), which claimed that the birth of Christ on Earth contradicts the concept of as-purpose. Aria called Christ only like God. This thesis Arian reported the image of Christ anthropomorphic features. Christ looked like ancient gods, and this was facilitated by many transition from paganism to Christianity. The Arianism was willingly taken by the city intelligentsia, wealthy citizens, soldiers, because in his sermons there was a statement and approval of worldly life. However, this melt in itself the possibility of weakening the church power, which is why cruel disputes flared up. The orthodox party at the Nicene Cathedral was headed by an outstanding church speaker and publicist. Arianism was declared heresy. But the controversy did not end with him. In the next decades, the Center for students and supporters of Aria becomes Antioch. There is a related Arianism course led by Constantinople Patriarch Nestruy (Nestorian), which was rejected by orthodox Christianity at the Council in Ephesus (431).

How deeply Arian disputes were worried about all the society of that time, says Grigory Nis in one of his sermons: "Everything is full of such people who argue about incomprehensible subjects, - streets, markets, squares, crossroads; ask how much Oboli needs to pay, - philosophy about born and unborn; Want to know about the price of bread - answer: "Father is more than Son"; You can cope, whether the bath is ready, "they say:" The son originated from nothing. "

After the Nicene Cathedral, the final development of the teachings on the Trochity of the Divine and the theory of IPostasy was carried out by Cappadocians by Vasily Kaesarii ("Great"), Gregory Naziazine and Grigory Nis. This period of religious controversy is called a period of trinitarian disputes.

In V c. The main focus of the arguing was allocated not to the ratio of the IPostasi, but only to the nature of Christ, the Trinitarian disputes are converted to Christological. So, in the middle of V c. The monophimitisomium arises, the first preacher of which was poorly educated, but popular among the ordinary clergy, Constantinople Archimandrite Evtichiy. The main position of the monophimitis was a complete denial of human nature in Christ and recognition of one spiritual. The Monophimitskaya sermon found hot supporters in Egyptian and Syrian monasteries, where ascetic trends excluded the adoption of the Allenian culture, putting forward a harsh mobility moral on the first place, the fight against secular pleasures, luxury and education. Monophizite has also found supporters and in the environment of the powerful masses. It became so popular that on the so-called robbing cathedral in Ephesus (449) won the top. The head of the Orthodox Party, Bishop Flavian, was beaten and sent to the link.

Theological disputes were worried not only the lower layers of the Byzantine population, they had a significant impact on the policies of the emperors and closed with the struggle in the court circles.

On V c. There is a board of the Feodosia dynasty, on the VI century. - Dynasty of Justinian. The struggle for the territorial and state monolithic is noted the history of these two centuries.

During V c. The Empire was subjected to the raids of the vibration, sharp, Huns. However, a strategic relationship of Constantinople and a timely manifold peace with the Persia played its role: all these events touched the center of the Empire only to a small least. Other fate has suffered the Western capital. Despite the repeated attempts by the Byzantine emperors to help Rome, in 476, he was captured by the in-separation troops of the Odacra, which marked the beginning of the formation of medieval states at the Apnevena Peninsula. From now on, the most viable Eastern Eastern empires acts as the only keeper of the state and cultural defendant of antiquity. The inner history of the Byzantine state at this time is a continuous chain of court intrigues, government coups, rebellions and uprisings in Nizakh. In fact, power remains in the hands of nobility. History retained the names of regient tempors, as, for example, Europia, which rules instead of the hazard emperor Arcadia (395-408), Anti-Avreleian, who peak up the Empire's affairs at Feodosia II Calligrafe, whose main activity was in the punishment correspondence.

The management of the empire was built according to the Roman sample and was carried out by a numerous official apparatus with a strict bureaucratic hierarchy. A virtuoso-developed fiscal system, who was not a splash, and the struggle for power in the tops caused a number of different in the social nature of the uprisings among the ready, semi-tribal tribe of Isavirov, the imperial army, monophysites of Mesopotamia and Egypt.

Acute forms at this time take the struggle of Christianity with paganism and the internal distribution of Christians. In 414, the government of the Empire became the sister of Feodosia II, the Pulcheria, which, according to contemporaries, turned the imperial palace to the monastery.

The pagans were expelled from civil service, the rights of all disagreements with the orthodox church were limited. Patent culture mercilessly destroyed: in 391, the temple of Serapeum with a large library was burned, and in 415, the crowd of furious fanatics, monks and citizens were killed by Ipaimat - a philosopher and mathematician, who taught in Alexandria. Nevertheless, the imperial power acquires an external impressibility. In 450, Markian was solemnly elevated to the throne in the rigging of coronation and world formation. The secular and church rites were connected: the world-building borrowed from the Jewish religion meant the blessing of the church for the throne. And from this time the church becomes the permanent participant of the wedding to the kingdom.

Markian was the last emperor of the Feodosia dynasty. After his death, there are several decades of cruel struggle for the throne between various groups for nobility. The Empire was ruled by the selected Army of the Military Tribune Lion (457-474), then the ISAVR Zenon (474-491), then the aristocracy "Born Roman" Anastasiya (491-518), then the head of the Imperial Guard Justin.

The founder of the new dynasty was Justinian, Macedonian by origin, the nephew of Justina, in which he was already regent - the actual ruler (518-527). The next twenty-eight years of its united government is the era of the heyday of the Byzantine statehood, the individual traits of which are expressed in the culture of the time. Justinian managed to focus the secular power in his hands and subjugate all religious policies in the state in his hands. He sought, like the Roman emperors, become a single Lord of the East and the West. This has determined its foreign policy: Justinian has taken a number of conquering campaigns to the West, which were generally unsuccessful, but on them he missed the basic strength of the empire. Historographers of the vi in., Speaking about Justinian, always give due attention and his wife, insidious and cruel feodore, the life path of which began with the role of the Mimic actress and who until his death had a significant impact on the emperor.

Christianity received represented by the new emperor of the patron saint of the orthodox direction. Not only paganism was persecuted, but also all sorts of deviations from the general line of the Church. In 529, the Athenian Academy was closed - the last refuge of the pagan culture.

The Board of Justinian is also known to be cruel defensions with lower classes of the Byzantine population. In 532, one of the largest uprisings of the Constantinople Plumbs, the so-called Nick's uprising, which ended with mass murders and harsh on the hippodrome. With these features of the time of Justinian, the external magnificence and the pomp of the abroad of the palace, brilliant rituals of the court festivals, the theatricality of which attracted crowds of citizens.

The concerns of Justinian on the political unity of the state provided him with a reputation as a "great legislator" - on its initiative a universal arch of Roman law was created. The classical Roman law in force in the empire required changes in relation to the absolute imperial power and to dominant Christianity. The legal guidelines needed a numerous bureaucratic apparatus. These tasks were only partly in due time were carried out by the Codex Feodosia (438) - a collection of decrees of Roman and Byzantine emperors since Constantine I.

