World system theory and. Wallerstein
If in 1960 the ratio between them in terms of gross national product was
per capita was 26:1, now it is 40:1.
There are many reasons for the strengthening of this trend. One of them is related to
demographic situation in third world countries.
In 1987, the world's five billionth inhabitant was registered. Today
The world's population exceeded 6 billion people. At the fastest pace it
is increasing in less socio-economically developed countries in Asia, Africa and
Latin America, which sharply aggravates their problems of housing, education,
medical care and, above all, food. According to the UN,
Every year about 50 million people die from hunger in the world. Overwhelming
most of them account for developing countries.
Will hunger, poverty, disease and suffering be constant companions?
lives of a significant part of the population of our planet?
Many scientists believe that humanity has the necessary
intellectual capabilities and material resources to overcome
socio-economic backwardness of third world countries. First of all, how
shows the world experience of recent decades, lends itself to reasonable
regulation of population growth and general demographic situation based on
gradual changes in value attitudes and behavioral stereotypes in
area of family and marriage relations. But that's not the main point. Shortening the race
weapons, reducing military spending will make it possible to free up
significant funds that can be spent on the development of these countries. By
According to available calculations, one tenth of deductions from military expenditures is sufficient,
to provide the necessary investment in economic modernization
developing countries and significantly change their standard of living.
Thus, we are once again convinced of the interconnection of global problems and
the need for an integrated approach to solving them on the basis of international
cooperation.
Basic Concepts
Globalization of the world. Economic globalization. International trade.
Global problems. Ecological crisis.
5. Bogolyubov, 11th grade. Part 2.
129
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Consumption standard. World Trade Organization. International
currency fund. World Bank.
2 3
What are the manifestations of globalization in the economic sphere? What does she need
contributes?
What is the contradictory nature of the globalization process?
What are the main global problems modernity? What causes them
appearance?
6 7 8
What are the basic principles of world order that can prevent
threat of a new world war?
What is the North-South problem?
How is the interconnection of global problems manifested?
TASKS
one society on the verge of destruction? Give reasons for your position.
2 In the mid-90s, the central offices of 90 of the top 200
transnational corporations were located in the United States, they accounted for
half of all sales. Please comment on this data.
3 American philosopher E. Wallerstein developed a theory of world
systems. This system, which began to take shape back in the 16th century, includes
core (industrial countries of the West), semi-periphery (including Wallerstein
classified states in southern Europe, such as Spain), the periphery (countries
Eastern Europe) and the external arena (states of Asia and Africa involved in
world economy only as raw material appendages). At the same time, the philosopher argued,
that the core countries organize the world economic system in this way,
so that it primarily meets their interests.
Consider the provisions of this theory. What seems true to you, and with what
is it difficult to agree? If you follow the author’s logic, which countries today
form the core of the system; constitute the semi-periphery and the periphery? Is it preserved?
external arena?
4 In the famous treatise “Towards Eternal Peace” I. Kant outlined the conditions
achieving a reliable and just peace: when concluding a peace treaty
the possibility of a new war cannot be maintained; none independent
a state cannot be acquired by other states by
inheritance, exchange, purchase or gift; standing armies should eventually
disappear; no state should forcibly interfere with
political structure of another state. Are these requirements relevant?
Today? Justify your answer.
5 Developing countries with the lowest national income per capita
of the population in 1972 spent 17.2% on military expenses, on education
-- 12.7%, for healthcare -- 4.6%. By 1983, the share of military expenditures in them
increased to 19.5%, and the share of spending on education decreased to 4.7%, by
healthcare - up to 2.7%. Please comment on this data.
6 The English economist T. Malthus argued that the world's population is growing
in geometric progression, and the increase in food, due to which it
can feed itself - in arithmetic progression. What conclusions follow from
this statement? Do you separate them?
7 There are two points of view on the role of global problems in development
humanity. Some argue that it will not be possible to resolve them, and their appearance
portends the imminent collapse of modern civilization. Others believe that people
will find acceptable means of solving global problems, and the joint
search has an integrating effect
131
the formation of a unified civilization. What's your point of view?
ABOUT GLOBALIZATION OF THE WORLD SERIOUSLY AND NOT SO SERIOUSLY
it would be good." G. AGRICOLA (1494--1555), German scientist.
"Creditors have better memory,
than debtors."
B. FRANKLIN (1706--1790), American
scientist.
“Money without legs, but it will go around the whole world.”
Russian proverb.
I2 Scientific and technical
progress
What changes in our lives will technology in the 21st century bring about? What threatens
society destruction natural environment? Scientific and technological progress is good
or evil?
Labor productivity, quantity and quality of products produced,
The standard of living of the population depends on the state of the productive forces of society.
IN modern conditions their qualitative changes occur under the influence
scientific and technological revolution, which is global in nature.
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL REVOLUTION
gradual, smooth changes, but about a “leap”, about a rapid transition from one
qualitative state to another. In other words, scientific and technical
progress, previously carried out relatively slowly, in our time
noticeably accelerated. Thus, personal computers appeared in the late 70s,
and in 1989 there were already 30 million in the USA. A total of 132
it took only ten years for mass distribution and
using this new "smart machine".
