Laws and principles of ecology. Laws and principles of ecology Basic laws of life

Each living organism, despite the variety of its forms and adaptations to environmental conditions, in its development is subject to strictly defined laws.

1) The law of historical development. All living organisms, regardless of their level of organization, have gone through a long path of historical development (phylogenesis). This law, formulated by C. Darwin, found its development in the works of A.N. Severtsev and I.I. Shmalgauzen.

Life on Earth originated about 4-5 billion years ago. At first, simple unicellular organisms existed on Earth, then multicellular ones, sponges, intestinal cavities, nemerteans, annelids, mollusks, arthropods, echinoderms, chordates appeared. It was chordates that gave rise to vertebrates, which include cyclostomes, fish, amphibians, reptiles, mammals and birds. Thus, our domestic animals in historical terms have gone through a very difficult path of development and this path is called phylogenesis.

So, phylogeny (phylo-genus, genesis-development) is the historical development of a certain type of animal from lower to higher forms. The Soviet scientist I.I.Shmalgauzen formulated the following principles of phylogenesis:

a) In the process of development of the organism, there is a constant differentiation of cells and tissues with their simultaneous integration. Differentiation is the division between cells of functions, some are involved in the digestion of food, others, such as red blood cells in the transport of oxygen. Integration is the process of strengthening the interconnections between cells and tissues that provide the body with integrity.

b) Each organ has several functions, but one of them is the main one. The remaining functions are, as it were, secondary, spare, but thanks to them, the organ has the opportunity to transform. So, for example, the pancreas has several functions, but the main one is the secretion of pancreatic juice for the digestion of food.

c) When living conditions change, a change in the main function to a secondary one and vice versa can occur. So, for example, the liver in the embryo initially performs a hematopoietic function, and after birth it is a digestive gland.

d) Two opposite processes are always observed in the body: progressive development and regressive development. Regressive development is also called reduction. Organs that lose their functions, as a rule, undergo reduction, i.e. gradual disappearance. Sometimes they are preserved in the form of a rudiment (while maintaining a secondary function) - a rudiment of the clavicle in dogs and cats.

e) All changes in the body occur correlatively, i.e. Changes in some organs inevitably lead to changes in other organs.

2) The law of the unity of the organism and the environment. An organism without an external environment supporting its existence is impossible. This law, formulated by I.M. Sechenov, found its development in the works of I.P. Pavlov, A.N. Severtsev. According to A.N. Severtsev, biological progress in animals in the environment is characterized by an increase in the number of individuals, an expansion of the habitat and division into subordinate systematic groups. It is achieved in 4 ways:

a) by aromorphosis, i.e. morphophysiological progress, as a result of which the organization of the animal becomes more complicated and there is a general rise in the energy of vital activity (crustaceans, arachnids, insects, vertebrates);

b) by idioadaptation, i.e. private (useful) adaptations, but at the same time the organization of the animal itself is not complicated (protozoa, sponges, coelenterates, echinoderms);

c) by cenogenesis, i.e. embryonic adaptations that develop only in embryos and disappear in adults (sharks, lizards, tuatara);

3) The law of integrity and indivisibility of the organism. This law is expressed in the fact that each organism is a single entity in which all organs and tissues are in close relationship. This law, formulated in the 13th century, found its development in the works of I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlov.

4) The law of unity of form and function. The form and function of an organ form a single whole. This law, formulated by A.Dorn, found its development in the works of N.Kleinberg, P.F.Lesgaft.

5) The law of heredity and variability. In the course of the emergence and development of life on Earth, heredity played an important role, securing the achieved evolutionary transformations in the genotype. It is inextricably linked with change. Thanks to heredity and variability, the existence of various groups of animals became possible.

6) The law of homologous series says that the closer the genetic species, the more they have similar morphological and physiological features. This law, formulated by I. Goethe, J. Cuvier, E. Haeckel, found its development in the works of N.I. Vavilov.

7) The law of economy of material and space. According to this law, each organ and each system is built in such a way that, with the minimum expenditure of building material, it could perform maximum work (P.F. Legavt). Confirmation of this law can be seen in the structure of the central nervous system, heart, kidneys, liver.

8) Basic biogenetic law (Baer-Haeckel).

Anatomy studies the organism throughout life: from the moment of its occurrence to death, and this path is called ontogeny. So, ontogenesis (onto-individual, genesis-development) is the individual development of an animal. Ontogeny is divided into two stages: prenatal (which occurs in the mother's body from the moment of fertilization until birth) and postnatal (which occurs in the external environment after birth until death).

The prenatal stage includes three periods: embryonic, prefetal and fetal. A postnatal stage six: neonatal period; milk period; juvenile period; puberty; the period of morphofunctional maturity and the gerontological period. Each of these stages is characterized by certain morphofunctional features.

Investigating the development of animals, especially in prenatal ontogenesis, K. Baer and E. Haeckel found that "ontogenesis briefly repeats phylogeny." This provision is called the basic biogenetic law and says that animals in the process of individual development consistently go through the stages that their ancestors went through in the course of historical development. The Soviet scientist A.N. Severtsev supplemented this law with the words: "... but ontogenesis is also the basis for phylogenesis."

General principles of animal body structure.

All domestic animals are characterized by general principles of body construction, namely:

Bipolarity (uniaxiality) is the presence of two poles of the body: head (cranial) and tail (caudal).

Bilaterality (bilateral symmetry) is expressed in the similarity in the structure of the right and left halves of the body, so most organs are paired (eyes, ears, lungs, kidneys, chest and pelvic limbs ...).

Segmentation (metamerism) - nearby parts of the body (segments) are similar in structure. In mammals, segmentation is clearly expressed in the axial part of the skeleton (vertebral column).

The law of tubular construction. All body systems (nervous, digestive, respiratory, urinary, sexual ...) develop in the form of tubes.

Most unpaired organs (esophagus, trachea, heart, liver, stomach ...) are located along the main axis of the body.

Ecology as a science. Basic terms, definitions and laws of ecology.

Ecology as a science.

Ecology (Greek "oikos" - house, housing and Greek "logos" - teaching) is a science (field of knowledge) that studies the interaction of organisms and their groups with the environment of existence. As an independent science, it was formed at the end of the 19th century. The term "ecology" was introduced by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866.

Like any other science, ecology has scientific and applied aspects.

Scientific aspect- this is the desire for knowledge for the sake of knowledge itself, and in this regard, the search for patterns of development of nature and their explanation follows in the first place.

Applied aspect is the application of collected knowledge to solve environmental problems.

The ever-increasing importance of modern ecology lies in the fact that none of the major practical issues of the present can be solved without taking into account the links between the living and lifeless components of nature.

Problems of ecology.

Tasks of modern ecology as an independent scientific discipline:

1. Study of the patterns of life organization, including in connection with anthropogenic impacts on natural systems and the biosphere as a whole.

2. Creation of a scientific basis for the exploitation of biological resources, the forecast of changes in nature under the influence of human activities and the management of processes occurring in the biosphere, the preservation of the human habitat suitable for its normal existence.

3. Development of a system of measures to ensure the minimum use of chemical pesticides.

4. Regulation of the number of living organisms.

5. Ecological indication in determining the properties of certain elements of the landscape, including indication of the state and degree of pollution of natural environments.

The main task of applied ecology- knowledge of the laws and patterns of interaction between human society and the biosphere (with the development of the astronaut, the boundaries of this science expand beyond the boundaries of the biosphere, namely, to the boundary of the Universe).

The purpose of fulfilling the main task of applied ecology is prevention of ecological imbalance due to anthropogenic impact on the environment

To achieve this goal, developing measures to ensure ecological and technogenic safety of the biosphere (the Universe).

The areas of anthropogenic activity include industry, agriculture, military-industrial complex, housing and communal services, transport, recreational complex, science and culture, etc.

The concept of the biosphere

According to the views of the founder of the modern theory of the biosphere, the outstanding Russian geochemist V.I. and inanimate matter, i.e. biosphere.

Biosphere (Greek . "bios" - life, "sphere" - sphere) – this is the outer shell of the Earth, the area of \u200b\u200bthe distribution of life, which includes all living organisms and all elements of inanimate nature that form the habitat of the living.

Biosphere - the area of \u200b\u200bthe distribution of life on Earth, the composition, structure and energy of which is determined mainly by the past or modern activities of living organisms, includes the upper part of the lithosphere inhabited by organisms, the hydrosphere and the lower part of the atmosphere (troposphere).

The concept of an ecosystem

The basis of the (elementary) functional unit of the biosphere is ecosystem - it is a single natural complex created over a long time by living organisms and their environment, and where all components are closely connected by the metabolism and energy:

Example:

Microecosystem - stump with mushrooms;

Pezoecosystem - a forest area;

Macroecosystem - continent, ocean.

Ecosystems are characterized by:

A) species or population composition;

B) quantitative relationships of species populations;

C) spatial distribution of individual elements;

D) the totality of all connections.

Ecosystem- this is an open thermodynamic functionally integral system that exists due to the receipt of energy from the environment and partly of matter, which develop and self-regulate themselves.

The most important concept is homeostasis- this is a state of internal dynamic balance of a natural system (ecosystem), which is supported by constant and regular renewal of its main elements and material and energy composition, as well as constant functional self-regulation of components.

View- a set of organisms with related morphological characters that can interbreed with one another and have a common gene pool.

