Congresses of Russian princes. Princely congresses Consequences and significance of the Lyubech congress

The Lyubech Congress was a meeting of Russian princes, the main goal of which was to stop the internecine war and create a unified state to resist foreign invaders.

The first congress of princes in Lyubech

The congress of Russian princes took place in the city of Lyubech (on the Dnieper River) in 1097. The reasons for convening the congress of princes in Lyubech were:

cruel between the princes who fought with each other for territories and influence in Rus';
the need to create a unified army to resist, whose raids caused serious harm to the country.

The congress of Russian princes in Lyubech was proclaimed by Vladimir Monomakh, who was the first to understand all the sad consequences of civil strife.

The significance of the Lyubech Congress

Kievan Rus at the end of the 11th century. was in an extremely difficult situation. Since 1094, there was a constant struggle for territory, which greatly weakened the country and did not allow the assembly of a unified army. The princes did not want to recognize each other’s authority and tried to seize more and more territories from the enemy in order to make a profit and spread their influence. The situation was complicated by the Polovtsians.

Vladimir Monomakh was defeated in the Battle of Stugna in 1093, losing part of the territory to the invaders. Later, in 1094, Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich enlisted the support of the Polovtsians and expelled Vladimir from Chernigov. Having secured the support of another prince, Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Vladimir wanted to recapture his possessions, but at the same time the Polovtsians made a brutal raid on the southern territories. For two years, Rus' was constantly in a state of war.

To correct the situation, it was necessary to reconcile the princes - for this purpose, Vladimir Monomakh convened the Lyubech Congress for the first time.

The main decisions of the Lyubech Congress of Princes

During the meeting, the princes were mainly engaged in the redistribution of territories. After many hours of discussion, the congress of princes in Lyubech proclaimed the following: to make peace between the princes and oblige them to come to the aid of each other in the fight against the Polovtsians. The main goal of the Lyubech Congress was the creation of a unified state.

The territories were divided as follows:

Vasilko Rostislavich (with brother) - Terebovl, Cherven, Przemysl;
Vladimir Monomakh - Pereyaslavl Principality, Suzdal-Rostov land, Smolensk and Beloozero;
Davyd Igorevich - Vladimir-Volynsky with Lutsk;
Oleg and Davyd Svyatoslavich - Chernigov and Seversk land, Ryazan, Murom and Tmutarakan;
Svyatopolk Izyaslavich - Kyiv with Turov and Pinsk and the title of Grand Duke.

The Congress of Russian Princes in Lyubech proclaimed a new principle of land division. The princes inherited the territories that belonged to their fathers - clan distribution. In this way, disputes over possessions were avoided, and Rus' was gradually to turn into a feudal state.

Consequences of the Lyubech Congress of Princes

Unfortunately, Prince Davyd Igorevich was dissatisfied with the new agreement and immediately after the meeting he informed Svyatopolk that Vladimir Monomakh and Vasilko Rostislavich had a secret conspiracy and wanted to seize sole power in Rus'. Svyatopolk believed and, at the insistence of Davyd, invited Vasilko to his place in Kyiv, where the latter was immediately accused of treason and put in prison.

Vladimir Monomakh, seeing that a new conflict had begun, convened a second congress of princes (1110), at which a final peace treaty was concluded. Prince Davyd was forgiven for his betrayal.

Results of the Lyubech Congress of Princes

Thanks to the fact that the princes managed to come to an agreement, the civil strife in Rus' ended and the state gradually united to repel the Polovtsians. The great princes were able to unite their troops and resist the invaders, and Rus' moved into a new era with a new political system.

Plan
Introduction
1 Procedure, composition of participants
2 Congresses XI - beginning XII centuries
3 Congresses XII - 1st half. XIII centuries
4 Congresses with the Polovtsians
5 Congresses in Russian principalities
5.1 Principality of Chernigov
5.2 Ryazan Principality
5.3 Principality of Smolensk
5.4 North-Eastern Rus'

Bibliography

Introduction

Congresses of Russian princes are personal meetings of the Rurikovichs, undertaken to resolve differences and jointly resolve issues of domestic and foreign policy. They were held in Kievan Rus and individual Russian principalities from the 11th to the 14th centuries.

The congresses were of an official nature and had a formalized procedure. In form, they were a “family” council, which corresponded to the idea that existed among the princes that all parts of Rus' were ruled by brothers of the same clan. In the 11th - early 12th centuries, the decisions of major congresses, in which all the senior princes of their generation took part, determined the political structure of Kievan Rus. In the subsequent period, in the context of the expansion of the dynasty and the onset of feudal fragmentation, regional congresses appeared, held among the princely branches within a particular land, and meetings of individual princes. At the same time, right up to the Mongol invasion, all-Russian congresses continued to meet periodically, successfully solving, first of all, the tasks of organizing joint campaigns against nomads. A special type of congress was the so-called. "companies"- regular meetings of the Kyiv princes with the Polovtsian khans, undertaken to maintain peaceful relations. According to the calculations of A. S. Shchavelev, in the pre-Mongol period in Rus', a total of up to 170 princely meetings of various levels took place.

In historiography, the congresses of the Rurikovichs are considered as a special institution, but its role, especially during the period of fragmentation, is not sufficiently studied and is interpreted diametrically opposite: from the recognition of the congresses by the highest authority of the country (V.T. Pashuto) to their assessment as an archaic procedure that did not provide real impact on the political system (B. A. Rybakov, A. P. Tolochko).