For the editorial office of the new collection, Justinian, a special commission of 16 lawyers led by Roblinian was convened. So the Latin "Corpus Juris Civilis" appeared, - consisting of "Digest" (or "Pandets") in 50 books containing the compositions of all Roman lawyers, "institutions" in 4 books (leadership in the Roman law) and the very collection of laws - the Code. On the one hand, the despotism and wastefulness of Justinian put the empire to the edge of death, although this was important in the VII-VIII centuries, and on the other hand, a known ascent of culture was caused in its specifically Byzantine forms, which was the result of the previous two-month transition period.

On all sections of the Byzantine culture, the victory of Christianity imposed her mark. In science, in architecture, in the visual arts, in the literature, the topic is dominated by the topic of the ratio of life of the earth and harm. Art now does not aim to show the greatness and significance of a person, as it was in antiquity. The tasks of the image of the insignificance and insignificance of all worldly, the task of disclosing the sinful human nature, appeals to repentance and spiritual cleansing, waiting for Eternal Bliss after death, are put on the fore.

In the external respect, the Byzantine culture is a mixing of the lasting traditions of classical Greek antiquity and Hellenism, Christian ideology and the eastern influence of invariably operating since the formation of Hellenistic states. The transfer of the capital from Rome to Byzantium, the need for permanent defense from barbarians, on the one hand, and the development of trade - on the other, caused lifting urban planning. Such cities like Constantinople, Alexandria, Caesarea, Antioch, Beirut, Gaza, were famous for magnificent architecture. In each city, except libraries, hippodrome, pagan temples - the heritage of ancient times - already with IV century. The Christian temple architecture began to develop intensively. Samples for Christian Early Time Temples served ancient basilica - public buildings for the court and trade, common in classical antiquity. It is an uncompressed architectural design and neutral to the appointment of the building, which did not resemble the pagan rites, most satisfied the requirements of supporters of a new religion. The basilica consisted of three galleries separated by columns (oils, from lat. Navis), of which the average is a place for worship - ended the round niche (Ambis), where the altar was placed. In front of the Christian Basilica, a courtyard was usually located with a well or fountain - a symbol of appeal to each part of the temple was washed not only the face and hands, but also the soul. In the initial period of Christianity, Basilica was often built on the graves of martyrs. The material was usually mined from the ruins of ancient buildings, and well-preserved ancient basilicas were used for Christian rites unchanged.

In V c. Gradually created a new type of buildings, closer to Christianity in spirit. The unity of the Divine began and compliance with the centralized state power is to find its expression in the monumental forms of architecture: a dome appears over the middle part of the temple. This item was already known to antiquity; However, the dome was placed right on the quadrangular basis. Such buildings did not have a focus and ease, the takeoff, which is the specifics of Christian architecture. The task of connecting the lower part of the building with a dome through various arches and arches (so-called sails, or pandament) was finally resolved by architects Isidore from the Milestone and Anthimi from Thrall, which in 537 finished the construction of the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople. This building combined the plan of ancient basilica with a centralizing force of the main dome. In the luxurious interior decoration of the temple, in polychromic frescoes and mosaics, in the motif of ornaments, and the eastern motives were also used, the external pomp of the lifeguard of Byzantine Rights, and the whole process of the formation of the Byzantine painting, which, like architecture, used ancient traditions.

Christian visual art was formed under the influence of two trends: the need to find a secret language due to a semi-legal existence in the I-III centuries. And the desire to preserve the image for eternal times. The first trend spawned a number of symbolic images, in most cases borrowed from antiquity. For example, a wreath and palm trees still in the classic era meant a victory, but the image of the palm trees towards victory over earth temptations and to the victory of the Resurrection over death. The ship meant the Christian community, anchor - hope, a pigeon with an olive branch in the beak - the world, Amur and Psyche - the immortality of the soul. The nature of Christian fresco painting, which begins with the paintings of Catacomb, is close to the art of Pompeic frescoes.

In some cases, the image of the scenes from the Old Testament was attracted by ordinary parts of ancient plots (winged amrages, dolphins, fishermen, flowers garland). The second trend affected the development of monumental art mosaic, which receives special distribution from the times of Constantine, when legalized seeks to the external effect of rites committed in basilica, baptism, churches. The ascetic worldview of the monastic medium left its mark on the art of the portrait, in which the traditions of Fayum masters affected. But over time, sustainable techniques of Christian iconography come to change the realistic elements in portrait images: dry, deprived of the dynamics of figures, humble poses, oblong faces in dark, yellowish tones.

The art of miniatures became particularly popular in Byzantium - painstaking work, especially those who flourished in the monasteries. In the manuscripts, many drawings of unreserved masters have been preserved - evidence of the high level of the Byzantine picturesque technology and inheritance of the best traditions of artists of the Ellinism.

The art of brewing, so high and significant in the Allen world, due to the changed approach to the human person did not matter much. Byzantine sculpture exists mainly in the genres of relief on sarcophagas, tombstones and external walls of temples, using mainly the same plots as painting. At the turn of the V-VI centuries. As a detail on relief and frescoes and as an independent image, a cross appears, which for a long time resembled Christians of the persecution and therefore depicting it was avoided.

The collision of the ancient traditions and the needs dictated by a Christianized culture took a kind of form in the field of theatrical art of Byzantium. Christian liturgy, having perceived much of the stage design and dramatic techniques of the Greek tragedy, gradually (approximately to the IX century) turned into a monumental dramatic act, a phenomenon similar to the medieval mysteries of the West. The altar with a three-rolled door resembled the triple door of an ancient Skeby. During worship, monologue recovers were alternating with the replicas - exclamations and chasing chants, divided into two semi-birds. Some musical parts of the liturgy were the hymns-dialogues of the soloist and choir. However, the development of new aesthetic principles, the requirement from the art of distraction and contemplation led to the weakening of the dynamics of the dramatic plot.

Episodes from the Gospel, which were usually subjected to dramatic alterations, were performed with the intentional deceleration of the action and their staticness resembled the early Christian literary genre of "visions".

There was a special type of theatrical church eloquence: to revive and illustrations, sermons were interrupted by dialogic scenes or anti-phenium singing. The first monument of such a genre refers to V c. This is an encomia (commemable speech) Virgin Mary, written by the Konstantinople bishop by the bunch. After the lengthy entry - an elevated rhetorical hymn of virginity - a living scene is placed - the dialogue of Mary and Joseph, suspecting his wife in treason and not immediately comprehending the Divine Essence of Events. Then the Mary dialogue and the Archangel of Gabriel - the theme often reproduced by mosaics; In this case, it is this part that has an internal slowdest. Encomomy concludes two monologues. The first of them is pronounced by God: the divine purpose of Mary is revealed and coming events are explained. The second monologue utters a devil who wants to prevent the embodiment and the action of God's grace.

Such encomias were the main part of large church festivals, called πανήγυρις, and were performed in persons.

In other cases, church festivities learned those or other details of ancient use. So, for example, the traditional dance at Easter reminded the occurring once in Sparta Pyrrhich; During the collection of grapes in the VII century. Call Dionysus. Outside the church sphere, the holidays, of the calend, incomes, Dionysius, and others with carnival processions were very popular, when the participants were put on tragic and comic masks.