The species is subordinate to the genus, but has a subspecies and a population. population is a collection of individuals of the same species with the same gene pool, living in a common area for many generations.

5. The concept of the natural environment

natural environment- all bodies, phenomena, among which there are organisms and with which organisms have direct or indirect relationships. The totality of all conditions that act on organisms, cause a response, ensure their existence, metabolism and energy flow. The natural environment consists of living, or biotic, and non-living, or abiotic, components.

Abiotic environment - These are all bodies and phenomena of inanimate nature that create conditions for the living of plant and animal organisms, exerting a direct or indirect influence on them. The abiotic environment includes the parent rock of soils, their chemical composition and humidity, sunlight, water, air, natural radioactive background, etc.

Biotic environment - a set of living organisms that, by their vital activity, affect other organisms and the surrounding abiotic component. Some of them can be a source of food for others or a living environment.

Some researchers distinguish another type of environment - the anthropogenic environment.

Anthropogenic environment – it is the natural environment that is directly or indirectly modified as a result of anthropogenic (human) activity. The built environment includes open deposits of minerals, main canals, recreational areas and areas for the construction of large structures.

Ecofactors

Environmental factors - these are all the constituent elements of the natural environment that affect the existence and development of organisms and to which living organisms react with adaptation reactions (beyond the adaptation reaction, death occurs).

There are many different classifications of environmental factors.

According to one of them, all environmental factors can be grouped into three broad categories:

1. abiotic (factors of inanimate nature, such as: air composition, water composition, soil composition, temperature, illumination, humidity, radiation, pressure).

Biotic factors - it is a set of influences of the vital activity of some organisms on others and on the environment.

3. Anthropogenic - forms of human activity.

To date, there are more than 10 groups of ecofactors. Only about 60 pieces. They are combined into a special classification:

A) by time (evolutionary, historical, current);

B) by frequency (periodic and not);

IN) by origin (space, technogenic, biotic, anthropogenic);

G) at the place of origin (atmospheric, water);

D) the nature (informational, physical, chemical, climatic);

E) by object of influence (individual, group, specific, social);

AND) by degree of influence (lethal, limiting, disturbing, mutogenic);

H) by spectrum (private or general action, influence).

Basic laws of ecology and their features.

1. Law of biogenic migration of atoms : the movement of atoms in the biosphere occurs mainly under the influence of living organisms.

2. Law of internal dynamic balance : the consequences of etc. and changes in the elements of the natural environment necessarily develop side reactions that try to neutralize these changes.

3. Law of genetic diversity : All living things are genetically diverse and tend to increase in genetic diversity.

4. Law of historical irreversibility : the development of the biosphere and humanity as a whole cannot go from subsequent to initial phases, only separate elements of social relations (slavery) or types of economic activity can be repeated.

5. Law of constancy (closely related to the 2nd law): the amount of living matter in the biosphere remains unchanged over a certain geological period.

6. Correlation law : in the body as an integral system, all its parts correspond to one another both in structure and in function. A change in one part causes a change in others.

7. Energy maximization law : in competition with other systems, the one that most contributes to the flow of energy and information is preserved and uses the maximum amount of them more efficiently.

8. Law of maximum biogenic energy : any biological system that is in a state of "persistent disequilibrium" increases its influence on the environment as it develops. This is one of the main laws of developing a strategy for nature management.

9. Law of the Minimum : resistance of the organism is determined by the weakest link in the chain of environmental needs. If the quantity and quality of environmental factors are close to the minimum necessary for an organism, it will survive - less, it will die, and the ecosystem will collapse.

VIEW MORE:

Taking into account the accumulated knowledge about the natural environment, modern environmental scientists have established general patterns and principles of interaction between society and the natural environment, which they called laws of ecology .

Let us dwell on the laws of ecology by B. Commoner and N. F. Reimers.

B. Commoner in 1974 formulated four basic laws of ecology in the form of aphorisms and called them "a closing circle".

These laws include:

1) Everything is connected with everything (the law on the universal connection of things and phenomena in nature).

The biosphere of the Earth is an equilibrium ecosystem in which all individual links are interconnected and complement each other, the violation of any link entails changes in other links. Thus, this law warns a person against rash impact on individual parts of ecosystems.

2) Everything has to go somewhere (conservation law).

In nature, the circulation of substances is closed; in human economic activity, such isolation is absent, which leads to the formation of pollutants. And although various technologies for cleaning pollutants and neutralizing waste are used, everything that remains in the ash, slag accumulates on treatment devices, in sediments, and must also go somewhere. That is, any matter does not disappear, but passes from one form of existence to another, influencing the state of the environment.

3) Nature "knows" better (the law on the main criterion of evolutionary selection).

Nature "knows" better, because her practical experience is incomparably greater than the practical experience of man. This means that humanity must carefully study natural ecosystems and consciously relate to transformative activities.

4) Nothing is given for free (the law on the price of development).

The global ecosystem is a single entity within which nothing can be won or lost. Thus, everything that humanity takes from ecosystems to meet its needs must be returned or replaced.

So, in the "laws" of B. Commoner, attention is drawn to the universal connection of processes and phenomena in nature.

In addition to the laws of B. Commoner, it is advisable to study the socioecological laws of N.F. Reimers.

The laws of N.F. Reimers include:

1) The law of socio-ecological balance, which means the need to maintain a balance between pressure on the environment and the restoration of this environment.

2) The principle of cultural management of development, which implies the imposition of restrictions on extensive development, taking into account environmental restrictions.

3) The rule of socio-ecological substitutions, which states the need to identify ways to replace human needs.

4) The law of socio-ecological irreversibility. This law notes that an ecosystem that has lost some of its elements cannot return to its original state.

5) The law of the noosphere by V.I. Vernadsky assumes the inevitability of the transformation of the biosphere under the influence of thought and human labor into the noosphere.

Compliance with these laws is possible if humanity realizes its role in the mechanism of maintaining the stability of the biosphere.

Questions for self-examination of knowledge

1) Name the purpose and objectives of the course.

2) Define the concept of nature management.

3) What are the main stages in the history of the emergence and development of ecology?

4) What is ecology?

5) Name the types of environmental factors.

6) Define the concept of population.

7) What is the difference and similarity between biogeocenosis and ecosystems?

8) Explain the concept and composition of the biosphere, according to the teachings of V.I. Vernadsky.

9) What cycles of substances take place in the biosphere?

10) What is the essence of the concept of the noosphere?

11) What are the basic laws of ecology.

Publication date: 2014-11-29; Read: 3595 | Page copyright infringement

studopedia.org - Studopedia.Org - 2014-2018. (0.001 s) ...

Basic environmental laws

Consider the most important, environmental laws, they are listed in alphabetical order.

1) The law of biogenic migration of atoms (or Vernadsky's law): migration of chemical elements on the earth's surface and in the biosphere as a whole is carried out under the superior influence of living matter, organisms.

This law has important practical and theoretical significance. Understanding all the chemical processes that occur in the geospheres is impossible without taking into account the action of biogenic factors, in particular, evolutionary ones. In our time, people influence the state of the biosphere, changing its physical and chemical composition, the conditions of the biogenic migration of atoms balanced over the centuries.

2) The law of internal dynamic balance: substance, energy, information and dynamic qualities of individual natural systems and their hierarchies are very closely interconnected, so that any change in one of the indicators inevitably leads to functional and structural changes in others, but at the same time the general qualities of the system are preserved - energy, informational and dynamic.

The law of internal dynamic balance is one of the most important in nature management. It helps to understand that in the case of minor interventions in the natural environment, its ecosystems are able to self-regulate and recover, but if these interventions exceed certain limits (which a person should be well aware of) and can no longer “extinguish” in the ecosystem hierarchy chain (encompassing entire river systems, landscapes), they lead to significant disturbances in the energy and biobalance in large areas and in the entire biosphere.

3) The law of constancy (formulated by V. Vernadsky) : the amount of living matter in the biosphere (for a certain geological time) is a constant value. This law is closely related to the law of internal dynamic equilibrium. According to the law of constancy, any change in the amount of living matter in one of the regions of the biosphere inevitably leads to the same change in the amount of matter in another region, only with the opposite sign.

The consequence of this law is the rule of obligatory filling of ecological niches.

4) The law of the minimum (formulated by J. Liebig): The resistance of an organism is determined by the weakest link in the chain of its ecological needs. If the quantity and quality of environmental factors are close to the required minimum, the organism survives; if less than this minimum, the organism dies, the ecosystem is destroyed.

Therefore, during the forecasting of environmental conditions or the performance of examinations, it is very important to determine the weak link in the life of organisms.

5) The law of limited natural resources: all natural resources in the conditions of the Earth are exhaustible. The planet is a naturally limited body, and infinite constituents cannot exist on it.

6) The law of the pyramid of energies (formulated by R. Lindemann): from one trophic level of the ecological pyramid to another, on average, no more than 10% of energy passes.

According to this law, it is possible to carry out calculations of land areas, forest lands in order to provide the population with food and other resources.

7) The law of equivalence of living conditions: all natural environmental conditions necessary for life play an equivalent role. Another law follows from it - the cumulative action of environmental factors. This law is often ignored, although it is of great importance.

8) Environmental Development Law: any natural system develops only through the use of the material, energy and informational capabilities of the environment. Absolutely isolated self-development is impossible - this is a conclusion from the laws of thermodynamics.