1. Procedure, composition of participants

The typical procedure for the congress looked like this: the princes, each with his retinue, arrived at a pre-agreed place and, positioned separately from each other, began “standing on horseback.” Ambassadors were exchanged for preliminary negotiations. Then the congress itself began. The venue for it most often was princely tents pitched outside the city walls, or small towns and castles, sometimes villages. Less frequently, congresses were held in Kyiv and regional capitals. During the congress, the princes made speeches. The agreements were predominantly oral and were accompanied by rhetorical formulas and references to legal precedents of the past. The agreements reached were sealed by the kiss of the cross, which each prince had to perform personally. The crosses were kept and could be presented in case of breaking an oath; such an act was considered an absolute sin and was perceived very sharply by society. At the end of the congress, a feast was held (sometimes several feasts given by the princes to each other in turn). The feast was accompanied by drinking from the same cup and exchanging gifts. Their items were furs, expensive clothing, horses, weapons and ammunition, as well as simply various rare or unusual things. For example, at the congress of 1160, Rostislav Mstislavich of Smolensky added fish teeth to his gifts to Svyatoslav Olgovich of Chernigov.

The congresses had a pronounced elitist character. Persons of non-princely dignity usually did not take direct part in the discussion. When in 1096 Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and Vladimir Monomakh invited their cousin Oleg Svyatoslavich to come to Kiev and conclude an agreement in the presence of the clergy, boyars and townspeople, he contemptuously declared that “it is not proper for a bishop, or abbot, or smerd to judge me.” Representatives of the clergy were almost never invited to the congresses. At the same time, with the con. In the 12th century, trends towards the evolution of congresses towards greater representativeness appeared in some principalities and were associated with the procedure for the transfer of power, when the ruling prince during his lifetime determined the heir. For this purpose, a “Council” was assembled, which, in addition to the princes, included representatives of the nobility, clergy and cities. A similar thing took place in the Galician principality (in 1187, by order of Yaroslav Osmomysl) and Vladimir-Suzdal (1211, on the initiative of Vsevolod the Big Nest).

2. Congresses XI - beginning. XII centuries

Gorodets Congress(1026/1027) - the first reliably known congress of the Rurikovichs. It took place between the brothers Yaroslav the Wise and Mstislav Tmutarakansky - the only surviving children of Vladimir by that time. According to the Tale of Bygone Years, their meeting took place near Gorodets (obviously, Gorodets-Ostersky of the Chernigov land, or the eponymous Gorodets near Kyiv). The brothers made peace on the terms of recognition of Yaroslav's seniority and the division of the “Russian land” along the Dnieper. The left bank with its center in Chernigov went to Mstislav. Thus, a model was developed according to which conflicts between Russian princes were subsequently resolved. The historical significance of the congress is evidenced by the fact that at the end of the 12th century the Monomakhovichs and Olgovichs appealed to it in their disputes;

Congress near Orsha(July 10, 1067) - a “failed” congress of the sons of Yaroslav the Wise - Prince Izyaslav of Kiev, Prince Svyatoslav of Chernigov and Prince Vsevolod of Pereyaslavl on the one hand, and Prince Vseslav Bryachislavich of Polotsk with his two sons on the other. The congress was preceded by a war in which Vseslav was defeated. The Yaroslavichs invited him to a meeting, kissing the cross that they would not cause harm. But as soon as Vseslav swam to the left bank of the Dnieper, where the brothers’ camp was located, and entered Izyaslav’s tent, he and his sons were treacherously captured. He was brought to Kyiv and put in a cellar. A year later, he was freed by the rebels of Kiev, and he was even able to become the prince of Kyiv for a short time. This event occurred on the feast of the Exaltation of the Cross and was perceived by contemporaries as God's punishment for perjury;

Vyshgorod Congress(May 20, 1072) - congress of the Yaroslavichs (Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod), held in the presence of the metropolitan and clergy in Vyshgorod for the ceremonial transfer of the relics of Boris and Gleb to the new stone church. Most researchers interpret this ceremony as the official canonization of the dead princes and explain it with the desire to create a cult of patrons of the princely family. There is an assumption that it was at this congress that the “Pravda Yaroslavichs” was adopted;

Exit to Zhelany(December 4, 1093?) - congress of the eldest grandchildren of Yaroslav the Wise: Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Vladimir Monomakh and Oleg Svyatoslavich on the Zhelyanya River for the “creation of the world.” Not mentioned in the chronicles. It is known about him from graffiti on the wall of the Kyiv St. Sophia Cathedral. This circumstance may indicate that congresses were held more often than noted in the chronicles. The year of the meeting is not named. According to A.S. Shchavelev, most likely it took place in 1093 and was associated with the unsuccessful actions of Svyatopolk against the Polovtsians;

Lyubech Congress(1097) - the most famous congress of Russian princes. It took place in the city of Lyubech (on the Dnieper) with the goal of agreeing to end inter-princely feuds over inheritances and to rally against the Polovtsians who were ravaging Rus'. The Lyubech Congress was attended by 6 princes - Prince of Kiev Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Prince of Pereyaslav Vladimir Monomakh, Prince of Chernigov Oleg Svyatoslavich, his brother Davyd Svyatoslavich, Prince of Volyn David Igorevich and Prince Vasilko Rostislavich. The Lyubech Congress proclaimed the principle of princes inheriting the lands of their fathers. This decision stated the existence of a new political system in Rus' and in the future opened the process of creating regional dynasties.

Gorodets Congress(spring 1098) - a military congress organized on the initiative of Vladimir Monomakh with Davyd and Oleg against Svyatopolk, after he unceremoniously violated the agreement of the Lyubech Congress and captured Vasilko Rostislavich, and then allowed Davyd Igorevich to blind him. The brothers gathered together with their squads in the forest near Gorodets and sent ambassadors to Svyatopolk with the words: “Why did you commit this evil in the Russian land and throw a knife at us? Why did he blind his brother? If you had any accusation against him, you would have denounced him before us, and, having proven his guilt, then you would have done the same with him.”. Not accepting Svyatopolk’s justification, the next morning the brothers crossed the Dnieper and moved to Kyiv. Svyatopolk wanted to flee the city, but the people of Kiev did not allow him to do this. Bloodshed was avoided through the mediation of Vladimir Monomakh’s mother and the Metropolitan. Svyatopolk pledged to his brothers to expel David.