Along with the church theater in Byzantium, there was a secular scene on which in the VI century. A Greek tragedy was put. The main secular repertoire of the Byzantine Theater was mimes and pantomimes - the most viable genre from the antiquity of genres. Pantomimes in conjunction with acrobatic numbers and performances of trained animals, apparently included in the overall program of games on the hippodrome.

Antique classification of mimes on their subject indicates two groups: household mimes and mythological etching. The Byzantine scene perceived only the first. The content of mimov was carried at the same time mainly to coarse erotic, and this caused them a sharply hostile attitude of those who stood at the head of Christian enlightenment. It is Mime that means Vasily Kesiarian (IV century), when with contempt about "hypocrites"; John Zlatoust condemns secular music, in his opinion, only spoiling morals, and calls the theaters "Devil's buildings", and theatrical performances are "the vigorous demons."

"Speech in defense of mimes" Riftor Horikia from Gaza (V-VI centuries) was a response to these constant attacks. Gaza was a brilliant cultural center, where the traditions of Hellinsky formation were kept almost to the iconoboric times; There was a famous ritics school, the School of Actors Mimov and the Theater of Dionisa, where he uttered his speech.

In the next century, the persecution of mimes from the ruling clergy and the emperor took over sharp forms. However, individual plot details and scenic techniques of mimov penetrate the church, which contributes to the formation of a new specific-Byzantine genre of the "Christological" mime, whose samples refer to the VII-VIII centuries. - the period of increasing Christianization of Byzantine culture.

The first centuries of the existence of the Byzantine state were also noted by the struggle of two educational systems - ancient and Christian.

Initial Christian education was given at home or in monasteries; Then, for the acquisition of literary and oratory skills, Christians resorted to the help of pagan, ritics and philosophical schools; The highest level of education was theology. Theological schools developed from schools for converts (the so-called catechis school schools), where people of different ages should absorb Christian dogmas. To iv c. The reputation of the largest Theological School acquires a school in Alexandria, famous in the i century. n. E., - The first theorists of Christianity were taught in it - Clement and Origen. There is an extensive system of theological disciplines (for example, a polemical apologetics, dogmatic theology, ancientity). The main method of the Alexandrian Exgesis was an allegory - looking for in the sacred writings of a mysterious, intimate meaning.

Somewhat later, at the turn of the III-IV centuries, the theological school arose in Antioch with a different method - a historical and logical and grammatical approach to the Holy Scriptures; Antiochian theologians looked at the Old and New Covenants as a real story, which requires disclosure through improved methods of historical Exgeza. Schools of the same type were in Edessa and Nizibia. Christian education triumphed as a result of competition with the pagan, which lasted five centuries. In the III century. As opposed to Christianity, paganism puts forward a universal philosophical system of neoplatonism, which covered all the flows and shades of ancient idealistic philosophy and relate to all areas of life. After the "classic century" neoplatonism in the life of its founder of the dam in the IV century. Syrian and Pergamsk school led by Jamblich and Edcess. These schools are characteristic of mysticism, from which I B. Representatives of the Athenian school, Probl, and Marin, who appeal to the logical systematization of their provisions are departed. Withstanding repeated attacks and criticism from Neoplatonists (for example, in the lost essays of the cloak), at the same time they borrowed a lot.

So, in IV-V centuries. The ritio and philosophical pagan education focused in Athens, medicine and philosophy flourished in Alexandria, and the ritics schools of Antioch, Caesarea, Gaza were also famous; The center of legal education was Beirut. Numerous pagan schools existed in Constantinople, Nicaee, Trapezund. As opposed to Constantinople schools, the High Christian School (425) was opened in the capital (425); In the second half of the VI century. She was transformed into the school of Constantinople Patriarchate led by an universal teacher. The time of the final victory of Christian education and Christian ideology is considered to be 529, when the Athenian Academy was closed by Justinian. The dying of the pagan culture has also affected the state of science of these centuries. Despite the well-known progress of the exact sciences, in particular, mechanics, in general, science is experiencing decline. Conspiracies and faith in miracles come to replace the ancient medicine and natural science, the legends about which in abundance gave birth to the monasseste-otobinical environment. It did not strive for accurate ideas about the universe. The popularization of Christian cosmogonical theories found its expression in the genres of Shestodnev - spiritual sermons on topics about the creation of the God of the world. The scientist Christian literature gave a number of writings similar to the "Christian topography" of the Joint of Indicoplov (VI century), where familiarity with the achievements of Hellenistic science does not interfere with the construction of the fantastic scheme of the Universe, the most relevant Christian worldview.

However, in the ancient heritage was unconditionally adopted by the new culture area - Greek. Staying the language of literature, he penetrated all areas of state and cultural life. He studied on it, the theological discussions were conducted on it. This determined the most significant feature that distinguishes the eastern culture from Western, namely: its identity. Period IV-VI centuries. There was a time of gradual displacement of the Latin language Greek, which to the VII century. took the dominant position. So, two states with different cultures are formed from the once of the United Roman Empire. The rethinking word of "Roma", which the Byzantines called themselves, meant this ethnic and spiritual separation, which was even affected by the character of the victorious ideology: the Christianity of the East, which appeals to the senses of man was alien to rationalism and voluntaristic trends of the West.

II.

In IV-VI centuries. On the territory of the eastern part of the Roman Empire there were five main centers of culture: Athens with their illustrious Platonic Academy, Constantinople, Majoria Cappadocia (Caesarea, Nisa, Naziaz), Syria (Antioch, Gaza), Egypt (Alexandria, Panopolis). In the cultural and educational and creative activities of representatives of these centers, the main trends of the spiritual life of the time are clearly manifested.

Thus, Athens turns out to be the main storage and stronghold of the ancient Ellinsky culture and education. In IV century there are taught by the famous pagan rich ribors of Gerie and Prozheosi; They learn to the future famous figures of the Christian Church - Vasily Kesiariansky, Grigory Naziazine. In V c. His father Leontia, a teacher of philosophy and rhetoric, studying Athenaida, the future wife of the emperor Feodosia II. At this time, the Athenian Academy at this time costs one of the last cornea of \u200b\u200bthe pagan philosophical thought - Neoplatonian Barl. But by the VI century, especially after the closure by Justinian Athenian Academy, the ancient center of paganism loses its leading role in the cultural education of the era. The main threads of the country's spiritual life stretch now to Constantinople: in the VI century. He takes to himself such prominent poets as the novel of Sladkopevts, who arrived from Syria, Agaphi from the Major City of Mirina, Pavel Silence, historians of Caesarea, Menander Titor, etc.

If Athens IV-V BB. There were the main focus of the pagan culture in the past, then at the same time a new ideology, a new culture crystallized in the works of representatives of the so-called Cappadocyan mug in the works of Vasily Kesiariansky, Grigory Naziazine and Grigoria Nissky. However, this philosophical literature, a new content, does not break with antique traditions, but, on the contrary, he diges them and continues in its own way. For example, in theological works of Cappadocians, the main position of orthodox Christianity is substantiated by means of neoplatonic dialectics. Poems Grigory Naziazine discover the deepest attachment of the author to the traditions of antique poetry. The application of the rules of ancient poems to a changed phonetic nature Greek language is carried out by the poet Nonn from Panopalis.