The consequences of the law are very important.

1. Absolutely waste-free production is impossible.

2. Any more highly organized biotic system in its development is a potential threat to less organized systems. Therefore, in the biosphere of the Earth, the re-emergence of life is impossible - it will be destroyed by already existing organisms.

3. The Earth's biosphere, as a system, develops at the expense of internal and space resources.

9) Law of Tolerance (Shelford's Law): The limiting factor for the prosperity of an organism can be both a minimum and a maximum of environmental influence, the range between which determines the degree of endurance (tolerance) of the organism to this factor. According to the law, any excess of matter or energy in an ecosystem becomes its enemy, a pollutant.

10) The scientific community is also widely known four laws of ecology of the American scientist B.

Basic laws of ecology

Commoner:

1) everything connected with everything;

2) everything has to go somewhere;

3) nature "knows" better;

4) nothing is wasted (you have to pay for everything).

Thus, the range of tasks of modern ecology is very wide and covers almost all issues that affect the relationship between human society and the natural environment, as well as the problems of harmonizing these relationships. Knowledge of the laws of harmonization, beauty and rationality of nature will help humanity find the right way out of the ecological crisis. Changing natural conditions in the future (society cannot live otherwise), people will be forced to do this deliberately, balancedly, foreseeing a long-term perspective and relying on knowledge of basic environmental laws.

Lecture Search

The law of unity "organism-environment"

The habitat of life develops as a result of a constant exchange of substances with information based on the flow of energy in the total unity of the environment and the organisms inhabiting it.

40. Law of the Minimum(Liebig): The substance present in the minimum is controlled by the yield, its magnitude is determined, and its stability over time.

41. Commoner's laws:

"Everything is connected with everything";
“Everything has to go somewhere”;
"Nothing is given for free";
"Nature knows best."

42. Law of maximum (Shelford): The prosperity of an organism is limited to zones of maximum and minimum of certain environmental factors; between them is the zone of ecological optimum, within which the body normally responds to environmental conditions.

43. Degradation of the biosphere - this is the destruction or significant violation of ecological ties in nature, accompanied by a deterioration in human living conditions, caused by natural disasters or the economic activity of the person himself, carried out without taking into account the knowledge of the laws of nature development.

44. Stages of degradation of the biosphere:

use of fire (Early Paleolithic);
development of agriculture;
industrial Revolution.
ecological crisis.

45. Sources of biosphere degradation can be natural (natural) and artificial (anthropogenic). Natural environmental pollution caused by natural processes (dust storms, volcanism, forest fires, etc.). Artificial pollution connection with emissions of various pollutants into the environment in the course of human activities (agriculture, transport, industry, etc.)

46. Consequences of degradation of the biosphere:

A noticeable decrease in the biodiversity of the ecosystem, the destruction and destruction of still remaining areas of wild vegetation, the barbaric destruction of forests and swamps, the reduction in the number of wild animals, the disappearance of many representatives of flora and fauna. As a result of all these actions, by the middle of the 20th century, the anthropogenic impact on the biosphere in its significance entered the same level as the natural one, taking on planetary scales. Thus, humanity has become one of the main geoecological fateful factors in the evolution of the planet.

47. Pollution- any introduction into this or that ecological system (biocenosis) of living or non-living components that are not characteristic of it, any changes that interrupt or disrupt the processes of circulation and metabolism, energy flows, the result of which is a decrease in productivity or destruction of this system.

48.Main pollutants:

carbon dioxide (CO2);
carbon monoxide (CO);
sulfur dioxide (SO2);
nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2, N2O);
heavy metals and primarily mercury, lead and cadmium;

carcinogenic substances, in particular, benzapyrene;
pesticides;
phosphates;
radionuclides and other radioactive substances;
dioxides (chlorohydrocarbons);
solid impurities (aerosols): dust, soot, smoke;
oil and oil products.

49. By state of aggregation There are 3 types of pollutants: solid, liquid and gaseous.

50. By origin nature, state of aggregation, scale of distribution, caused consequences, degree of toxicity

51. By nature pollutants are classified into the following groups: chemical, physical, biological, aesthetic.

52. Main air pollutants:

- carbon monoxide

- sulfur dioxide

- nitrogen oxides, etc.

53. Sources of air pollution:

- large industrial enterprises, etc.

54. Local Consequences- the consequences that are manifested in a single small area, resulting from environmental pollution. Example: case in Minomata village in Japan.

55. Global Consequences- are manifested in global climate change, an increase in the number of natural disasters and irreversible processes that occur in the Earth's biosphere.

Basic environmental laws

The main pollutants of the hydrosphere: benzene, kerosene, nitroethane, isopropylanine, etc.

57. Sources of pollution of the hydrosphere: Hydro power plants, utilities, industrial plants, ports, ship moorings, etc.

58. Consequences of pollution of the hydrosphere there is a reduction in the number of organisms living in the aquatic environment, the gradual becoming of water resources unsuitable for human needs, there are very frequent cases when water is a carrier of various infections and diseases.

59. The main pollutants of the lithosphere there are chemicals that get there from the discharges of large industrial enterprises, agricultural fertilizers, and other substances.

60. Sources of pollution of the lithosphere: large industrial centers, agriculture, nuclear power plants.

61. Environmental quality- compliance of the natural environment with human needs.

62. Quality rationing of the natural environment provides for established systems of standards for the maximum permissible impact on the environment.

63. Environmental safety is a set of actions of states and processes, directly or indirectly applied to the natural environment and man.

64. Basic environmental standards: MPC, MPE (PDS), PDN.

MPC is the amount of a pollutant in soil, air, water, related to the mass or volume of a given substrate, which, with permanent or temporary exposure to a person or the environment, does not cause adverse effects either on the environment, or on a person, or on his offspring. MPC can be average daily (such a concentration of a harmful substance that should not have a direct or indirect harmful effect on a person with an indefinitely long long-term exposure) and maximum one-time (such a concentration of a harmful substance that should not cause reflex reactions of the human body when inhaled for 30 minutes) .

MPC in water is the concentration of pollutants in water at which it becomes unsuitable for one or more types of water use.

MPC for soil is such a concentration of pollutants that does not cause direct or indirect influence and does not violate the self-cleaning capacity of the soil.

MPL is such an impact of energy pollution that does not affect either a person or the environment.

MPE (MPD) is the maximum amount of pollutants that can be emitted (discharged) into the atmosphere (hydrosphere) per unit time without causing an excess of permissible concentrations in the environment and adverse environmental consequences.

PDN is a load that takes into account the influence of harmful factors not on an individual organism or species, but on a biocenosis or ecosystem as a whole.

65. If there are several substances in the medium, the summation effect is performed:

66. Assimilation capacity of an ecosystem- the maximum dynamic capacity of such a quantity of a pollutant (in terms of the entire system or a unit of its volume), which can be accumulated, destroyed, transformed by biological or chemical transformations per unit of time and removed due to the processes of sedimentation, diffusion or any transfer outside the ecosystem without violating its rules of operation.

67. Bioindication– use of highly sensitive organisms to detect pollutants or other reagents in water.

Biotesting- the use of test objects to obtain integral estimates of the pollution of the aquatic environment.

68. Monitoring- a system of observations, assessments and forecasting of the state of the natural environment, which makes it possible to identify changes in the state of the biosphere under the influence of human activities..

69. The main tasks of monitoring are:

1) monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact;

2) monitoring the factors of anthropogenic impact;

3) monitoring the state of the natural environment and the processes occurring in it under the influence of anthropogenic factors;

4) assessment of the physical state of the natural environment;

5) forecast of changes in the state of the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic factors and assessment of the predicted state of the natural environment.

70. Practical directions of monitoring:

- monitoring the state of the environment and the factors affecting it;

— assessment of the actual state of the environment and the level of its pollution;

- forecast of the state of the environment as a result of possible pollution and assessment of this state.

71. Sanitary and hygienic monitoring- monitors the state of the environment in terms of its impact on the health of an individual and the population as a whole.

Geoecological monitoring- Observations are carried out on geosystems, on the transformation of natural systems into natural-technical ones.

72. Biological monitoring- studies the state of the biotic part of the biosphere.

73. Biosphere monitoring– provides surveillance and control on a global scale.

74. Monitoring objects: atmospheric, air, soil, climate, monitoring of vegetation, wildlife, health

75. Monitoring by scale:

1) spatial;

2) temporary.

76. Monitoring by the nature of the generalization of information:

1) global- monitoring of the general world processes and phenomena of the earth's biosphere, including all its ecological components and warning of emerging extreme situations;

2) basic (background)- monitoring of general biospheric, mainly natural phenomena without imposing regional anthropogenic influences on them;

3) national– monitoring of the scale of the country;

4) regional- monitoring of processes and phenomena within the region, where these processes and phenomena may differ in natural character and anthropogenic impact from the basic background characteristic of the entire biosphere;

5) local– monitoring the impact of a specific anthropological source;

6) impact– monitoring of regional and local anthropogenic impacts in especially dangerous zones and places.

77 - 80. Depending on the methods of observation, monitoring can be:

- chemical— a system for observing the chemical composition of the biosphere;

- physical— a system of observations of the influence of physical processes and phenomena on the environment;

-biological– monitoring carried out with the help of bioindicators

– ecobiochemical(analysis of the chemical state from a biological point of view);

- remote;

– comprehensive environmental– organization of monitoring systems for the state of objects approx. to assess their actual level of pollution and to warn of emerging critical situations that are harmful to the health of people and other living organisms.