Congress in Uvetichi(1100) - Svyatopolk, Vladimir Monomakh, Davyd and Oleg Svyatoslavich made peace among themselves on August 10, and on August 30 they gathered again for the trial of Davyd Igorevich, who violated the truce established in Lyubech. Davyd was deprived of the Vladimir-Volyn principality, receiving in return the towns of Buzhsky Ostrog, Duben, Czartorysk and 400 hryvnia of silver. The reconciliation of the princes allowed them in subsequent years to organize large-scale campaigns against the Polovtsians;

Zolotchensky Congress(1101) - a congress of all the brothers (7 princes, Yaroslav was also present from the Svyatoslavichs) on the Zolotche River. Polovtsian ambassadors arrived at the congress asking for peace. The princes conveyed to them an offer to meet in the city of Sakov (within the left bank of the Kiev region). The Russian-Polovtsian congress took place on September 15, the parties exchanged hostages and made peace;

Dolob Congress(spring 1103) - congress of Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh at Dolobskoye Lake near Kyiv to organize a joint campaign against the Polovtsians. Unlike previous congresses, negotiations took place with the participation of the squad. Svyatopolk’s squad opposed the idea of going on a campaign against the Polovtsy in the spring, in response, Vladimir Monomakh made a speech, after which the squad could not object, and Svyatopolk agreed.

The history of any country is full of ups and downs, times of peace and times of bloody wars, eras of culture and enlightenment, as well as Troubled Times, during which internecine wars unfolded for the right to lead the country. The end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th centuries is rightfully considered one of the eras of the Time of Troubles in Rus', when the personal ambitions of the heirs of Yaroslav the Wise and regular raids of nomads on the border territories greatly weakened the Russian state.

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The prerequisites for internecine wars were the staircase order of transfer of the throne, which consisted in the fact that power is transferred from brother to brother, and if the sons of Yaroslav the Wise were satisfied with everything, then his grandchildren were not satisfied with this state of affairs at all. The very division of the country into separate governorships did not bode well for the sons of Yaroslav the Wise.

In order to stop the bloodshed and devastation in 1097, a general gathering of the grand dukes was organized in the city of Lyubech.

The purpose of the Lyubech Congress and its participants

Lyubech was a developed city of that time, located on the banks of the Dnieper. This place was not chosen by chance. It was in Lyubech that the native lands of Vladimir Monomakh, the initiator of the congress, were located. The Lyubech Congress was convened in order to solve a number of problems, two of which (the internecine fratricidal war and the need for a unified army to confront external enemies) were especially acute.

Its participants were the direct descendants of Yaroslav the Wise, his grandchildren and great-grandchildren. Each of them will be discussed further in this article.

It should be understood that the gathering of princes in those days can be equated to a modern political forum and, in addition to the princes, the entire political elite of that time participated in it, although only the princes made decisions (unlike the Dolob Congress).

The main decisions of the Lyubech Congress of Princes:

Finally assign lands to each of the rulers.
Form a squad to fight common enemies.
Securing the right of inheritance from father to son.

Results of the Lyubech Congress

As a result, the disputed lands were divided between the participants. Agreements were also reached regarding the boundaries of the territories of influence, the basis was prepared for the formation of a unified army to resist foreign invaders, in particular, to resist the Polovtsians (the Polovtsians are a nomadic people of Turkic origin who were at war with Russia in those days).

The participants of the Lyubech Congress, as a sign of compliance with the decisions, kissed the cross and swore that they would not encroach on someone else’s land, and whoever encroaches and breaks the oath will be punished by the rest of the princes. Also at the congress, the principles of inheritance of divided lands from father to son were discussed and enshrined.

The political significance of the Lyubech Congress of Princes

Simply put, Rus' ceased to be a single state and broke up into several principalities, the decisions of which were made by a single ruler. Thus began the era of feudal fragmentation in Rus', it was of great importance and continued until the end of the 15th century, ending under Ivan III (Under whom the famous Code of Laws was adopted).

Subsequent events

Sadly, the peace between the princes did not last long. David Igorevich brought confusion into the relationship between Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich and Vasilko Rostislavich by sending a messenger to the former with a message about the impending capture of Kyiv by the latter. Svyatopolk, who believed the slander, called Vasilko to Kyiv, where he first took him into custody and then blinded him. Meanwhile, David Igorevich invaded the Terebovel principality (the estate of Vasilko Rostislavich) and captured the main fortress of Terebovel and nearby lands.

Having heard about the blatant violation of the oaths given by the princes, Vladimir Monomakh gathers an army and goes to Kyiv. Having besieged the city, Vladimir Monomakh seeks from Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich the release of Vasilko Rostislavich, as well as his consent to go on a joint campaign against David Igorevich. The internecine war broke out with renewed vigor and lasted until 1110.

At least two congresses are associated with this period:

Congress in Uvetichi. It took place in August 1110 near the city of Uvetichi. The goal is the example of princes and the trial of the apostate David Igorevich. He lost his principality, however, he was not executed; on the contrary, Svyatopolk gave him Dubna and Chertorizhsk to reign, and the Svyatoslavichs allocated a large sum of money. The wise decision of the princes made it possible to avoid a new round of bloody war and allowed the war to stop for a while.
Dolob Congress. The congress of princes, which took place in 1103 at Dolob Lake near Kyiv. A distinctive feature of this congress was that not only the grand dukes, but also representatives of the squad participated in the decisions. The Dolob congress made it possible to unite the squads and make several successful campaigns against the Polovtsians.

And although each congress called for unification and an end to strife and civil strife, the effectiveness of the agreements was quite low and, in the end, as we see from history, a stronger and more developed principality absorbed a smaller and weaker one until only one remained - Moscow, which again united Rus' together.