Further, the name of the revolution in question shows that it
covers not only the field of technology, but also science. Since the mid-50s XX
V. technology begins to develop under the decisive influence of scientific knowledge.
Science is becoming a constant source of new ideas that indicate the path of development
material production. It turns into immediate
productive force. Discoveries in the field of atomic and molecular structure
substances created the prerequisites for the production of new materials; advances in chemistry
made it possible to create substances with desired properties; study of electrical
phenomena in solids and gases served as the basis for the emergence of electronics;
structure study atomic nucleus opened the way to the use of nuclear power
energy; Thanks to the development of mathematics, automation tools were created
production and management.
So, the scientific and technological revolution is a leap in development
productive forces of society, their transition to a qualitatively new state on
the basis of fundamental changes in the system of scientific knowledge.
At the first stage of development of the scientific and technological revolution (STR), i.e. in
60-70s of the XX century, its most important feature was automation
production processes: another link has appeared in the machine,
exercising direct control over its work. Robots, machines with
program controlled, flexible production lines characterize
qualitative changes in technology and tools of production.
Since the late 70s of the XX century. qualitatively new ones have appeared in the development of scientific and technological revolution
features associated with the success of microelectronics. This new stage has received
the name of the computer (microprocessor or information) revolution.
The first microprocessor, created in the USA in 1971, was the size of a matchstick.
box, and in terms of computing power it was equal to one of the first computers,
weighing tens of tons. Three decades later, a microcomputer could fit into
a case the size of a quarter of a matchbox, but was 40 times more powerful than the first
tube computers, 17 thousand times lighter, 2.8 thousand times less energy-intensive,
10 thousand times cheaper than them.
In the automated system of machines, what has now appeared (along with
engine, transmission mechanism and working machine) computer-based
the control and monitoring device frees the person from contact without
only with working tools (tools), but also with the working machine itself.
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physical, but also mental capabilities of a person. For example, they tend to
not only is the speed of movement inaccessible to the human hand, but also unbearable for
human brain speed of information processing.
Production of robots (automatically controlled machines) that can
moving around and performing actions related to manipulation began in
60s. In 1977 there were 200 of them in the USA, at the end of the century there were already many dozens
thousand. But the robot is the first machine in history that replaced not
only human hands, but also some functions of human intelligence.
Currently there are more than 200 thousand application options
microprocessors. It is now possible to move from individual “islands”
automation" to the comprehensive automation of entire technological processes,
based on a group of interconnected machines, equipment and devices.
Along with technology, revolutionary changes are also taking place in technology, i.e.
e. in the methods of influencing raw materials. Scientists have concluded that
information-intensive technologies began to play a decisive role in production
technology and new technological thinking leading to what is happening
not just replacing old machines with more modern ones, but changing principles
production.
Handicraft products included two components: costs for
raw materials and manual labor, i.e. the technology was characterized by material intensity and
labor intensive. The Industrial Revolution introduced two new components:
capital intensity and energy intensity. NTR supplemented them with science-intensity. Large
research costs in mass production are rapidly
are reduced per unit of production.
New technological processes are often carried out on molecular,
atomic and subatomic levels. Thus, the diffusion welding method provides
high quality compounds of ceramics with magnetic alloy, silver with
stainless steel, steel and aluminum, etc. It turned out that it is possible to combine
more than 750 pairs of metals, non-metals and alloys that failed)
connect in other ways. The components to be welded are bonded at the level
atoms. As a result, it became possible to manufacture products with complex
configurations. Diffuse technology is very economical.
One of the most promising directions is biotechnology --
usage biological processes in pro-134 I
production purposes. In value it is comparable to electronics. WITH
biotechnology is already producing large quantities of feed protein,
various medications. On the basis of molecular biology, gene
engineering, which by transplanting foreign genes into a cell makes it possible to produce
new types of animal and plant organisms with planned qualities.
Membrane, laser, plasma and
other technologies that qualitatively change production processes.
Along with technology and technology, the subject of work is also changing qualitatively -
materials that are processed during the production process. These
changes are associated primarily with advances in physics and chemistry. Creation of new
structural materials due to the needs of modern technologies,
those in need of magnetic, ceramic, optical materials, as well as
shortage of mineral raw materials. Plastics created in our time and
synthetic fibers are used in automotive, shipbuilding,
aerospace industry, construction and agriculture.
(Replacing steel pipes with reinforced plastics allowed the oil industry
US industry save $2 billion a year by eliminating
losses from metal corrosion.) Thanks to ultra-thin chemical coatings
managed to improve various parts of electronic devices;
it is expected that these coatings will be used in the chemical and food industries
industry.
Scientific and technological revolution radically changes the position of a person (subject of labor) in the system
production: it is taken beyond the immediate process of creation
finished product, stands next to it and acts in relation to it in
roles of controller, adjuster, regulator. Even earlier, the man gave the car
first the executive function (impact with the help of a tool on an object
labor), and then motor and energy. Now along with the reduction
direct human participation in production is expanding
indirect types of labor associated with the performance of control and management
logical functions of an increasingly higher level, with the adoption of responsible
decisions.