The integrated environmental monitoring system provides for:

1) assess indicators of the condition and functional integrity of ecosystems and the human environment (i.e. assess compliance with environmental standards);

2) identify the causes of changes in these indicators and assess the consequences of such changes, as well as determine corrective measures in cases where the target indicators of environmental conditions are not achieved (i.e., diagnose the state of ecosystems and habitats);

3) create the prerequisites for determining measures to correct emerging negative situations before damage is done, i.e. to ensure early warning of negative situations.

©2015-2018 poisk-ru.ru
All rights belong to their authors. This site does not claim authorship, but provides free use.
Copyright Violation and Personal Data Violation

From this point of view, two general phenomena in the course of life on the earth's surface immediately grab our attention.

First, the existence of a sharp boundary between living and inert matter. Secondly, the very special nature of the energy associated with the manifestation of life. This energy seems

us different from the energy of almost all other natural processes. Remaining in the field of empirical facts, we state that nowhere and at no time on our planet was a new life created that was not materially connected with the old one. In the geochemical phenomena that we study, it has always existed as a life not materially connected with the old one. In the geochemical phenomena that we study, it has always existed as such. If there were distant cosmic periods of the history of the Earth that did not leave a trace in the geological history, the "stones" of the planet, they are not subject to the scientific study of geology and geochemistry. We must always distinguish positive scientific facts from inevitably hypothetical, cosmogonic assumptions, even if these latter are stated in scientific form. I do not doubt their usefulness for the advancement of science , but in terms of accuracy and significance they are completely incommensurable with the facts of observation and experiment. It is impossible to rely on cosmogonic conclusions when there are no corresponding exact atypical facts confirming the cosmogonic conclusions without any doubt or causing them. I will not touch here on the question of eternity or the beginning of life in general, I had to touch on the history and position of this issue elsewhere and I have no reason to change my point of view. I will not touch on what I have done elsewhere, and the conditions necessary for the emergence of life on our planet. But one main reservation must be made: from the geochemical and geological points of view, the question is not about the synthesis of an individual organism, but about the emergence of the biosphere. The conditions of this possibility must be clear to us. The problem of abiogenesis, the creation of homunculus, cannot be of interest to a geochemist; only the problem of creating a complex of life in the biosphere, i.e., the creation of the biosphere, can be of interest and matter. Is there abiogenesis in the environment or not? Was it in geological time? To answer this question, it is necessary to accurately identify the form of transmission of life from generation to generation, which ensures its existence in the course of geological time (a phenomenon observed only in the biosphere).

More than 265 years have passed since the Florentine scientist, physician, poet and naturalist F. Redi (1626-1697) was the first to say in the 17th century. completely new idea in the history of mankind. A few decades after him, it was generalized XVIII in another major Italian naturalist - A. Vallisnieri.

Topic 3. Main provisions of the ecological theory of social development

Oken in the 19th century, following the thoughts of Vallisnieri, expressed this idea in the form of an aphorism: "Omnevivum e vivo" ("All living things from living things"). It was the denial of spontaneous generation and abiogenesis and the proclamation of the continuous unity of living matter in the environment around us - in the biosphere - from its very beginning, if there was one. After the work of L. Pasteur, it was extremely difficult to shake this view of nature, this empirical principle, which is difficult to reject at the present time and which is based on a huge number of exact scientific facts; and although they still try to prove the existence of abiogenesis, but in vain.

These centuries-old aspirations are caused not by empirical facts, but by the habits of philosophical thought, by very deep traditions on which ideas about the world are based, associated with philosophical, religious and poetic views, alien to science.

Studying the geochemical history of carbon, we did not see traces of abiogenesis in it; nowhere there are organic compounds independent of living matter, which would indicate the existence of such a process during geological time .

Geochemistry proves the close connection of living matter with the history of all chemical elements, it shows us it as part of the organization of the earth's crust, completely different from inert matter. There is no place in her data for abiogenesis, for arbitrary spontaneous generation, and there are no signs of its existence.

We must preserve Redi's empirical principle and recognize as a scientific fact, still unshaken, that throughout the course of geological time there has always been an impenetrable boundary between living (in other words, between the totality of all organisms) and inert substances, that all life comes from living and that during all this time the same phenomena of the exchange of chemical elements between these two manifestations of nature took place, as is now observed.

Within the framework of these empirical facts, the idea of the eternity of life seems to be perfectly legitimate, which fills the religious and philosophical life of Asia to such a high degree and is now beginning to penetrate into the scientific ideas and into the philosophical searches of the West.

Living matter has always, throughout geological time, been and remains an inseparable natural component of the biosphere, a source of energy captured by it from solar radiation, a substance that is in an active state, having a major influence on the course and direction of geochemical processes of chemical elements throughout the earth's crust. .

Usually, the inert matter of the Earth has not represented anything like this for the entire course of billions of years and does not represent it.

Previous chapter::: To content::: Next chapter

A person must obey the laws of nature, because. these are objective laws and an order of magnitude higher than the laws of society. In total, more than 250 laws have been discovered, let's name the main laws of the development of nature (according to Reimers N.F.):

1. The law of biogenic migration of atoms (Vernadsky V.I.). One of the main needs is the preservation of the living cover of the Earth in a relatively unchanged state. This law determines the need to take into account the impacts on biota in any projects for the transformation of nature;
2. The law of internal dynamic balance (any change in the environment, matter, energy, information, etc. inevitably leads to the development of natural chain reactions or to the formation of new ecosystems, the formation of which, with changes in the environment, may become irreversible);
3. The law "All or nothing" (H. Bowling). Useful in environmental forecasting;
4. The law of constancy (Vernadsky V.I.). The amount of living matter in nature is a constant. A consequence of the law is the rule of mandatory filling of ecological niches, and indirectly the principle of exclusion (TF Gause);
5. The law of the minimum (J. Liebig). The endurance of an organism is determined by the weakest link in the chain of ecological needs;
6. The law of limited natural resources (all natural resources of the Earth are finite;
7. The law of development of the natural system at the expense of the environment. Absolutely isolated self-development is impossible. The biosphere of the Earth develops not only at the expense of the resources of the planet, but also under the control influence of space systems (Solar);
8. The law of reducing the nature intensity of finished products (human efficiency from 2 to 5%, the rest goes to waste);
9. The law of falling natural resource potential. With one method of production and one type of technology, natural resources become less accessible and require an increase in the cost of labor and energy to extract them;
10. The law of reducing the energy efficiency of nature management. Costs per unit of natural products have increased by 58-62 times in comparison with the Stone Age. Energy consumption per person (kcal / day) in the Stone Age was 4 thousand, in an agrarian society 12 thousand, in advanced industrial countries now 230-250 thousand. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the amount of energy per unit of agricultural production has increased by 8 -10 times. The overall energy efficiency of agricultural production is 30 times higher than in the conditions of primitive agriculture. A tenfold increase in energy costs for fertilizers, equipment provides an increase in yield by only 10-15%;
11. The law of diminishing (natural) soil fertility (arable land in the world has already lost 50% at an average loss rate of 7 million ha/year). The intensification of agricultural production allows you to get more crops with less labor and partially neutralizes the effect of the Law of Decreasing Fertility, but at the same time, the energy efficiency of production decreases;
12. The law of physical and chemical unity of living matter (V.I. Vernadsky). All living substances of the Earth are physically and chemically the same. Any physical and chemical agents that are lethal to some organisms (pest control) cannot but have a harmful effect on others (a person poisons himself with poisons and pesticides!);
13. Law of ecological correlation. (Especially important for the conservation of animal species);
14. "Laws" of ecology B. Commoner: 1) everything is connected with everything; 2) everything has to go somewhere; 3) nature "knows" better. 4) nothing is given for free.

Each living organism, despite the variety of its forms and adaptations to environmental conditions, in its development is subject to strictly defined laws.

1) Law of historical development. All living organisms, regardless of their level of organization, have gone through a long path of historical development (phylogeny). This law, formulated by C. Darwin, found its development in the works of A.N. Severtsev and I.I. Shmalgauzen.

mammals

Protozoa Chordates Fish Amphibians Reptiles

Birds

So, phylogenesis(phylo-genus, genesis-development) - this is the historical development of a certain type of animal from lower forms to higher. The Soviet scientist I.I. Shmalgauzen formulated the following principles of phylogenesis:

A) In the process of development of the organism, there is a constant differentiation of cells and tissues with their simultaneous integration.. Differentiation- this is the division between cells of functions, some are involved in the digestion of food, others, such as red blood cells in the transfer of oxygen. Integration- it is the process of strengthening the interconnections between cells, tissues, which provide the body with integrity.

V) When living conditions change, the main function can change to a secondary one and vice versa. So, for example, the liver in the embryo initially performs a hematopoietic function, and after birth it is a digestive gland.

G) Two opposite processes are always observed in the body: progressive development and regressive development.. Regressive development is also called reduction. Organs that lose their functions, as a rule, undergo reduction, i.e. gradual disappearance. Sometimes they are saved as rudiment(while maintaining a secondary function) - a rudiment of the clavicle in dogs and cats.

e) All changes in the body occur correlatively, i.e. Changes in some organs inevitably lead to changes in other organs..