1. Rivals and co-rulers

On a summer night in 1024, near the city of Listven (north of Chernigov), the last two contenders for the great reign of Kiev - princes Yaroslav and Mstislav - clashed in a fierce battle. At the height of the battle, a thunderstorm broke out over the battlefield: “And when the night came to pass, there was darkness, lightning, thunder, and rain.”. In pitch darkness, cut through by flashes of lightning, Mstislav’s squad surrounded Yaroslav’s army from the flanks: “And the slash was strong, like a weapon shining like lightning, and the thunderstorm was great and the slash was strong and terrible.”. Pressed from all sides, Yaroslav's warriors broke formation and ran. At dawn, Mstislav examined the battlefield, littered with the bodies of his allied Chernigov (northerners) and Yaroslav’s “Varyags”, and uttered words that Karamzin considered “unworthy of a good prince,” but which nevertheless perfectly characterize the “state” thinking of the squad leader of the early 11th century : “Who isn’t happy about this? “Here lies a northerner, and here is a Varangian, and his squad is intact.”.

The defeated Yaroslav took refuge in Novgorod.
After everything that happened, one would expect another chronicle report about the reign of the winner in Kyiv, “on the table,” and a new round of internecine warfare. Instead we read the astonishing lines: “And Mstislav sent an ambassador to Yaroslav, saying: “Sit in your Kiev: you are the oldest brother, and be on my side.”. With this act, Mstislav earned the reputation of, if not a “good prince,” then at least a sober politician. He chose not to turn the dynastic dispute with Yaroslav into a war of destruction, especially since the forces of his enemy were by no means exhausted. Indeed, in 1026 Yaroslav approached Kyiv with a strong army consisting of Novgorodians. However, there was no resumption of hostilities. Obviously, general fatigue from ten years of bloodshed played a role.

Peace was concluded during a personal meeting between Yaroslav and Mstislav near Gorodets*. The squads standing behind both princes confirmed with their own eyes that here it was not the winner dictating his terms to the vanquished, but an equal talking to an equal. The parties agreed on an amicable division of the Russian land “along the Dnieper”: Yaroslav took under his hand the right bank with Kiev, Volyn and the Novgorod land, Mstislav became the prince of the entire left bank - Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Radimich, Vyatichi and presumably Rostov-Suzdal lands.

* There were two Gorodets in the Russian land - one near Kyiv, the other 26 versts from Chernigov. Most likely, peace was concluded in the “Kiev” Gorodets.

The many-year period of armed struggle for Vladimir's inheritance has ended. Rus' finally sighed calmly: “And they began to live peacefully and in brotherly love, and strife and rebellion arose, and there was great silence in the land.”.

The Treaty of Gorodets became a significant milestone in the development of the ancient Russian political system. For the first time, members of the grand ducal family settled dynastic disputes by purely political means, no longer relying on the unwritten law of seniority and abandoning mutual extermination in internecine fighting. The division of “his father's and grandfather's” property within established boundaries was recognized as an acceptable replacement for autocracy and was perpetuated in bilateral agreements (possibly written), which finally displaced the generic principle of obedience of the younger to the elder from the state sphere into the realm of moral precepts. We must not forget that this was also the first experience of political consent of the ruling elite, achieved with an eye to Christian state legal norms. In particular, instead of the pagan oath on weapons, the princes undoubtedly resorted to kissing the cross.

From the outside it might seem that the co-rulers of the Russian land were in perfect harmony and fraternal unity among themselves. In fact, this was not entirely true. It was not for nothing that Yaroslav was generally wary of living for a long time in Kyiv, in close proximity to Mstislav, despite the latter’s apparent friendliness, and spent most of his time in Novgorod, leaving the people of Kiev in the care of their mayors. The element of rivalry in their relationship did not disappear even after the conclusion of the Gorodets Peace Treaty, only now the competition between them took on softer forms, moving entirely to the cultural and religious plane.

2. Philosophy in stone

Having settled in Chernigov, Mstislav planned to give this city the splendor of the capital. Under him, the first stone buildings appeared in Chernigov. In Prince Detinets, construction began on a magnificent palace complex, the center of which was to become the gigantic Spaso-Preobrazhensky Cathedral (33.2 x 22.1 m) by the standards of that time, which surpassed in size the former pride of ancient Russian architecture - the Tithe Church in Kiev.

Tithe Church

Chernigov. Spassky Cathedral. Reconstruction of the western facade.
According to Yu. S. Aseev.

Architects and craftsmen invited from Byzantium worked on the construction of the Chernigov Spa. The five-domed temple with three apses and three naves* was in plan a cross inscribed in a quadrangle - modeled on one of the most common types of religious buildings in Byzantium (the so-called “cross-dome” design). The construction of the walls was carried out using Byzantine construction techniques: alternating layers of flat brick and untreated stone. In the interior design, the main role was to be played by frescoes, mosaics, imported marble columns, as well as carved slate slabs mined in the vicinity of the Drevlyan Ovruch - the only “luxurious” building material that the Russian land could then offer to Greek architects. Together with the princely detin, the appearance of the entire city changed: Mstislav surrounded it with an impressive rampart about four meters high and more than two kilometers long.

* Nave - part of the internal space of the temple, limited on one or two sides by a number of columns or pillars.

The Spassky Cathedral was intended for the Metropolitan of Rus', whose residence since the time of Vladimir was in Pereyaslavl on Trubezh. According to the Gorodets partition, Pereyaslavl went to Mstislav, who thus had the opportunity to directly intervene in the affairs of the metropolitan court and church politics in general. His intentions clearly included moving the metropolitan see from Pereyaslavl to Chernigov, which would provide the latter with the status of not only the secular, but also the ecclesiastical capital of Rus'. Head of the Russian Church in the 20s - the first half of the 30s. XI century, the Greek John I seems to have favored the Chernigov prince, since he did not show the slightest desire to move from him to the other side of the Dnieper, to Kyiv.

Mstislav's plans threatened Kyiv with the loss of its dominant position in the Russian land. To prevent this, Yaroslav had to put the Grand Duke's table on such a material and cultural basis that would make the superiority of Kyiv over other Russian cities undeniable and strengthen the prestige of the Grand Duke.