The connection of the new culture with Old is also noticeable in the activities of representatives of the Alexandrian and Antioch schools - At Athanasius Alexandria and John of Zlatoust.

The literary heritage of the authors of the V-VI centuries, which received education in the Gas school is very significant for the era of the transition period from antiquity to the Middle Ages. Three kinds of works are clearly different in it: 1) Purely Christian in spirit (exegety essays proofing, adiodore agiography); 2) purely pagan (poetry of John); 3) works of Christian, borrowed form from pagan poetry. This is explained by the fact that in Gaza, like in any other center of the Allenian culture, the pagan beliefs are extremely long and firmly preserved. It is not by chance, Jerome, the time of conscious life of which falls on the second half of IV and the first two decades V c., Called Gaza city of the pagans ("Life of Illarion", Ch. 14). Some philosophers, pupils of this school, were trying to even bring closer to the teachings of Plato (Dialogues of the Enea), and the poets of the Gas school, the only Greco-Roman society of that time, created direct imitations to the ancient pagan poets: Anacreonte was imposed by John (V century), tragic - Timofey (end V - beginning of the VI century). Christian sophist riters tried to build a new content on the debris, but old in the form of culture. The same genres that successfully developed in the pagan schools of sophist ribors flourished in the Gazkaya School of this time. So, one of Chorikia's declamen is devoted to the question of which words would say Aphrodite, going to search for Adonis. Even when creating works of the Christian direction, Ritima Gazkaya school filled them with comparisons with the heroes of ancient Greek mythology and with historical figures ("Encomius Prokopy" Horikia).

The process of initial assimilation of Christian literature forms and methods of genre, verbal expressiveness developed by the pagan literature, and a gradual gap with it especially distinguished in the Christian poetry of the IV-VI centuries. It is this sign that follows the samples of pagan literature or deviation from them - shares the Christian poetry of the IV-VI centuries. For poetry traditional and new. In traditional poetry, not only the genres themselves, borrowed from the literature of the pagan (anthem, epigram, epitaph, didactic poem, gnomes, poem, ecphrasis), but also the same metric principles of storm, although Greek has already ceased to feel the difference between long and brief syllables. In all its 408 poems, the principle of metric poems accurately observes. Genres of his poems are diverse: epigrams, friendly or angry ("at Maxim", "on loving wealth", "on hypocritical monks"), brief, talented gnomes (sayings), leading their origin from Homer and Hesiod, big poems ("on His life, "" Spirit of life of spiritual with the life of worldly "," From Nicobul Father to Son "), hymns (for example," Hymn Christ "). However, the poetic creativity of Gregory is inherent in a new globility, which powerfully breaks through the old traditional form. It is expressed primarily in combination of two components: the feelings are extremely personal with the feeling of universal. Thus, the basic principle of genuine lyrical poetry, which increased the ancient Greek lyrics of the heyday (early creativity of Ivik, Solon, Pindar); In the era of Hellenism and the "Silver Century" of Roman literature, this principle was disturbed by the loss of the second component.

Grigory knew how to talk about her purely, personal, that his words were acquired by public resonance: they were full of universal importance. It is because the lines of his "complaints" (382 g. And after 383), expressing the full strength of the human suffering, and the angry investigative on his personal enemy Maxim grows into the general political Satira at the secular and spiritual society in which "victorious Ignorance will reveal a little mouth, carrying one takes one, "and the valor and abilities are rubbed.

In the V-VI centuries. In Christian poetry, an Ecifrasis genre (descriptions), which came from the ancient rhetoric was popular. He was given such poets VI century, as Christor Kophesky, who described 88 statues of gods, heroes, poets, philosophers and statesmen of Greece and Rome, Julian Egyptian in the epigram "on the Copper Statue of Ikara", "on" Cow "Mirone", Leonte Scholastik ("On the statue of a dancer"), Agaphi Mirinai ("On the statue of Plutarch", "On the image of the Archangel Mikhail") and, finally, Paul Silence ("Lighting the Dome of St. Sophia"). Of these poems, the last two deserve special attention. Endrasis Agaphia is wonderful in that in poetic form, it extremely briefly and clearly expresses a completely new, medieval understanding of the main task of art: it should help a person to be transferred to the world of another, more suspended, i.e. serve religion.

Angelihu invisible, spirit, devoid of flesh,

The form of bodily give a wax embodiment daring.

And not without charms the image; his contempt, capable

Mortal for the thoughts of saints is better to configure your mind.

Not clearly now his feeling; Taking into account

The heart trembles before him, as before the face of the Divine.

Soul's eyesight worries to the bottom. So knows art

Paints express what occurs in the mind.

Ecfrasis Pavel Silenciaria, written by a hexameter, testifies to the new capacity that has developed to the VI century. In this ancient genre of ancient literature: the poem is almost a thousand poems turns into a poem pursuing a propaganda goal, where the author binds religious feelings, awakened by the magnificence of a new temple, with the basic goals of the political life of the Byzantine state. The temple turns here as it were to the personification of the new powerful empire: night lighting in the temple not only helps the soul of a person who is in him coming to the divine start - it turns the temple into a saving lighthouse, which with hope they look like sailors floating around the Black and Aegean seas. In other words, the Cathedral is a symbol of hope and salvation for the barbar approaching to Constantinople; Salvation can come to them only from the Byzantine state.

Examples of the expression of the new content in the old form could be multiplied. Especially curious attempts by some poets to transfer the evangelical plots with an epic gecmeter. Such is the poems of processing of gospel stories by Gregory Naziazine, Anastasiya Kosonaya-speaking, Patriarch Sofronim, summarized among Byzantine epigram in the "Palatine Anthology". Arrangement of biblical legends of the Old and New Testaments in Hekzamera is carried out by Empress Evdokia, in the paganism of Athenaida (V century). She decided to apply the size of the hecksameter in the agiographic poem "On the Holy Cyprian", some features resembling a later legend about Faust. Although the text of the poem was not fully preserved, nevertheless he gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthe image of the Cyprian, the former Magician, the defeated force of the moral purity and firmness of the Christian girl Justina. The verbal fabric of the poems, although in a slight degree, still conveys the changes that occurred in the language; They testify sometimes occurring in the poem grammatical and phraseological deviations from classical norms, mixing long and short syllables.

The contemporary of Athenaida Nonn, setting out the gospel hexameters from John, is already seeking to take into account new language norms in one degree or degree. The author builds verse in such a way that the musical stress in it coincides with the expiratory stress of spoken speech. Thus, the gradual transition from the metric principle of storming to tonic. Attempts were made back in IV B.: Among the scarce fragments of the famous Yereziarch Aria have two poems of belching; According to them, it can be judged that the poems were intended for singing and largely retired from the norms of an ancient metric; They can even assume the presence of rhyme. This is how such an excerpt sounds in an approximate Russian translation:

Not always the father was

But time was,

When one was

And she was still not.