2) The law of the unity of the organism and the environment. An organism without an external environment supporting its existence is impossible. This law, formulated by I.M. Sechenov, found its development in the works of I.P. Pavlov, A.N. Severtsev. According to A.N. Severtsev biological progress in animals in the environment is characterized by an increase in the number of individuals, expansion of the habitat and division into subordinate systematic groups. It is achieved in 4 ways:

a) by aromorphosis, those. morphophysiological progress, as a result of which the organization of the animal becomes more complicated and there is a general rise in the energy of vital activity (crustaceans, arachnids, insects, vertebrates);

b) by idioadaptation, i.e. private (useful) adaptations, but at the same time the organization of the animal itself is not complicated (protozoa, sponges, coelenterates, echinoderms);

c) by cenogenesis, those. embryonic adaptations that develop only in embryos and disappear in adults (sharks, lizards, tuatara);

3) The law of integrity and indivisibility of the body. This law is expressed in the fact that each organism is a single entity in which all organs and tissues are in close relationship. This law, formulated in the 13th century, found its development in the works of I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlov.

4) The law of unity of form and function. The form and function of an organ form a single whole. This law, formulated by A.Dorn, found its development in the works of N.Kleinberg, P.F.Lesgaft.

5) The law of heredity and variability. In the course of the emergence and development of life on Earth, heredity played an important role, securing the achieved evolutionary transformations in the genotype. It is inextricably linked with change. Thanks to heredity and variability, the existence of various groups of animals became possible.

6) Law of homologous series says that the closer the genetic species, the more they have similar morphological and physiological features. This law, formulated by I. Goethe, J. Cuvier, E. Haeckel, found its development in the works of N.I. Vavilov.

7) The law of economy of material and space. According to this law, each organ and each system is built in such a way that, with a minimum expenditure of building material, it could perform maximum work (P.F. Legavt). Confirmation of this law can be seen in the structure of the central nervous system, heart, kidneys, liver.

8) Basic biogenetic law (Baer-Haeckel).

Anatomy studies the organism throughout life: from the moment of its occurrence to death, and this path is called ontogeny. So, ontogenesis(onto-individual, genesis-development) is the individual development of the animal. Ontogeny is divided into two stages: prenatal (which occurs in the mother's body from the moment of fertilization until birth) and postnatal (which occurs in the external environment after birth until death).

Investigating the development of animals, especially in prenatal ontogenesis, K. Baer and E. Haeckel found that “ ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny". This provision is called the basic biogenetic law and says that , animals in the process of individual development successively go through the stages that their ancestors went through in the course of historical development. The Soviet scientist A.N. Severtsev supplemented this law with the words: "... but ontogenesis is also the basis for phylogenesis."

General principles of animal body structure.

All domestic animals are characterized by general principles of body construction, namely:

1. Bipolarity(uniaxiality) is the presence of two poles of the body: head (cranial) and tail (caudal).

2. Bilaterality(bilateral symmetry) is expressed in the similarity in the structure of the right and left halves of the body, so most of the organs are paired (eyes, ears, lungs, kidneys, chest and pelvic limbs ...).

3. segmentation(metamerism) - nearby parts of the body (segments) are similar in structure. In mammals, segmentation is clearly expressed in the axial part of the skeleton (vertebral column).

4. The law of tubular construction. All body systems (nervous, digestive, respiratory, urinary, sexual ...) develop in the form of tubes.

5. Most unpaired organs (esophagus, trachea, heart, liver, stomach ...) are located along the main axis of the body.

Lecture number 2.

The musculoskeletal system. Skeleton: definition, functions and its

phylo-ontogeny. The structure of the bone as an organ. Classification of bones.

Musculoskeletal systemprovides movement and preservation of the position of the animal's body in space, forms the external shape of the body and participates in metabolic processes. It accounts for about 60% of the body weight of an adult animal.

Conditionally musculoskeletal system divided into passive and active parts . TO passive part include bones and their joints, on which the nature of the mobility of bone levers and links of the animal's body depends (15%). active part make up skeletal muscles and their auxiliary attachments, due to the contractions of which, the bones of the skeleton are set in motion (45%). Both the active and passive parts have a common origin (mesoderm) and are closely related.

Functions of the apparatus of movement:

1) Physical activity is a manifestation of the vital activity of the organism, it is it that distinguishes animal organisms from plant organisms and causes the emergence of a wide variety of modes of movement (walking, running, climbing, swimming, flying).

2) Musculoskeletal system forms the shape of the body exterior animal, since its formation took place under the influence of the gravitational field of the Earth, then its size and shape in vertebrates differ in significant diversity, which is explained by different conditions of their habitat (terrestrial, terrestrial-tree, air, water).

3) In addition, the apparatus of movement provides a number of vital functions of the body: the search for and capture of food; attack and active defense; carries out the respiratory function of the lungs(respiratory motility); helps the heart during the promotion of blood and lymph in the vessels ("peripheral heart").

4) In warm-blooded animals (birds and mammals), the apparatus of movement ensures the preservation of a constant body temperature;

The functions of the apparatus of movement are provided by the nervous and cardiovascular systems., respiratory organs, digestion and urination, skin, endocrine glands. Since the development of the apparatus of movement is inextricably linked with the development of the nervous system, when these connections are violated, first paresis and then paralysis movement apparatus (the animal cannot move). With a decrease in physical activity, there is a violation of metabolic processes and atrophy of muscle and bone tissues.

The organs of the musculoskeletal system have properties of elastic deformations, when moving, mechanical energy arises in them in the form of elastic deformations, without which normal blood circulation and impulses of the brain and spinal cord cannot be carried out. The energy of elastic deformations in the bones is converted into piezoelectric, and in the muscles - into heat. The energy released during movement displaces blood from the vessels and causes irritation of the receptor apparatus, from which nerve impulses enter the central nervous system. Thus, the work of the movement apparatus is closely connected and cannot be carried out without the nervous system, and the vascular system, in turn, cannot function normally without the movement apparatus.

SKELETON

The basis of the passive part of the apparatus of movement is the skeleton. Skeleton(Greek sceletos-dried, dried; lat. Skeleton) are bones connected in a certain order that form a solid frame (skeleton) of the animal's body. Since in Greek the bone is "os", the science of the skeleton is called osteology.

The skeleton contains about 200-300 bones (Horse, k.r.s. -207-214; pig, dog, cat -271-288), which are interconnected by means of connective, cartilaginous or bone tissue. The mass of the skeleton in an adult animal is from 6% (pig) to 15% (horse, k.r.s.).

All skeletal functions can be divided into two large groups: mechanical and biological. TO mechanical functions include: protective, support, locomotor, spring, anti-gravity, and biological - metabolism and hematopoiesis (hemocytopoiesis).

1) Protective function consists in the fact that the skeleton forms the walls of the body cavities in which the vital organs are located. So, for example, in the cranial cavity is the brain, in the chest - the heart and lungs, in the pelvic cavity - the genitourinary organs.

2) Support function lies in the fact that the skeleton is a support for the muscles and internal organs, which, being attached to the bones, are held in their position.

3) Locomotor function of the skeleton is manifested in the fact that the bones are levers that are set in motion by the muscles and ensure the movement of the animal.

4) Spring function due to the presence in the skeleton of formations that soften shocks and tremors (cartilaginous pads, etc.).

5) Antigravity function manifests itself in the fact that the skeleton creates a support for the stability of the body, rising above the ground.

6) Participation in metabolism, especially in mineral, since bones are a depot of mineral salts of phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, sodium, barium, iron, copper and other elements.

7) buffer function. The skeleton acts as a buffer that stabilizes and maintains a constant ionic composition of the body's internal environment (homeostasis).

8) Participation in hemocytopoiesis. Located in the bone marrow cavities, red bone marrow produces blood cells. The mass of bone marrow in relation to the mass of bones in adult animals is approximately 40-45%.

DIVISION OF THE SKELETON

The skeleton is a frame animal body. It is usually divided into main and peripheral.

to the axial skeleton include the skeleton of the head (cranial cranium), the skeleton of the neck, trunk and tail. The skull has the most complex structure, since it contains the brain, organs of vision, smell, balance and hearing, oral and nasal cavities. The main part of the skeleton of the neck, trunk and tail is the spinal column (columna vertebralis).

vertebral column divided into 5 sections: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and caudal. The cervical region consists of the cervical vertebrae (v.cervicalis); the thoracic region - from the thoracic vertebrae (v.thoracica), ribs (costa) and sternum (sternum); lumbar - from the lumbar vertebrae (v.lumbalis); sacral - from the sacrum (os sacrum); tail - from the tail vertebrae (v.caudalis). The thoracic region of the body has the most complete structure, where there are thoracic vertebrae, ribs, breast bone, which together form the chest (thorax), in which the heart, lungs, and mediastinal organs are located. The smallest development, in terrestrial animals, is the tail section, which is associated with the loss of the locomotor function of the tail during the transition of animals to a terrestrial lifestyle.

The axial skeleton is subject to the following patterns of body structure, which ensure the mobility of the animal. They include :

1) Bipolarity (uniaxiality) It is expressed in the fact that all sections of the axial skeleton are located on the same axis of the body, moreover, the skull is on the cranial pole, and the tail is on the opposite. The sign of uniaxiality makes it possible to establish two directions in the animal's body: cranial - towards the head and caudal - towards the tail.