In response to the challenge posed by Mstislav to the “mother of Russian cities,” Yaroslav launched large-scale construction in Kyiv. His extensive undertakings far surpassed Mstislav's construction program in Chernigov. Yaroslav carried out a radical redevelopment of Kyiv. The fortified part of the city was significantly expanded, as a result of which the former city center - the princely castle on Starokievsky Hill - turned into just the northern citadel of the new fortress, which occupied about 70 hectares of land. From the east, south and west it was embraced by a three-kilometer line of powerful earthen ramparts, reaching thirty meters wide at the base and topped with wooden palisades, thanks to which the city guard watched the surroundings from a height of 16 meters. Carrying out such a volume of excavation work would require a thousand people to work tirelessly for four years. Three entrances to the city - through the Lyadsky, Golden and Zhidovsky Gates - were guarded by gate towers, at least one of which (above the Golden Gate) was stone. Well fortified "city of Yaroslav"* reliably covered the low-lying region of Podol from attacks from the steppe.

* Accepted archaeological term designating the city square of Kyiv, annexed by Yaroslav to the “city of Vladimir”.

Yaroslav's urban planning activities were amazing not only in their scope, they were also distinguished by their ideological novelty. If Mstislav, in his desire to surpass Vladimir’s palace complex, essentially competed with the past, then Yaroslav created the future. Thanks to him, the urban landscape of Kyiv was transformed not just by expanding the building area. Yaroslav gave the renewed city a new heart, both in the topographical and spiritual sense. He was the first of the Russian princes to move the center of church splendor from the prince's court to the very thick of the city community. Stone Temple Saint Sophia of the Wisdom of God*, - this new Christian shrine, designed to eclipse the greatness of the Spassky Cathedral in Chernigov, - was founded on the site of a wooden church of the same name, right in the middle of the “city of Yaroslav”, at the crossroads of the streets leading from the three city gates.

* The idea of Hagia Sophia, the Wisdom of God, was adopted by Christians from the Old Testament (“Wisdom created for herself a house and established seven pillars,” Proverbs of Solomon, IX, 1) and in ancient times was understood in two ways. According to the most common interpretation, the Wisdom of God is Christ, who established his Church (“house”) at seven sacraments and seven ecumenical councils. One of the church prayers for the feast of St. Sophia says: “The incomprehensible and sung Wisdom of God, Sophia the Preeminent, the virgin soul, that is, the Only Begotten Son, the Word of God.” But some theologians understood Sophia as the Mother of God, who became the “home” for Christ incarnate in her. The church service for the feast of Hagia Sophia provides the basis for such an understanding when it proclaims: “The Great and Ineffable Wisdom of God, the Most Eminent Sophia, the Most Honorable Temple, the Fiery Throne of Christ our God, the Word of God and the flesh of God have indwelled in you ineffably.” It was this interpretation of the idea of Saint Sophia of the Wisdom of God that was adhered to in ancient Rus'. The temple holiday of the Kyiv Cathedral of St. Sophia was celebrated on the day of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary (September 8). In the Kyiv edition of the iconography of Hagia Sophia we see an image of the Mother of God under a seven-pillar canopy, standing on an ambo with seven steps.

Ancient Kyiv. Layout, fragment. City of Yaroslav. Artist D. Mazyukevich

According to Yaroslav's plan, the St. Sophia Cathedral was supposed to amaze the imagination with its size and splendor. The main building of the temple was originally a huge cube (29.3 x 29.3 m at the base), the central dome of which, rising almost thirty meters in height, was surrounded by twelve smaller tops, collected in four groups *. On three sides (except for the eastern, altar) the temple building was adjoined by a two-story gallery, increasing its total length to 41.7 meters and width to 56.4 meters. Stairs in two corner towers led to an internal gallery (choir), which ran at the level of the second floor along the northern, western and southern walls. The number of columns supporting the “sail” vaults and arches was significantly increased; instead of the usual three apses and three naves, there were five.

* The constructive purpose of the small chapters was to promote better lighting of the interior. But the multi-domed structure of the church was also one of the main aesthetic criteria for the figurative structure of ancient Russian architecture. The heads decorated the temple along with other artistic decorations, and, for example, “The Life of Boris and Gleb”, telling about the construction of the Vyshgorod church in the name of the holy martyrs, says: “The Christ-loving prince decorated the church with 5 tops and all sorts of beauties, icons and other writings "

St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. 1017—1037. Reconstruction. Layout

Over time, the external decorations and cladding of the temple died, the marble and alabaster columns of the front porch disappeared, the cathedral building underwent reconstruction, which is why today's Kiev Sofia looks little like its ancient prototype. But inside the room you can still see surviving fragments of fresco painting and mosaic images. Among the latter, a particularly strong impression is left by the huge chest-length image of Christ Pantocrator, placed in a dome, inside a rainbow circle,

and the no less majestic figure of the Virgin Mary "The Unbreakable Wall"* in the altar, under which Christ gives communion to the apostles.

* This iconographic image shows the Mother of God standing at full height on a golden stone as on an unshakable foundation (“unbreakable wall”), with her hands raised in prayer and without the baby Jesus. Apparently, the dominant position of the Virgin Mary in the altar of Hagia Sophia referred to the words from the Proverbs of Solomon: “Wisdom made herself a house,” that is, in this case, a temple.

The color scheme of Sofia mosaics includes 177 shades with a predominance of blue, green and gold tones.

From the frescoes that once covered the rest of the temple space, individual figures of the apostles and saints of the Church, 15 (out of 40) chest-length images of the Sebastian martyrs in medallions on the girth arches, a scene of the Annunciation and a number of other multi-figure compositions on subjects of Sacred and Church history have been preserved.