Not always and son was,

And time was

When it was not.

Over time, such attempts to break with the norms of an ancient metric became, apparently, more frequent phenomenon, since we are already observing a complete gap with them already in the VI century. In the work of the wonderful poet of Roman Swekopevts. With his name, the emergence of new poetry in the Byzantine literature is connected - new and in content, and in form and by genre, and on metric features. Roman Sladkopevts - the author of more than a thousand church chants, which give the right to call him a genuine reform of the Byzantine versets: he was the first of Christian poets to write on the tonic principle and thus brought the church chants to the living spoken language, made them clear and close to all his contemporaries. Roman Sladkopevts - the creator of two new poetic genres called by Kondakom and Ikos. Kondak (from the Greek word κοντάκιον - a small scroll) - a liturgical poem devoted to the description of a church holiday or episode from the life of both the legendary heroes of the Old Testament and the Christian saints. IKOS (from the Greek word οίκος - house) - a detailed explanation, often with a moral purpose accompanying Kondak. Thus, Kondak and Icons are a single integer: Kondak (always one) precedes the ikosam, the number of which ranges from eleven to twenty-eight. The impression of unity is achieved due to the fact that the final words of Kondak are repeated at the end of each Ikos. This condack compound with Ikos gave a highly flexible poetic form, which opened great opportunities to express emotions. The novel's chants are often full of drama, and this drama is sometimes disclosed in a psychological plan ("On the betrayal of Judine", "Joseph and Egyptian", "Virgin wise and unreasonable"). Tonic dimensions gave a variety of external, musical side of poetic speech. The tone of the novel's chants is simple and majestic, strict and gentle, solemn and sincerely lyric. For this unchanging the depth of the feeling and beauty of the syllable romance was called the Swekopev.

The Byzantine Proza has developed under the influence of the need to protect and substantiate the basic provisions of orthodox Christianity in disputes with pagans and heretics. This caused such genres such as polemical philosophical-theological speeches, Exgez (interpretation), Homilia (sermons). The strengthening of the role of the Church in the political and spiritual life of the Empire affected the development of eloquence, which is now becoming the property of the church (comforting speeches, epitaphy, the panelists of the holy). There is a specific-medieval genre of agiography. Historiography and epistolary prose remain a lesser extent subject to clerical ideology.

The genre of polemical speeches is presented in the works of Christian writers IV century. Gregory Naziazine, Athanasius Alexandrian, Vasily, Kaesari, Grigoria, Nissky, Ephraim Sirina. The controversy is conducted by these authors in two directions: against the pagans and against heretics. Its method in that matter is extremely different. The pagans, as a rule, are represented by Christian writers, without providing them with a word in an excuse or in defense: such, for example, the speeches of Gregory Nazianzine against Emperor Julian in the form of an inventive.

In the anti-tetic works, the opponent's views are obtained more or less spatial expression; This contributes to the form of diatitics (conversation, conversation). These are five speeches of Gregory Nazianzine in defense of Nicene Orthodoxy against Arian. More than half of their works devotes to the protection of Orthodox teaching, Alexandrian Bishop of Athanasius, the main opponent of the Arian doctrine. His polemical speeches, written mostly in the form of diatitibes, are sometimes unfolded in the philosophical plan. For example, "we are talking about the incarnation of God-words and about the coming of it to our flesh" begins with cosmogonic excursions. Athanasius briefly sets out various pagan theories, accompanying them with its own assessment; The tone in these judgments is calm and impartial, quilt the compositions of the Gagnants of Athanasius avoids: "Many people and the creation of the Universe are explained in different ways, and everyone as I wanted, this was a concept. Some said that everything happened by itself and by chance. These are the epicuretes ... others, and among them the great Ellinov Plato, argued that God created the universe from the finished and unreserved substance "(" We are talking about the incarnation of God-words and about the coming of it to us in the flesh ", § 2).

However, with the presentation of the appearance of Arian, the Pulmonary Method Athanasius changes: he often and abundantly quotes his ideological enemies, opposing his beliefs them.

In the same way, in a large volume quotes his opponent and the compatriot of Enomy, a student of Arianina ATHET, Vasily Kesiai. Its five books "Against Enomy" are built in this way: the author leads one after another more or less extensive sayings of Enemy and after that it develops its refutation. On the contrary, his younger brother Gregory Nissky in the "Twelve Books of Refuture of Enemy" resorts to the quotes extremely rarely, in most cases, to convey the meaning of the contested provisions in their own words. In this regard, Gregory details his own views. This premits the history of the emergence of Arian teachings, where the characteristics of the "Father Yersi" - Aria, his student of Aeria, surpassed his teacher "News of Inventions", and, finally, the Even'a himself, "True Competor's True Aerification". The tongue of theological essays Grigory Nissky is quite complicated and difficult for perception.

The presentation of the same issues in John Zlatoust, on the contrary, is easily and accessible due to bright and figurative comparisons, the absence of excessive rhetoric and simple syntax: "There is nothing strange and unexpected that insane laughs over great objects. Such people are impossible to convince human wisdom; And if you become convinced of them in this way, then you will achieve the opposite; For what is above the mind, you need one faith. In fact, if we want to explain to the pagans through the judgments of the mind to explain to the pagans, as a man has become a man, having united in the womb, and we do not recognize this subject of faith, - they will only laugh. And they suffer the defeat just those who want to comprehend it "(" The fourth conversation for the first message to Corinthians ", § 1).

Of the same clear reasoning on these topics of the contemporary of Cappadocians of the Syrian preacher Ephraim Sirin, whose writings were translated into Greek during his lifetime. He knows how to find his own, unique means to express thought. Also draws attention, for example, a comparison of the incarnation of Christ to a person with the formation of pearls in the sinks: "... I will give such an example that will help me explain the nature ... Pearls - this is a stone formed from the flesh, for it turns out of shells. And therefore, who won't believe that God from the body is born by a person? Pearls turns out not from the message of the sink, but from the collision of lightning and water. So Christ is conceived by the Virgin without carnal settlement "(" Word on heretics ").

In another essay, Ephraim Sirin is indignant on the one who dares to explore the nature of Christ, the "universal Savior, or a doctor," since she is incomprehensible. Efrem fills his essay "against the scientists of the Son of God" adventures not to engage in such issues. This essay begins a kind of solemn anthem Christ: "Heavenly king, an immortal lord, the only beef Son, the beloved Father, who created a man from the Earth, defeated by the generosities of his Divine Entility, for the most of the person who created the prechy hands, came From the sky to save and heal all those who suffer. For on the action of the dear, everything was exhausted in evil: the disease became grave and incurable; Neither the prophets nor the priests were able to completely abate the ulcers. Therefore, the saint, the only beef son, seeing that everything extends in evil, by the will of his father, came off from the sky and was embodied in the womb of the Holy Virgin, and on his favor, he was born from her, he came to the grace and generous to heaven with a variety of disades and the word Heal all diseases. Everyone got rid of the salty of their own ulcers. But the missing, healed, instead of being gratitude to the doctor for healing, began to explore the essence of the doctor who is incomprehensible ... "

The next genre, widespread in Christian prose IV-VI centuries, is an exhegeless genre; He was given tribute to all prominent Christian writers. With its roots, this genre also goes to the area of \u200b\u200bpagan literature, in which the interpretation of the writings of Homer, Pindar, Plato, Aristotle and other famous authors of antiquity had a long and continuous tradition.