2) Bilaterality (bilateral symmetry) characterized by the fact that the skeleton, as well as the trunk, can be divided by the sagittal, medial plane into two symmetrical halves (right and left), in accordance with this, the vertebrae will be divided into two symmetrical halves. Bilaterality (antimeria) makes it possible to distinguish lateral (lateral, external) and medial (internal) directions on the body of an animal.

3) Segmentation (metamerism) lies in the fact that the body can be divided by segmental planes into a certain number of relatively identical metameres - segments. Metameres follow the axis from front to back. On the skeleton, such metameres are vertebrae with ribs.

4) Tetrapodia- this is the presence of 4 limbs (2 chest and 2 pelvic)

5) And the last regularity is, due to gravity, location in the spinal canal of the neural tube and under it is the intestinal tube with all its derivatives. In this regard, a dorsal direction is planned on the body - towards the back and a ventral direction - towards the abdomen.

peripheral skeleton represented by two pairs of limbs: thoracic and pelvic. There is only one regularity in the skeleton of the limbs - bilaterality (antimeria). The limbs are paired, there are left and right limbs. The rest of the elements are asymmetrical. On the limbs, belts (thoracic and pelvic) and the skeleton of free limbs are distinguished.

With help belts the free limb is attached to the spinal column. Initially, the limb girdle had three pairs of bones: the scapula, the clavicle and the coracoid bone (everything was preserved in birds), only one scapula remained in animals, only a process on the tubercle of the scapula from the medial side was preserved from the coracoid bone, rudiments of the clavicle are present in predators (dog and cat). In the pelvic girdle, all three bones (iliac, pubic and ischial) are well developed, which grow together.

Skeleton of free limbs has three links. The first link (stilopodium) has one beam (Greek stilos - column, podos - leg): on the thoracic limb - this is the humerus, on the pelvic - the femur. The second links (zeugopodium) are represented by two rays (zeugos - a pair): on the thoracic limb - these are the radius and ulna (bones of the forearm), on the pelvic - the tibia and fibula (bones of the lower leg). The third links (autipodium) form: on the thoracic limb - the hand, on the pelvic - the foot. They distinguish between the basipodium (the upper section is the bones of the wrist and, accordingly, the tarsus), the metapodium (the middle section is the bones of the metacarpus and metatarsus) and the acropodium (the most extreme section is the phalanges of the fingers).

PHYLOGENESIS OF THE SKELETON

In the phylogeny of vertebrates, the skeleton develops in two directions: external and internal.

Exterior skeleton performs a protective function, is characteristic of lower vertebrates and is located on the body in the form of scales or shells (tortoise, armadillo). In higher vertebrates, the external skeleton disappears, but its individual elements remain, changing their purpose and location, becoming integumentary bones of the skull and, located already under the skin, are connected with the internal skeleton. In phylo-ontogenesis, such bones go through only two stages of development (connective tissue and bone) and are called primary. They are not able to regenerate - if the bones of the skull are injured, they are forced to be replaced with artificial plates.

Internal skeleton performs mainly a supporting function. In the course of development under the influence of biomechanical load, it constantly changes. If we consider invertebrates, then their internal skeleton looks like partitions to which muscles are attached.

The primitive chordates animals (lancelet ), along with partitions, an axis appears - notochord (cellular strand), dressed in connective tissue membranes.

At cartilaginous fish(sharks, rays), cartilaginous arches are segmentally formed around the notochord, which later form the vertebrae. cartilaginous vertebrae, connecting with each other, form the spinal column, the ribs join it ventrally. Thus the chord remains in the form of pulpous nuclei between the vertebral bodies. On The skull is formed at the cranial end of the body and, together with the spinal column, participates in the formation of the axial skeleton. In the future, the cartilaginous skeleton is replaced by a bone, less flexible, but more durable.

At bony fish the axial skeleton is built from a stronger - coarse fibrous bone tissue which is characterized by the presence of mineral salts and the random arrangement of collagen (ossein) fibers in the amorphous component.

With the transition of animals to a terrestrial way of life, amphibian a new part of the skeleton is formed - the skeleton of the limbs. As a result of this, in terrestrial animals, in addition to the axial skeleton, the peripheral skeleton (the skeleton of the limbs) is also formed. In amphibians, as in bony fish, the skeleton is built of coarse fibrous bone tissue, but in more highly organized terrestrial animals (reptiles, birds and mammals) the skeleton is already built from lamellar bone tissue, consisting of bone plates containing collagen (ossein) fibers arranged in an orderly manner.

Thus, The internal skeleton of vertebrates goes through three stages of development in phylogenesis: connective tissue (membranous), cartilaginous and bone. The bones of the internal skeleton that go through all these three stages are called secondary (primordial).

ONTOGENESIS OF THE SKELETON

In accordance with the basic biogenetic law of Baer and E. Haeckel, the skeleton also goes through three stages of development in ontogenesis: membranous (connective tissue), cartilaginous and bone.

At the earliest stage of development of the embryo, the supporting part of its body is dense connective tissue, which forms a membranous skeleton. Then the embryo appears chord, and around it begin to form first cartilaginous, and later the bony vertebral column and skull, and then the limbs.

In the prefetal period, the entire skeleton, with the exception of the primary integumentary bones of the skull, cartilaginous and makes up about 50% of body weight. Each cartilage has the shape of a future bone and is covered with a perichondrium (dense connective tissue sheath). During this period, ossification of the skeleton begins, i.e. formation of bone tissue in place of cartilage. Ossification or ossification (lat. os-bone, facio-do) occurs both from the outer surface (perichondral ossification) and from the inside (endochondral ossification). In place of the cartilage, coarse-fibrous bone tissue is formed. As a result of this, the skeleton of the fetus is built of coarse fibrous bone tissue.

Only in the neonatal period, coarse fibrous bone tissue is replaced by a more perfect lamellar bone tissue. During this period, special attention is required for newborns, since their skeleton is not yet strong. As for the chord, its remains are located in the center of the intervertebral discs in the form of pulpous nuclei. Particular attention during this period should be paid to the integumentary bones of the skull (occipital, parietal and temporal), as they bypass the cartilaginous stage. Significant connective tissue spaces, called fontanelles (fonticulus), are formed between them in ontogenesis, only in old age they are completely ossified (endesmal ossification).

BONE STRUCTURE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF A BIOCHEMIST

The bones of the skeleton have a complex chemical composition. Every bone is made up of organic and inorganic compounds. TO inorganic compounds relate water and mineral salts(salts of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium and other elements). organic compounds mainly represented protein (ossein) and lipids(yellow bone marrow). Bone extracted from the body of an adult animal contains approximately 50% water, 22% mineral salts, 12% ossein and 16% lipids. Bone elasticity depends on ossein, and hardness depends on mineral salts. The specific combination of organic and inorganic substances gives the bone elasticity, elasticity, strength and hardness. In terms of hardness and elasticity, bone can be compared with copper, bronze, and reinforced concrete. However, the ratio of the constituent components of the bone can change under the influence of many factors and depends on age (in young animals, the ratio of ossein to mineral elements is 1:1, in adults 1:2, and in old ones 1:7, i.e. elasticity is lost with age and elasticity of the bone, but its hardness and fragility increase), nutrition (there may be an imbalance in the diet for calcium and phosphorus) and the season (at the end of the grazing season there is always a maximum content of minerals).

BONE STRUCTURE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF A HISTOLOGIST

The bone consists of several tissues, but the main one is:

1) Bone tissue. It is extremely labile (constantly and rapidly changing), it is the only tissue in the body, except for blood, that can fully recover from damage. Two diametrically opposed processes are constantly taking place in it - destruction (resorption) and restoration (regeneration). These processes occur under the influence of mechanical forces that arise during the period of statics and dynamics of the animal, and ensure the renewal of the skeleton. According to experimental studies, the human skeleton is completely renewed within 6 months.

Bone tissue is made up of cells and intercellular substance. There are three types of bone cells:

A) osteoblasts- these are young osteo-forming cells that synthesize the intercellular substance - the matrix. As the intercellular substance accumulates, osteoblasts become immured in it and become osteocytes. An auxiliary function of osteoblasts is participation in the process of deposition of calcium salts in the intercellular substance (matrix calcification).

b) Osteocytes - These are mature bone cells. They provide structural and metabolic integration (association) of the bone. There is an opinion that these cells are involved in the formation of ossein (the protein component of the bone) and lysis (dissolution) of the intercellular non-mineralized matrix.

c) Osteoclasts- giant multinucleated cells that appear in places of resorption of bone structures. Their function is to remove bone decay products and lysis of mineralized structures.

G) Intercellular substance (bone matrix) mainly represented by collagen fibers and an amorphous component that fills the gaps between fibers and cells. On the basis of collagen fibers, the mineral part of the bone tissue is deposited in the form of a two-phase system of minerals: crystalline hydroxyapatite and amorphous calcium phosphate(more labile). Due to the presence of a crystalline phase of minerals in the bones, piezoelectricity occurs during elastic deformations. Thus, the energy necessary for the transformations taking place in the bones is formed. The bone is polarized: the concave parts of the bone are negatively charged (usually completed by bone tissue), the convex parts are positively charged (resorption occurs in them - bone tissue is destroyed).