Annunciation

Descent into Hell

St. Adrian

The painting decorating the two staircases along which Yaroslav and Ingigerd climbed to the choir has a completely different character. The worldly element completely dominates here. The prince's favorite entertainments are shown: hunting for wild boar, wolf, bear, wild horse, performances of buffoons, musicians, dancers and acrobats;

to this are added scenes from the court and city life of Constantinople: the basileus sitting on the throne, the exit of the empress accompanied by her retinue, the hippodrome with four closed gates, the quadrigas ready to stand. The choice of these subjects was prompted by the taste preferences of the Byzantine emperors, who loved to decorate their palaces with scenes of various entertainments and military exploits.

Hippodrome

Almost simultaneously with Hagia Sophia, completed in 1037, two more stone churches, smaller in size, were completed: St. George (in honor of the heavenly patron Yaroslav) and the Gate Annunciation Church (on the Golden Gate). It is estimated that the construction of the “city of Yaroslav” with all its fortifications and temples cost the princely treasury approximately 50 thousand hryvnia. The extraordinary nature of this sum can be judged by the fact that the annual “lesson” paid to the Grand Duke by such a large trading city as Novgorod amounted to 2 thousand hryvnia.

It is obvious that Yaroslav spared no expense on city and temple construction, attaching exceptional importance to this side of his state activities.

But it was not just colossal costs and external splendor that should have provided Kyiv with a worthy place among the recognized world capitals. The idea of its “capitality” was contained in the very spatial organization of the “city of Yaroslav”, which clearly embodied the medieval ideas about the wandering City, or translatio Hierosolimi (“transfer of Jerusalem”), especially popular in the Orthodox East. It was believed that after the “old” Jerusalem lost its providential role in the salvation of mankind, the sacred capital of the world moved (not in a metaphorical, but in a literal sense) to Constantinople, which from now on became the earthly personification of the City of God, Heavenly Jerusalem.
Already under Justinian I (527-565), the urban structure of Constantinople was brought into line with this idea. In the center of the Byzantine capital, the grandiose Cathedral of Hagia Sophia of the Wisdom of God was built, surpassing its Old Testament prototype - the Jerusalem Temple of the Lord, and the city wall was decorated with the ceremonial Golden Gate, through which, as was expected, Christ would enter God's chosen city in order to complete the earthly history of mankind, like , how the King of Peace once entered the Golden Gate of “old” Jerusalem to show people the path of salvation. The priceless relic - a particle of the Holy Cross, set into the statue of Constantine the Great, at the foot of which the annual celebration of the day of “renewal” of Constantinople (May 11) * took place - gave the figurative system of likening Constantinople to the capital of the “new Israel” irresistible persuasiveness and completeness.

* On this day in 330, Emperor Constantine the Great dedicated his new capital to Our Lady.

Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople. Initial view

Golden Gate in Constantinople. The gate leaves were covered with gold plates,
where the gates got their names from

The “barbarian” peoples who were baptized by the Greeks received the idea of translatio Hierosolimi in a ready-made form, along with Byzantine culture and writing. Rus' was no exception here, as evidenced by the earliest works of ancient Russian literature, where Constantinople is bluntly called the New Jerusalem. Therefore, the historical self-awareness and political thinking of the first Christian rulers of the Russian land, to one degree or another, was characterized by the desire to imitate the “Roman paradigm”, with the difference that the prototype to be translated was no longer “old” Jerusalem, but Constantinople.

In the “city of Yaroslav” this analogy formed the basis of its architectural plan. The Russian Constantinople acquired its own Golden Gate, the Church of St. Sophia and, like the Greek Constantinople, was given the patronage of the Mother of God ( “You gave up your people and your city to the holy all-glorious Mother of God, who comes to the aid of Christians”, - said about Yaroslav in the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion; The Ipatiev Chronicle speaks about the same thing: “This wise prince Yaroslav, dividing the Annunciation at the gates [Golden Gate], always gave joy to that city with the holy Annunciation of the Lord and the prayer of the Holy Mother of God.”

But what was least of all here was simple external imitation. The deep symbolism of the Byzantine capital as the spiritual center of the Christian world was adopted. In the architectural forms of Kyiv Sofia, Yaroslav did not at all think of replicating the famous Byzantine model. Despite the fact that Byzantine architects were entrusted with the construction, the St. Sophia Cathedral of Kiev was distinguished by a remarkable architectural and canonical originality, the origins of which, according to art historians, should be sought in the original plan of the prince and the Russian clergy - the true creators of the temple *.

* The medieval architect was not the author of the project, but only carried out the customer’s plan. The internal structure of the temple was more important to the customer, but the architectural form was closer to the architect. The customer thought in more general categories, among which the first place belonged to the requirements of the church canon. This was followed by requirements for the size, appearance of the temple, wedding ceremony, etc. The tasks of the architect were to, while observing the requirements of the canon, give architectural embodiment to the very specific wishes of the customer. It was a vast field of activity that required purely professional knowledge, skills and craftsmanship. The implementation of the plan left the architect quite a lot of freedom of action, allowing him to use all his experience, talent and ingenuity in the work process.

What Kiev Sophia was for them is clarified by the Greek inscription from the Psalter, applied during the life of Yaroslav on the altar arch of the temple: “God is in her midst, and she will not be shaken. God will help her early in the morning.".

According to legend, this verse was inscribed on the bricks from which the supporting arches and the dome of St. Sophia of Constantinople were built. But in the writings of the Church Fathers it was also interpreted as a prophecy about the Heavenly Jerusalem (in Greek the word polis, “city”, is feminine, hence “she”). And when looking at Kyiv Sophia from the point of view of this spiritual tradition, the ideal image of the indestructible Temple of the Lord clearly appeared in its features. Such comparisons were taken literally at that time. By creating stone Kyiv, Yaroslav literally transferred the “City of God” to the Russian land - in full accordance with the idea of translatio Hierosolimi*. And although the entire Kiev Sophia with its thirteen tops could fit under the single dome of the Constantinople shrine of the same name, Yaroslav had no reason to fear comparisons: in contemporary Byzantium, as well as in the “midnight” countries, where in the first half of the 11th century. Church architecture also developed rapidly**, nothing comparable in size and splendor to his stone masterpiece was created. No wonder the German chronicler Adam of Bremen admiringly called Kyiv "rival to the scepter of Constantinople" And "one of the most magnificent decorations in Greece", that is, the Eastern Orthodox world.