The Christian Exgege of the Alexandrian school with its allegorical method is presented for us primarily by the writings of Afanasiya: "Interpretation of Psalms", "From the conversations on the Gospel of Matthew", "From the interpretation on the Gospel of Luke", etc. The method of interpretation of Afanasia is extremely complex not only because that he seeks to see the allegorist in almost every word of the Holy Scripture, but also because he expresses his thoughts to a dark language, with a deliberated hill, resorting to complex syntactic buildings.

Grigory Nissky belongs to the same school; Having experienced the enormous influence of neoplatonism, with its tendency to contemplatively-philosophical reflections, Grigory, to the distracted theological arguments about the nature of man, about the order of the universe. For example, in "Interpretations to the inscriptions of Psalms" from reasoning about the meaning of music, he proceeds to the cosmogonical and theological issues of the universe. His interpretations are eclectic: they have the thoughts of Pythagoreans, Stoikov, Peripatetics, Neoplatonists, and this is quite significant for the thinker of the transition era from antiquity to the Middle Ages.

More rationalistic Exgez in the writings of representatives of the historical and grammatical antioch school - primarily Vasily Kaesarian and John of Zlatoust; So, in the first conversation at Psalms, Vasily concerns approximately the same topic as his younger brother Grigory, but this topic develops no longer in the elevation-philosophical plan, but in terms of a really-ethical with a strong didactic slope. When clarifying the content of Psalms, Vasily often uses comparisons taken from real, everyday life - from the area of \u200b\u200bhouse-building, shipbuilding or from the life of farmers, merchants, wanderers. Such comparisons were made to Exgezu Vasily an extremely popular, accessible to people of any social status.

Also in explanations of the texts of the Old Testament of Vasily more "realistic", more simple and accessible than Grigory Nis. His "conversations on the Shestronev" (the cycle of sermons about the creation of the God of the world for six days) are detailed answers to clearly set questions, where the presentation is accompanied by witty comparisons and antithesis. Sometimes, for persuasiveness, Vasily resorts to the proof method from the opposite.

Finally, in the works of John of Zlatoust, who also belonged to the Antioch school, an exegeze acquires its classical form, the signs of which are in the extraordinary simplicity of presentation, clarity of thought and brevity in the method of its expression. At the same time, John did not avoid complicated theological themes at all. He willingly accompanied examples from the pagan literature, which opposed examples from the life of Christians to his presentation and proof of the proposed provisions. At the same time, John always foresaw the possibility of objections of opponents - pagans or heretic Christians. Often he comes from such objections. For example, in the "Fourth Conversation for the First Message to the Corinthians" about the execution of Christ John writes: "If I say: Christ was crucified, then the pagans will be repaired: how does it agree with the mind? He did not get rid of himself when it was painted and tormented him on the cross; How did he resurrected and delivered others? If he had such a force, he had to show her before dying (so, really, and said Jews); If he did not get rid of himself, how could you save others? The heathen will say that this is not consistent with the mind. And right - it is above the mind; In the cross appeared inequalized power. Subjected to torment and be above torment, to be associated and win - this requires the impossible power "(§ 1).

Often John appeals to the listener, setting himself the question: "But you will say, and the pagans have many despised death. Who, tell me? Is that who drank poison from the Cickuch? But I will imagine this, if you please, whole thousand in our church; If during the persecution was allowed to die, accepted poison, then all those who were striking would be more nice. Moreover, he drank poison without being dominated to drink or not drink; he wanted it or did not want it, but he had to undergo it, and, therefore, it was a matter of not courage, but necessity; And the robbers, and the killers by the sentence of the judges suffered even greater suffering "(§ 4). Such a live form of an explanation, which was conversation with those, to whom John turned, brought his exhegeless with the genre of the sermon (Gomilia), who also received a brilliant development in his work. The fame of his eloquence over time reaches a new capital - Constantinople, where he is invited to take the department of the bishop. The charm of the eloquence of John was in a simple, relaxed form of his conversations, in the label and comparisons, in a large number of acute and sayings, which brought his speech with a lively popular speech. But the vast popularity of John as a riter provided not these external techniques of speech art, which can be found in the pagan risers of the time, and the content that he entered this form. John spoke of human sufferings and needs, crushed vices, ambition, greed, envy, drunkenness, debauchery, anger ("Two speeches to a young widow", "Three speeches to the devotee of stagri"). John did not make distinctions between the emperor and a slave, a layman and a monk, rich and poor, for which he acquired numerous enemies, starting from Empector Arcadia and his wife Euddoxcia, twice sent him to the link, and ending with the rich people of Antioch, having seen on his a life.

Another genre of ancient Greek eloquence is a genre of commendable speech - from IV century. Also becomes very common in Christian literature. In its genre signs, he does not undergo any significant changes compared with late samples of the pagan rhetoric - works of Femistry, Himaria, Libania. Christian panelists are peculiar to the sincerity of the human feeling - this is noticeable in the comforting speeches of Grigory Nissky, and Vasily Kesiariansky, in speeches that glorify Christian holidays, and in comforting and tombstream speeches of Gregory Nazianzin. Especially remarkable in the emotional relationship "Duty speech by Vasily Great, Archbishop of Caesarea Cappadocian" - Swan Song Grigory Naziazine. Simply, but with great and touching love tells the speaker about his close friend of youth. This poechnicon revitalize the memories of Grigory about the years, held together with Vasily in Athens, about the atmosphere, which surrounded Christians who lived in the pagan in the spirit of the city. Grigory is thin and skillfully recreate images of people around them, the details of life and, which is especially important, are some features of the spiritual life of that time, such as a strong passion for the Athenian youth ritiation education.

The lives of famous people are in the Byzantine literature an independent intensive developing genre, which also goes to its roots in the literature pagan. Over time, this genre becomes one of the leading in Byzantine literature, and the living literature is one of the types of "mass" reading. First of all, the main reasons for this are, in the fact that the works of the living genre, narrowing in a simple form, are per capita, about the pious life of the saint, were very convenient for distribution in wide popular circles of a new ideology; Secondly, that is growing from the very beginning IV century. The passion for asceticism found a grateful soil in the living literature, the hero of which the ascetic deserter becomes. Starting with IV century. This genre develops extremely intensively, takes various forms and to the VII-VIII centuries. Puts into distinct various directions of living literature.

The forms of the narrative in this genre were different even for one century, which was determined by the objectives that one or another Agiographer pursued. So, Athanasius Alexandrinsky, wanting to teach the ideal of Asketa-deserted to inquire, according to his own impressions and on the stories of persons who knew the first regulator of the monastic communities of Anthony of Egyptian, his living in the form close to the biographical encomise, and at the same time not alien to Christian preaching.