There are two types of bone:

- coarse fibrous, which is characterized by a disorderly arrangement of collagen fibers in the intercellular substance; the skeleton of the fetus and newborn is built from this tissue, and in an adult organism it is found in the areas of attachment of tendons to bones and in the seams of skulls after their overgrowth (synostosis);

- plate, a feature of which is that the collagen (ossein) fibers are arranged in an orderly manner and form cylindrical plates inserted one into the other around the vessels and nerves. These formations are called "osteon". So, the structural unit of lamellar bone tissue is osteons.

Osteon(osteonum) is a system of bone plates concentrically located around the canal in which the vessels and nerves pass (Haversian canal). Each osteon consists of 5-20 cylindrical plates and has a diameter of 3-4 mm. They are glued together by an amorphous substance impregnated with mineral salts. Osteons are located not randomly, but according to the functional load on the bone. Osteons are formed from crossbars of bone, or beams, which in turn form a compact substance (if the crossbars lie tightly) or a spongy substance (if the crossbars lie loosely) of the bone. The skeleton of an adult organism is mainly built from lamellar bone tissue.

In addition to bone tissue, there are:

2) Cartilaginous tissue - covers the articular surfaces of bones (hyaline cartilage) and forms bone growth zones (metaphyseal cartilage). Cartilage tissue consists of cells (chondoblasts, chondrocytes, chondoclasts) and intercellular substance. A feature of the latter is its complex chemical composition. In the intercellular substance of the cartilage, organic components are represented by mucopolysaccharides (chondroitin sulfuric acid, keratin sulfate). The structural unit of cartilage is chondron,which is an isogenic group of cells, united by an intercellular substance and surrounded by a capsule.

There are three types of cartilage:

- hyaline cartilage(mainly the skeleton of the embryo is built from it, in an adult - articular, costal cartilages, cartilages of the larynx, trachea, bronchi);

- fibrocartilage(forms intervertebral discs, menisci);

- elastic cartilage(forms the auricle, external auditory meatus).

3) Connective tissue consists of a small number of cells (fibroblasts, fibrocytes ..), fibers (collagen, elastic, retular) and an amorphous substance. The amorphous component is based on gel-like mucopolysaccharides (neutral and acidic glycosaminoglycans).

There are several types of connective tissue:

- Loose connective tissue always accompanies vessels (blood and lymphatic) and nerves. Its feature is the predominance of cells and the amorphous component over the fibers. Loose connective tissue forms the inner layer of the periosteum, lines the inside of the bone marrow cavity and forms trabeculae through which nerves, blood and lymphatic vessels penetrate into the bone;

- Dense connective tissue covers the outside of the bone and forms the fibrous layer of the periosteum. Its characteristic feature is the predominance of fibrous structures in the intercellular substance.

5 )Myeloid tissue forms the parenchyma of the red bone marrow and the development of blood cells (erythrocytes, leukocytes ...) occurs in it.

6) Blood, lymph- liquid tissues of the internal environment that are involved in the transport of nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and end products of metabolism. They perform trophic, transport and protective functions. The bones contain up to 50% of all venous blood.

7) Endothelium - This is a special type of epithelial tissue that forms the inner wall of blood vessels.

8) Nervous tissue - in the form of nerves and nerve endings.

BONE STRUCTURE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF ANATOMY

Every bone (lat. Os - bone) is an independent body. It has a certain shape, size, structure. The bone as an organ in an adult animal consists of the following components closely related to each other:

1)Periosteum- periosteum, located on the surface of the bone and consists of two layers. The outer (fibrous) layer is built of dense connective tissue and performs a protective function, strengthens the bone and increases its elastic properties. The inner (osteogenic) layer of the periosteum is built of loose connective tissue, which contains nerves, blood vessels and a significant number of osteoblasts (osteoforming cells). Due to this layer, the development, growth in thickness and regeneration of bones after damage occurs. The periosteum is firmly fused with the bone with the help of connective tissue perforating (Sharpey) fibers penetrating deep into the bone. Thus, the periosteum performs protective, trophic and osteoforming functions.

A bone without a periosteum, like a tree without bark, cannot exist. The periosteum, with the bone carefully removed from it, can again form a bone due to the intact cells of its inner layer.

2)Compact (dense) matter bones – substantia compacta - located behind the periosteum and built from lamellar bone tissue, which forms the bone beams (beams). A distinctive feature of a compact substance is tight arrangement of bones. The strength of the compacta is provided by a layered structure and channels, inside of which there are vessels that carry blood. In terms of strength, a compact substance is equated to cast iron or granite.

3)spongy substance bones - substantia spongiosa - is located under the compact substance inside the bone and is also built from lamellar bone tissue. A distinctive feature of the spongy substance is that the bone bars are loose and form cells, so the spongy substance really resembles a sponge in structure. Compared to a compact one, it has much more pronounced deformation properties and is formed precisely in those places where compression and tension forces act on the bone. The direction of the bone beams of the spongy substance corresponds to the main lines of tension. Elastic deformations in the spongy substance are much more pronounced (4-6 times). The distribution of compact and spongy substances depends on the functional conditions of the bone. A compact substance is found in those bones and in those parts of them that perform the functions of support and movement (for example, in the diaphysis of tubular bones). In places where, with a large volume, it is required to maintain lightness and at the same time strength, a spongy substance is formed (for example, in the epiphyses of tubular bones).

4) Inside the bone is located medullary cavity- cavum medullae, the walls of which from the inside, as well as the surface of the bone beams, are covered with a thin fibrous connective tissue membrane endosteum - endoosteum. Like the periosteum, the endosteum has osteoblasts in its composition, due to which the bone grows from the inside and is restored during fractures.

5) In the cells of the spongy substance and the bone marrow cavity is red bone marrow- medulla ossium rubra, in which hematopoiesis processes take place. In fetuses and newborns, all bones form blood, but with age, gradually, myeloid (hematopoietic) tissue is replaced by fatty and red bone marrow turns yellow - medulla ossium flava - and loses the function of hematopoiesis (in domestic animals, this process begins from the second month after birth). The ratio between red and yellow bone marrow in monthly calves is 9:1, and in adults it is 1:1. The red bone marrow is preserved the longest in the spongy substance of the vertebrae and sternum.

6)articular cartilage- cartilago articularis - covers the articular surfaces of the bone and is built from hyaline cartilage tissue. Cartilage thickness varies greatly. As a rule, it is thinner in the proximal part of the bone than in the distal part. The articular cartilage has no perichondrium and never undergoes ossification. With a large static load, it becomes thinner.

Thus, in the bones of an adult animal, the following are isolated in layers:

1) periosteum, 2) compact substance, 3) spongy substance, 4) medullary cavity with endosteum, 5) bone marrow, 6) articular cartilage.

A growing bone, in addition to the above 6 components, also has others that form the bone growth zones. In such a bone there is still metaphyseal cartilage, separating the body of the bone (diaphysis) from its ends (epiphyses), and three types of specially constructed bone tissue in contact with this cartilage and called subchondral bone.

BONE CLASSIFICATION

The classification is based on the shape (structure), development and function of bones.

Dictionary of Natural Wisdom

This is one of the main pages of the site. Now you have a UNIQUE opportunity to learn about the true natural laws of the universe. They are received from very referential for me source.

Continuation of the topic on this page .

Laws

The first and most important law of the Universe:

The Law of Free Will and Free Choice

The second most important law of the universe:

All forms in the universe, starting with atoms, strive for self-preservation

(This does not mean that atoms are conscious to strive for self-preservation, just that, according to the laws of quantum physics, and the second law of thermodynamics, atoms are always in the most stable, equilibrium state with the lowest energy potential).

From these two laws follow two principles :

The universe is built on the principles of self-affirmation and domination

The universe is built on the principles of cooperation and self-sacrifice

From these two laws and principles follow the following two laws:

Law of Evolution

The Law of Evolution assumes that all entities in the Universe, including the so-called Gods, went through all stages of evolution, starting from the simplest. There are no entities in the Universe that exist eternally and unchangingly. After the Big Bang or the beginning of the Day of Brahma, everything in the Universe develops anew each time.

Law of Hierarchy

The Law of Hierarchy presupposes that in the living world the more organized beings live at the expense of the less organized ones, providing the latter with opportunities for rooted evolution. In human society, the Law suggests that the position in the human hierarchy should correspond to the level of human evolutionary development, and that more evolutionarily mature entities should govern less evolutionarily mature entities, and the latter, in turn, should obey the Elders.

But again, these laws are not given by someone from above - these are the basic properties of Matter, both in its atomic and wave aspects. The evolution of all living beings obeys the basic laws. The driving force behind evolution is hedonism- getting pleasure and enjoyment by assimilating the maximum possible amount of energy and information from the outside world and self-preservation.

"All living beings desire pleasure and try to avoid suffering." "Mahabharata".

Those living beings, species of living beings, or entire communities that live only on the basis of the principle of self-affirmation and domination, neglecting cooperation and self-sacrifice, are gradually or abruptly forced out and destroyed by Nature, those living beings, types of living beings, or entire communities that live only based on the principle of self-sacrifice, are inevitably forced out and destroyed by Nature. Consequently, in the process of evolution, Nature has developed the Golden Mean - only those living beings, species of living beings, or entire communities that live harmoniously combining the principles of self-affirmation and cooperation, domination and self-sacrifice, flourish and evolve. Because these principles are developed in the process of trillion quadrillion interactions of trillion quadrillion of all living beings throughout all 4 billion years of evolution. Information about all these countless interactions is the basis Anima Mundi, the Soul of the World.