* In this regard, it is characteristic that the unknown author of the “Kazan History” (60s of the 16th century) calls Moscow not only the third Rome, but also the second Kiev: “And the capital and glorious city of Moscow has risen now, like the second Kiev... and the third new great Rome..."
** The miraculous transformation of European cities, which occurred before the eyes of one or two generations, is described in the famous passage from the chronicle of the Burgundian monk Raoul Glaber: “With the onset of the third year that followed the thousandth year, almost all lands, but especially Italy and Gaul, witnessed the restructuring of church buildings; although most of them were well built and did not need it, real rivalry pushed every Christian community to acquire a church more luxurious than its neighbors. It was as if the world was shaking off its rags and putting on the new white dress of churches everywhere.”

The architectural thought of the Middle Ages always followed the political ideas of its time, and the “sacralization” of Kyiv pursued a very specific political goal: to prevent the growth of the spiritual significance of Chernigov after the proposed transfer of the metropolitan court there. It is not known what the rivalry between the Kyiv and Chernigov princes would have resulted in, whether it would have lasted further. But the delicate situation of dual power resolved itself. In 1034, or, according to other news, in 1036, while hunting in the Chernigov forests, Mstislav “fell ill and died.” The prince's body was brought to Chernigov and buried in the unfinished Spassky Cathedral, the walls of which, according to the chronicles, were brought to such a height by that time that a rider standing on a horse could reach their top with his hand ( “Like standing on a horse with your hand reaching”)* .

* The year of completion of the construction of the temple is not indicated in the chronicle.

Mstislav did not leave an heir. His only son Eustathius died a year earlier. Therefore, after the death of Mstislav “Yaroslav took over the power [volost] from him and became the autocrat of the Russian land”.

Congresses of Russian princes(in Old Russian “snemy”) - personal meetings of the Rurikovichs, undertaken to resolve differences and jointly resolve issues of domestic and foreign policy. They were held in the era of the Old Russian state and in the Russian principalities from the 14th century.

The congresses were of an official nature and had a formalized procedure. In form, they were a “family” council, which corresponded to the idea that existed among the princes that all parts of Rus' were ruled by brothers of the same clan. At the beginning of the 12th centuries, the decisions of major congresses, in which all the senior princes of their generation took part, determined the political structure of Kievan Rus. In the subsequent period, in the context of the expansion of the dynasty and the onset of feudal fragmentation, regional congresses appeared, held among the princely branches within a particular land, and meetings of individual princes. At the same time, right up to the Mongol invasion, all-Russian congresses continued to meet periodically, successfully solving, first of all, the tasks of organizing joint campaigns against nomads. A special type of congress was the so-called. "companies"- regular meetings of the Kyiv princes with the Polovtsian khans, undertaken to maintain peaceful relations. It was also not uncommon for the Western Russian principalities to hold joint congresses with the Lithuanian princes (rigas). According to the calculations of A. S. Shchavelev, in the pre-Mongol period in Rus', a total of up to 170 princely meetings of various levels took place.

In historiography, the congresses of the Rurikovichs are considered as a special institution, but its role, especially during the period of fragmentation, is insufficiently studied and is interpreted diametrically opposite: from the recognition of the congresses by the highest authority of the country (V.T. Pashuto) to their assessment as an archaic procedure that did not have any real impact impact on the political system (B. A. Rybakov, A. P. Tolochko).

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Procedure, composition of participants

The congresses had a pronounced elitist character. Persons of non-princely dignity usually did not take direct part in the discussion. When in 1096 Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and Vladimir Monomakh invited their cousin Oleg Svyatoslavich to come to Kiev and conclude an agreement in the presence of the clergy, boyars and townspeople, he contemptuously declared that “it is not proper for a bishop, or abbot, or smerd to judge me.” Representatives of the clergy were almost never invited to the congresses. At the same time, from the end of the 12th century, trends towards the evolution of congresses towards greater representativeness appeared in some principalities and were associated with the procedure for the transfer of power, when the ruling prince during his lifetime determined the heir. For this purpose, a “Council” was assembled, which, in addition to the princes, included representatives of the nobility, clergy and cities. A similar thing happened in the Principality of Galicia (in 1187, by order of Yaroslav Osmomysl) and Vladimir-Suzdal (by the initiative of Vsevolod the Big Nest). In both cases, the congress made a decision on the succession to the throne by a prince who was not supposed to inherit it by right of seniority.