Life is not one, and many deserters devotes their labor to the younger contemporary Athanasius Palladium, native of Malaya Asia. In the late 80s IV century. He settled for a decade in the Egyptian desert, observes the life of monks, the result of which is written by him at the end of the life of Lavsi history (Lovesic), - the work, amazing in its impedition, extremely initially presentation of even the most ordinary facts from the life of hermites , the work, according to its intonations, close to the Byzantine folklore. The book Palladium contributed to the familiarization of Christians with the lifestyle and the characters of Egyptian devotees.

The same goals pursue and, born twenty-three years later, Palladium in Euphrane Syria. He tells about the life of the thirty askets of the Euphrates Land, devoting to each of them a separate chapter of the writings, which is the double name - "The Tale of Loving God, or about the devotees." The author writes mainly about his contemporaries, which he knew personally, or, as a last resort, about the persons who lived before him earlier, but known to him in the stories of eyewitnesses; His story is the same as the narrative palladium, is distinguished by the specificity of observations, persuasiveness of the story, the liveliness in the transfer of the seen by him. The Feodorite does not have a feeling of good-natured humor with respect to the events described by him, which is an individual trait of palladium, and therefore the ahead of the aeodorite is somewhat land and monotolous. But nevertheless, it bribes some measured flow of a leisurely story, in which again, thanks to a big concreteness, it can even be said - the realistic descriptions of the descriptions of us as alive rise not only by the most images of people of the time, but also the most characteristic details of their daily life. Such attention to the smallest details of the life, the desire to accurately recreate the atmosphere, in which hermit lived, should be considered a positive quality of the new literature: it is very important that this method serves as one of the means of human characteristics.

In the later time, life methods are becoming increasingly monotonous and in the end lead to the screening composition, epithets, metaphors, to the stencil image of the described person, which is absolutely absent in the first living works, as evidenced by, for example, the lives of Anthony of Egyptian. The composition of this life primarily draws attention to a complex form that allows the author to apply a variety of means to express their thought.

All life is an assist of Afanasia "To the inoks in foreign countries", and this message itself develops not only from the author's narration, but also from direct speeches and the epistles of Anthony (one speech - the teaching of the inquars on the devilish navation - ch. 16- 43, the other - the answer of Anthony to the pagan philosophers - ch. 74-80, etc.). Palladium also at the Feodorite, the composition of life is incomparably easier; They are not talked about all the life of the hermit, but only about any one, at best, several episodes from his life. These authors use only two admission of narration: the first - the story of the author's face, sometimes on behalf of another person, usually witness, and the second is the direct speech of the hermit itself. In the outcome of the main character, the agiographs have not yet resorted to permanent traditional epithets, sometimes we wearing the press of deliberate sall climb; Their story is always directly and peculiar, barking and expressive.

Only in the VI century. The gortgled genre loses the immediacy and peculiarity, acquiring screen trafficking. This can be seen on the examples of the lives made up by the famous Aguiographer VI. Cyril Skifopolsky (lived in the Galilee Skifopolis). We are aware of the five of its lives: Evfimia, Savva, John of Solkolnik, Kiriak and Feognia. In all these lives, the scheme of the living genre is clearly traced, which has become traditional from that time. First, in general, the saint praise is given in general, as, for example: "Feogney all-famous, the great beauty of the whole Palestine, the brightest lamp of the desert and the one-sighted luminaries of the bishine." Next, it is told about the place of birth of the saint, his parents (as a rule, these are the most pious Christians), about how he becomes a monk, then moves further on the steps of spiritual sanitary or removed into the desert and bases the film. The presentation is very simple, stylistic decorations are almost completely absent. This calm narrative tone of the story about the universities of the devotee broke separate episodes from his life, which giving some involvement; As a rule, these are stories about miracles with holy saints (for example, on the taming of the squeezing sea Feogania or how the lion reflected the onslaught of Varvarov-Saracinov, as a lion ran away from the wanderers on the prayer of John and others).

In the VI century Samples and more sophisticated in the language and the style of life speakers with a large number of stylistic decorations are created, some of which acquire the character of the stamp (Svetok's epithets, "luminous", "honest pearl", "Beauty", etc.). This is clear from the lives of the same Feognia, compiled at the beginning of the VI century. Pavel Eldelle. His desire for complex suitis descriptions is constantly being felt: "So I commanded the students of His king of Glory Christ. Therefore, they diligently perceived the Divine Commandment, with an excess of all the sunflower lightning of their miracles, and perfectly fulfilled the ministry entrusted to them, and their precious teles, those Godroda, who an ancient law called the "Skin of Walkers", leaving on Earth, as once left On Earth, his flesh, the same flame prophet Elijah, moved away with joy to the Creator of all cases and boldly appeared before the non-manual royal throne. "

Thus, we see that in the sense of the forms of expression of thought, the gortgage genre is experiencing evolution on the downlink. It could not but affect the content of the works themselves. If we learn from the lives of Anthony about the social origin of the hero (ch. 1) and the historical events of the time - about persecutions for Christians at Maximina (ch. 46-47), about hostile actions of Arian and pagans (ch. 82), then nothing We will no longer find the following authors. They are taken by the acts of the devotee, perfect wonders and feats; At best, this will be brief mention of external events only inside the post-hour, as they are related to hermit, - for example, a message of Cyril about the invasion of Saracin to that monastery, where John silence lived (ch. 13). If anthony's life is polemicly pointed, because it is pronounced by an athiatric and anti-productical orientation, then in works of subsequent agiographs, or absent, or again barely catching. Athanasius admits direct chips Meltelian, Manicheev (ch. 68), Arian (ch. 68, 69); His arguments about the advantages of the Christian faith over the pagan "evidence from the mind" are directed not only against the pagans, but their hidden side and against Arian (ch. 73, 77, 80). We will not find anything like this in the aeography at least the same Kirill Skephopolsky. If in the life of Palladium somehow affected the life of the time, mainly in its moral manifestations, then again we will seek the same thing in Cyril or in even later augograph - Ignatia. In fact, Lovesic Palladium is not only the ascetic life of hermites, but also the ingenious life of ordinary people with their vices and passions: this is the story about the sober girl (ch. 6), about Slavena Potamyne, pursued by her by the politic owner ( Ch. 3), such is the story about one rich Egyptian, madly fallen in love with a married woman of free origin (ch. 19, 20 about Makaria Egypt). Often, palladiums we celebrate special stories-transformations, apparently that have existed in the folk creativity of the peoples of the East - for example, an episode with Egyptian, who could not seduce the victim planned and turned to the help of a magician who turned this woman in a mare; The former human appearance returns her Macarium Egyptian, sprinkling her with holy water.

The "Tale of Loving God" Feodorita also informs us interesting information about local customs, the nras of the Syrians of that time. On the contrary, from the lives of Kirill, we will only learn what concerned the narrow circle of persons who stood mainly at the highest steps of the church hierarchy.