The world soul stores information not only about successful interactions that led to prosperity and evolution, but also about unsuccessful ones that led to the death of a living being, species or an entire community. World Soul nobody manages and does not have a single Consciousness or Mind - it is a gigantic continuum of consciousnesses of all living beings that have lived and are living on this planet. However, I repeat the World Soul has a single teleology - prosperity and preservation of life in all its diversity. Those living beings that contribute to the fulfillment of this task are supported by Nature, flourish and evolve, those who go against the current gradually degrade and annihilate. The laws by which living beings interact are rules, or algorithms of behavior, the implementation of which allows each living being, without violating the dynamic balance of the system, homeostasis, to evolve in accordance with the basic Laws. Violation of these laws leads to the destruction of the dynamic balance developed during 4 billion years of evolution. If an individual living being or communities of living beings systematically and maliciously violate the laws of Nature, then the system takes steps to eliminate violators. However, this happens not by the will of "God" or "Servants of Karma", but due to the inherent immunity of the entire World Soul, Nature and each individual organism against destructive external influences or destructive endogenous mutations. In our body, billions of old and mutated cells are destroyed every day, because if the body's immunity is strong, then not a single mutated cell or a foreign organism that has penetrated can develop further and is immediately destroyed. You won’t say that all these processes are a manifestation of the will of a certain “Creator” or “Servants of Karma”, this is just a healthy immunity, but if you think that everything is different in Nature and somewhere there is a certain Creator who has mercy on someone, and someone punishes, I sympathize with you ...

So, revealed following laws :

You need - you do

Do not ask, do not climb

Do not promise, promised - keep the promise

Don't refuse a request

Nature has nothing superfluous and harmful

Don't interfere

Don't criticize

Don't get stuck

Ask permission everywhere

Live here and now

Do not set goals, the main thing is movement

Do not transmit the received information if it has not been worked out

Everything impossible is possible

Sin is what you yourself consider sin

Avoiding small difficulties - asking for big ones

Do not tempt fate three times (twice is possible)

The main thing is to stop in time

Do not regret what was and what was not

Helping others helps ourselves

You don't owe anything to anyone

Nobody owes you anything

Do what you want to do

Don't do to others what you don't want them to do to you

If in doubt, don't

Started business - finish

How it turned out - it's better

Own will is good, someone else's will is evil

Don't speak without being asked

If you don't know for sure, don't say

Don't misrepresent information

Don't tell nice lies

Never say never"

Learn to say "no!"

Do not make excuses

Who compares, he loses

Do not fight with egregores

Do not participate in the battles of egregors

Do not get attached to egregores

Do not break the laws of the society in which you live

You have to pay for everything

What you earn is yours

Don't reject what's come as a gift

Don't go with the crowd

Not knowing the ford, do not poke your head into the water

Don't pull the tiger's whiskers

Don't get in your sleigh

Don't go in the trash

Don't go back to what (or who) you said goodbye to

Don't Make Creatures

Don't break the line. Law of Hierarchy

Don't jump over the steps, you'll have to come back. Law of Evolution

This list is not definitive and may raise objections. Let me explain with a couple of examples what it means to fulfill or violate the Law.

Don't pull the tiger's whiskers - the meaning of the law is that one should not risk one's life and health in vain and unnecessarily. The wise Romans said Premium vivere “First of all, live.” Any unreasonably risky behavior is a violation of this law. For example, now all sorts of extreme sports are widely promoted, when a person dies or is injured as a result of chasing adrenaline, this is the punishment for violating this law. No one is to blame, he asked for it.

Law Do not come back. It is impossible to return to the womb - in this world you can only move forward. Any attempts to return to the past end very badly. This law works rigorously in the field of sexual and family relations. If you broke up with a person, it means that you no longer need each other, you can’t renew relations, everything will end badly - it’s been checked repeatedly. In the state-religious sphere, one cannot return to the religious system that has been abandoned.

Violation of the Laws, as a rule, does not get away with White entities, although there may be different options. The behavior of the Black entities is mainly based on the violation of certain laws. For example: all the secret services of the world violate the laws: Do not distort information, Do not ask, do not interfere, Nature has nothing superfluous and harmful, Do not interfere, Ask permission everywhere, Do not do to another what you do not want to be done to you. It is on the violation of these Laws that all their activities are built - they engage in misinformation, climb where they are not asked, destroy people and organizations that are harmful from their point of view, put spokes in the wheels of all their potential opponents, extracting the secrets of other states, do not ask anyone for this permits, commit acts of sabotage, and become very indignant when their opponents do the same. However, with the exception of individual failures, members and especially the heads of special services receive decent salaries, titles, awards, honor and respect, and a solid pension. Why is that? Because the violation of the Laws covers the state egregor, society. Ordinary citizens, as a rule, pay for the violation of the Laws - it is they who die as a result of terrorist attacks that were provoked by the actions of special services.

In addition, there are so-called Conceptual laws , some of which were outlined by Richard Bach in his book “Illusions” and “The Only One”, Conceptual laws, again, are not given by someone from above, they reveal the structure of the Universe in both of its aspects - atomic and wave, and in the interaction of these aspects:

Nothing comes from nothing

Nothing happens without good reason

Every action has its consequence

Every event has its cause.

Like attracts like

The small contains the big

The outside is like the inside

As above, so below

You walk the path, the path goes through you

You are born in the world, the world is born in you

By changing yourself, you change the world

Humans are mortal gods

Gods are immortal people

Not all people and not all gods are people

Gods are mortal. People can become immortal

First, the best piece of the pie

No punishment without guilt

Your mission on Earth is not over as long as you are alive.

Every moment of life has meaning and meaning

You can only learn what you don't have

You teach best what you yourself need to learn

Everything that happens to you - you pulled to yourself

What happened once can happen again

Be true to yourself

The problem already has a solution

Rejoice in difficulties - you grow with them

Discontent is the stimulus of progress

Wishes come true

If there is a desire, then there is strength to achieve the desired

Every being has its own time and space

You take the place you deserve

In every life you have to make a choice between right and easy

Perfection in everything is the mastery of life

It is better to have your own dharma poorly performed than well-executed, but someone else's.

The strong are always right, not because they are right, but because they are stronger.

Winners are not judged

The wise leave no trace

The master does not leave a corpse

In addition, there laws of sexual relations :

A woman chooses with whom she has sexual relations, from whom to give birth, whom to marry

A man has no right to refuse a woman if she chose him - in the first two cases

A woman has the right to refuse a man, without justifying the reasons for refusal

A man should not take revenge on a woman for refusing

A young woman who refuses sex to men for no good reason faces old age alone

A state in which young women refuse sex to men for no good reason is degenerating and dying.

The earlier the first sexual intercourse occurs in a man, the more successful his life, the more the state prospers

If a woman has chosen a man, she has no right to refuse him sex

If a woman has chosen a man, she has no right to humiliate him and demand from him what he is not able to do.

To a man: get along only with those women who themselves will be grateful for this (Antisthenes)

If a woman flirts, she is obliged to bring the matter to sex

If you don't want to have sex, don't flirt

Sexy clothes - sexual appeal: "I want!"

If you don't want to be molested, don't dress sexy

In nudity is the truth, in clothes is a lie

Women make a man impotent

A woman's goal is to get a man to ejaculate

The goal of a man is to delay ejaculation as much as possible.

Not a single drop of sperm should be wasted

No one has the right to tell a woman how many men there should be in her life.

No one has the right to tell a man how many women should be in his life.

No one has the right to specify, to anyone, the terms when you can start a sexual life, and when it should end.

Children and adolescents have a complete and inalienable right to a sexual life

Based on these Laws, you can conclude that in all Christian societies ALL laws of sexual relations are violated, especially the last one.

In addition, there the laws of the White Teachers , of which are the following:

Teaching beings for the good should be done without causing them suffering "Laws of Manu" 2. 159

Not displaying siddhis to attract disciples

Do not impose your vision of the world, only express

Do not impose your Path, only offer

Do not claim your Path as the only possible one

Promise nothing and guarantee nothing

Don't create your own cult

Do not build a pyramid with yourself at the head

First of all, appeal to the mind of the students

Asking wrong - do not answer

Don't use fear as a learning tool

The main motto of the training: "Go to everything yourself"

Do not bestow siddhis

Don't make dogmas

Follow Nature in everything

The main criterion of Truth is experience, observed reality

The mission of the White Teacher is completed when the Student who has surpassed the Teacher appeared

Set reasonable tuition fees and ask nothing more than that

Respect everyone who came

Respect those who are gone

From these Laws, you can conclude that Jesus was an absolutely Black Teacher, or rather Black, disguised as White.

Is there some more Law of Magicians:

Strength over Wisdom

Initially, I had a desire to provide each law with a detailed commentary, but I will not do this, because everyone has to work out these laws for himself.

It should be said that all the problems of modern civilization are that O Most of humanity are Violators of Natural Laws. Of the most vicious Violators are religious and political movements.

Ulisses "The Path of Odysseus"

< Привлечение благоприятных возможностей начинается с…
Sexuality and the chakra scheme >