Congresses XI - beginning XII centuries

Gorodets Congress( /) - the first reliably known congress of the Rurikovichs. It took place between the brothers Yaroslav the Wise and Mstislav Tmutarakansky - two of the three surviving children of Vladimir by that time. According to the Tale of Bygone Years, their meeting took place near Gorodets (obviously, Gorodets-Ostersky of the Chernigov land, or the eponymous Gorodets near Kyiv). The brothers made peace on the terms of recognizing the seniority of Yaroslav and the division of the “Russian land” along the Dnieper. The left bank with its center in Chernigov went to Mstislav. Thus, a model was developed according to which conflicts between Russian princes were subsequently resolved. The historical significance of the congress is evidenced by the fact that at the end of the 12th century the Monomakhovichs and Olgovichs appealed to it in their disputes;
Congress near Orsha(July 10) - a “failed” congress of the sons of Yaroslav the Wise: Prince Izyaslav of Kiev, Prince Svyatoslav of Chernigov and Prince Vsevolod of Pereyaslavl on the one hand, and Prince Vseslav Bryachislavich of Polotsk with his two sons on the other. The congress was preceded by a war in which Vseslav was defeated. The Yaroslavichs invited him to a meeting, kissing the cross that they would not cause harm. But as soon as Vseslav swam to the left bank of the Dnieper, where the brothers’ camp was located, and entered Izyaslav’s tent, he and his sons were treacherously captured. He was brought to Kyiv and put in a cellar. A year later, he was freed by the rebels of Kiev, and he was even able to become the prince of Kyiv for a short time. This event occurred on the feast of the Exaltation of the Cross and was perceived by contemporaries as God's punishment for perjury;
Vyshgorod Congress(May 20) - congress of the Yaroslavichs (Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod), held in the presence of the metropolitan and clergy in Vyshgorod for the ceremonial transfer of the relics of Boris and Gleb to the new stone church. Most researchers interpret this ceremony as the official canonization of the dead princes and explain it by the desire to create a cult of patrons of the princely family. There is an assumption that it was at this congress that the Yaroslavich Pravda was adopted;
Exit to Zhelany(December 4?) - congress of the eldest grandchildren of Yaroslav the Wise: Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Vladimir Monomakh and Oleg Svyatoslavich on the Zhelyanya River for the “creation of the world.” Not mentioned in the chronicles. It is known about him from graffiti on the wall of the Kyiv St. Sophia Cathedral. This circumstance may indicate that congresses were held more often than noted in the chronicles. The year of the meeting is not named. According to A.S. Shchavelev, most likely it took place in 1093 and was associated with the unsuccessful actions of Svyatopolk against the Polovtsians (after the defeat at Stugna, Svyatopolk was defeated at Zhelani, and soon after the congress peace was concluded with the Polovtsians, marked by Svyatopolk’s marriage to his daughter Tugorkana);
Lyubechsky Congress() - the most famous congress of Russian princes. Held in the city of Lyubech (on the Dnieper) with the goal of agreeing to end the war for inheritances on the left bank of the Dnieper and to rally against the Polovtsians who were ravaging Rus'. The Lyubech Congress was attended by 6 princes: Prince of Kiev Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Prince of Pereyaslav Vladimir Monomakh, Prince of Chernigov Oleg Svyatoslavich, his brother Davyd Svyatoslavich, Volyn prince Davyd Igorevich and Prince Vasilko Rostislavich. The Lyubech Congress proclaimed the principle of princes inheriting the lands of their fathers. This decision stated the existence of a new political system in Rus' and in the future opened the process of creating regional dynasties.
Gorodets Congress(spring) - a military congress organized on the initiative of Vladimir Monomakh with Davyd and Oleg against Svyatopolk, after he unceremoniously violated the agreement of the Lyubech Congress and captured Vasilko Rostislavich, and then allowed Davyd Igorevich to blind him. The brothers gathered together with their squads in the forest near Gorodets and sent ambassadors to Svyatopolk with the words: “Why did you commit this evil in the Russian land and throw a knife at us? Why did he blind his brother? If you had any accusation against him, you would have denounced him before us, and, having proven his guilt, then you would have done the same with him.”. Not accepting Svyatopolk’s justification, the next morning the brothers crossed the Dnieper and moved to Kyiv. Svyatopolk wanted to flee the city, but the people of Kiev did not allow him to do this. Bloodshed was avoided through the mediation of Vladimir Monomakh’s mother and the Metropolitan. Svyatopolk pledged to his brothers to expel David, but appropriated his possessions.
Congress in Uvetichi() - Svyatopolk, Vladimir Monomakh, Davyd and Oleg Svyatoslavich made peace among themselves on August 10, and on August 30 they gathered again for the trial of Davyd Igorevich, who violated the truce established in Lyubech. Davyd was deprived of the Vladimir-Volyn principality, receiving in return the towns of Buzhsky Ostrog, Duben, Chartoryisk and 400 hryvnia of silver. The reconciliation of the princes stopped the war for inheritance on the right bank of the Dnieper and allowed them in subsequent years to organize large-scale campaigns against the Polovtsians;
Sakov Congress() - a congress of all the brothers (7 princes, Yaroslav was also present from the Svyatoslavichs) on the Zolotche River. Polovtsian ambassadors arrived at the congress asking for peace. The princes conveyed to them an offer to meet in the city of Sakov (within the left bank of the Kiev region). The Russian-Polovtsian congress took place on September 15, the parties exchanged hostages and made peace;
Dolobsky Congress(spring) - congress of Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh at Dolobskoye Lake near Kyiv to organize a joint campaign against the Polovtsians. Unlike previous congresses, negotiations took place with the participation of the squad. Svyatopolk's squad opposed the idea of going on a campaign against the Polovtsians in the spring, in response, Vladimir Monomakh made a speech, after which the warriors could not object, and Svyatopolk agreed.

Congresses XII - 1st half. XIII centuries

The famous meeting of Yuri Dolgoruky with his cousin Svyatoslav Olgovich in Moscow during the civil strife of the mid-12th century dates back to 1147. Yuri's campaigns near Torzhok (Novgorod Republic), Svyatoslav's to the upper reaches of the Protva (Smolensk Principality) were celebrated with a feast, and a plan for further actions was also outlined.

The failed congress of Russian princes with the Polovtsians to conclude peace dates back to 1179 below Trepol. Instead, the Cumans continued to ravage the outskirts of Pereyaslavl. Having learned about the crossing of the Dnieper by the Russian princes, they left for the steppes.

In 1180, Rurik Rostislavich occupied Kyiv, which was freed after the departure of Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich to Chernigov, and convened his allies to a congress, of whom only Davyd Rostislavich of Vyshgorod, Vsevolod and Ingvar Yaroslavich of Lutsk are named in the chronicle. The congress was combined with a military gathering, in which Galician troops also participated. Davyd was sent to help Roman Rostislavich against the Chernigovites.

Kanev Congress(1193) - congress of Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, Rurik Rostislavich and two khans of the Lukomorsky Polovtsians, in which the participation of two khans of the Polovtsy-Burchevichs from the left bank of the Dnieper was expected, to conclude a general peace after the return from the Polovtsians to the black hoods