The following two rather productive genres of Christian literature IV-VI centuries, also leaving their roots in the literature, standing, as already indicated, aside from the philosophical-theological direction. This is an epistolary and historiographic genres. From the point of view of formal, Christian epistolography does not undergo any significant changes: it remains the same formulas to appeal to the addressee, which were in the epistolary work of pagans, the same formulas of the final lines of the message. Some rules of episristolar art, taught Gregory Naziazine in a letter 51 of their son-in-law Nikobulu: they relate to three main signs, whose observance, in the author's opinion, will help make a letter, impeccable in terms of style and content. The first sign is the size, the second is the clarity of speech, the third is the sophistication of the syllable. The arguments of Gregory are such: "Some of the epistolographers write longer than they should, others - too short; And the first and second sin against the measure, like the archers of Luke ... The letter of the letter is needed: it is not necessary to write long if there are not many items, and briefly, if there are many things ... To keep the measure, it should be avoiding no faections. That's what I know relatively short.

Regarding clarity it is known that it should be as far as possible to avoid a book syllable, but to lean more to the conversational. Briefly speaking, such a letter is the best and beautiful, which convinces both an uneducated person and educated; The first is because it is drawn up in accordance with the concepts of ordinary people, the second one - because above such concepts ... because the infusable mystery is equally inappropriate, and the letter to be explained.

Thirdly, the letter should be enjoyable. This we will achieve if we write it is not completely dry, an unpleasant or inevitable, ugly, as they say, - without decorations; i.e. if you write it by introducing gnomes, proverbs, sayings, as well as jokes and riddles, thanks to which it becomes more pleasant; But they should not be used over measure, for the first rude, and the second pompous. They need to be used to the extent that red threads use in tissues. The trails we admit, but in small quantities and decent. Antithesis, parallelism and isocolons leave the sophists; If you can use them anywhere, we will make it like a joke, rather than seriously. Most of all in the letter should strive for moderate beauty so that it seems more natural. "

Of course, letters are now filled with new content: they reflect new ideas, views, beliefs, new life phenomena. So, some letters of the same Gregory Naziazine (all of them remained 243) contain Christian instructions and advice; Others, written in the period of controversy with the heretic Apollinarium, are dogmatical interest (letters to the presbyte of CLALLONY, Patriarch nectaria). Correspondence of Vasily the Great, John of Zlatoust covers a very wide range of persons, Christians and pagans. Their messages are perfectly transmitted by the author's globility: for example, the subtle poetic nature of Quea of \u200b\u200bCaesia, who was able to feel well and transmit the beauty of nature (letter 14 Gregory Nazianzine); or firm power of the will and the vigor of the spirit of the elderly John of Zlatoust, traveling under the scorching sun of an expensive reference to someone else's land (letters 6 and 9 of the Olympiad).

More than 150 letters of the most diverse content have been preserved from Epistolar Creativity; Among them are intimate (Ipatim letters, whose Sinesey studied philosophy, his brother His Evobatia, friend Olympia), as well as full voltages of sow (narrating disasters in Pentapole, where Sinesey lived last years, - Letter 69 Bishop Feofil, 89, 107 brother). From the point of view of the external finish, many Sinemia letters are noted by an extraordinary grace, which is sometimes combined with a witty game of thought and feelings. Especially wonderful letter 1 to Nicandra: "My books are my children," he starts this letter.

Epistolar Creativity of the representative of the Gas School of Sofista Enaia (25 letters preserved) testifies to the enormous strength of the ancient traditions who owned the mind of a Christian, who received education in the pagan ritial school: almost every letter of Enai is filled with a large number of names and images taken from ancient Greek literature or history (for example, Letter II Cassu, XV Presbyte Stephana, XXI Presbyte Dorofoy, XXIII Sophista Epiphany). In terms of volume, the general style and composition, these letters have a lot in common with the fictitious fictionalistic letters of famous figures of the second sofics of Alkifron and Eliana.

Like an epistolar genre, which we saw did not undergo significant changes in formal techniques developed by an ancient tradition, the genre of historiography is mainly also free from innovations. Although the works of Byzantine historians are different on the scale of the narrative, in terms of the quality of the psychological characteristics of depicted historical figures, according to the selection of facts, not to mention the individual awareness and talent of the author, yet the technique of historical narration, the tasks remain the same as they were in historiography antique.

The historiographic genre for the first time in Christian literature receives the most significant expression in the VI century, developing mainly in two directions: the worldwide chronicle and history in the proper sense of the word. Worldwide chronicles were compiled in most cases by monks; In chronological order, they described the events "from the creation of the world" approximately before the time witnesses they were. As a rule, the authors sought only to enumerate important, from their point of view, events, sometimes even legendary nature. From chronographs VI century. The most famous Gesichi Miletsky, John from Antioch and John Malala. Malala is the most significant author among those who wrote in the genre of the World Chronicle. His "chronicle" enjoyed great success in contemporaries and had a significant impact on subsequent chronicles, serving to them a remarkable model for the works of this kind; It was translated into ancient Russian language. Such popularity of Labor Malali was caused mainly by a simple and undisputed style resembling folk tales.

The authors who worked in the field of historiography actually described not so large chronological periods as chronographs. For the most part, it was a modern history of them or a period close to it. For samples of historical narration, they most often took the writings of Herodotus, Fukidid, Polybia. This affects the desire for a wide coverage of events, in a pronounced free manner of the narrative, in the use of mythological images, in drawing up direct speeches of certain actors. Among the representatives of historiography VI in. The most interesting proofs of Caesarian - the author of the "History of the Wars of Justinian with Persians, Vandals and Gotami" and "Secret History", Agaphi Mirinijsky - the author of Labor "On the reign of Justinian" and his follower of Menandr. In the center of attention of all these authors - Wars of Justinian, but their assessments are different: the assessment of the proof in his "secret history", published, probably after the death of Justinian, is an assessment of the opposition in relation to the emperor; It is extremely opposite to the spirit and direction of the historical works of Agaphia and Menandra. A distinctive feature of the works of proof and agaphia is their multipleness: it allows authors to cover many events of the socio-economic and spiritual life of people of that time, report important information from an ethnographic, geographical nature; At the same time, these authors manage to give live portrait and characteristic sketches of any remarkable persons (for example, an energetic, prudent in the military actions of the commander of the Gasizaria in the "History of Wars of Justinian with Persians, Vandals and Goths" or Cunning and Brutal Justinian in "Secret History" , eloquent aieta, originally from Colchis, a true patriot - in the work of Agaphia "On the reign of Justinian").

Brief description of the literature of the Eastern Empire IV-VI centuries. Allows the following key conclusions: during this period, the literature, new on its ideological or content, on the one hand, is widely used by the traditions of ancient culture and literature and thereby carries out not only aesthetic continuity in the cultural development of the Greek people, but also contributes to the cultural education of others Peoples who were part of the Eastern Empire. At the same time, in the literature of this pore, not in all, but in some part of it, there are significant shifts in approaching it to folk creativity, which affects the use of the folk language, folk melodes and rhythms; This leads to the emergence of some new genres and to enrich old, changing in domestic and external features and informants to us a kind of flavor of their era,