Scientific and technological revolution causes profound changes not only in material production,
but also in other areas of life: this is a sharp increase in road transport,
increasing the speed of railway transport and modernizing aviation
transport. Optical fiber and light wave technology, as well as achievements
space technology (satellites) revolutionizing
135
changes in the credit and financial sphere, trade, healthcare. Invention
phototypesetting revolutionized the newspaper business: with the help of a video screen,
connected to a computer, material prepared for publication
sent to the printing press with a simple press of a button. Microelectronics
actively participates in everyday life. VCRs and camcorders, digital
video players, radiotelephones and video cassettes, video discs, cable
television is intensively changing people's lives.
Home personal computers control household appliances and help
education, are used in home-based forms of work. In 1980 in the USA there was
371 thousand personal computers were produced, and in 1985 - 6.6 million.
production exceeded the number of food processors and household appliances produced
air conditioners. New home appliances are used both in production
purposes, both for education and leisure.
The ongoing technological revolution should lead in the 21st century to
new, scientific and technological civilization.
Another revolutionary breakthrough occurred at the end of the 20th century. in connection with
formation of the global Internet network. Information in the near future
will become the property of the majority of the planet's inhabitants. On turn of the XXI V. started
development of quantum computers, the power of which compared to the current ones is like the power
nuclear energy against fire.
Experts predict the onset of a new stage of scientific and technological revolution, which is associated with
development of biotechnology and achievements of such sciences as genetics, biology,
biochemistry, physiology of animals and plants, ecology. And in the future -
the next stage, when new discoveries in the field of physiology will occur
man, psychology, pedagogy, i.e. in the knowledge of man himself.
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF STR
intensive path of production development, when the main factor
economic growth is a decrease in the number of people employed in production and
quantities of raw materials and energy used. Thanks to scientific and technical
progress manages to save labor and materials, while increasing
labor productivity and product quality.
136
made it possible to abandon the territorial reference of enterprises producing
finished products to direct sources of raw materials.
Investments in industries that determine
scientific and technological progress, and high technology production. These industries
focused on the production of new, technically complex products. Yes, in Japan
electronic technology is being improved under the motto: produce “easier,
thinner, shorter and smaller."
The pace of replacement of manufactured products has significantly accelerated,
equipment, technology. The value of scientific research has increased significantly
research.
The entire sphere of economic relations has become more complex and flexible.
Complex research and production associations and other
integral organizations uniting science, production, education,
service sector. New technology strengthened the viability of small and
medium-sized enterprises, especially those that are directly or indirectly related to
new industries.
Rapid development is also characteristic of the industrial and household sectors.
services - transport, communications, energy, information services.
Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, the face of the working class is changing: firstly, there are
changes in its industrial and professional structure and, secondly,
There is a general increase in the qualifications of the working class. In fact, in
Currently, the share of people employed in the newest industries, which determine
scientific and technological progress (electronic, aerospace,
mechanical engineering); many new professions are emerging - operators,
adjusters of automatic machines and lines, etc.; many old ones are being eliminated
professions - miners, textile workers, etc.
At the same time, there is a general increase in the qualifications of the working class. WITH
workers of large enterprises cover significant categories
engineering and technical personnel. For example, a team of steelworkers
servicing one of the units in modern West German
metallurgical enterprise, consists of 150 people: 25 of them are workers,
managing processes at the console; about the same - adjusters
equipment; over 25 people are engineers, the rest are technicians,
programmers, computer scientists, craftsmen. Enterprise profit
is in this case the result of the labor of all named workers.
137
workers" - not only those workers who directly serve
automation, but also by those who developed the principles of automation, designed
machines, manufactured them, as well as those who supplied the necessary energy, raw materials
etc. Grassroots engineering and technical intelligentsia, office workers
are getting closer to the working class and are part of it today.
Industrial workers are joined by non-production workers
industries (trade, finance, services).
Scientific and technological revolution causes fundamental changes in the organization of production and labor, in
production management system. Analysis of primary information and acceptance
decisions are beginning to be made exclusively with the help of a computer.
STR AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
scientific and technological revolution increased the negative impact of man on
nature, led to a disruption of the ecological balance on the planet,
the consequence of which is an environmental crisis.
In the sphere of material production, the consumption of natural resources has increased
resources. In the 40 years after World War II, so many
mineral raw materials, as much as in the entire previous history of mankind. But
reserves of coal, oil, gas, iron, copper and other resources important to people
nature are non-renewable and, as scientists have calculated, will be exhausted through
several decades.
Even forest resources, which seem to be constantly renewed, are
are actually decreasing quickly. Global deforestation is 18 times higher
growth The area of forests that provide oxygen to the Earth is decreasing every year.
The fertile soil layer, which is vital for people, is degrading, and this
happens everywhere on Earth. As it turned out, the Earth accumulates one
centimeter of black soil in 300 years, and one centimeter of soil dies in 3 years.
No less dangerous than the unrestrained exploitation of the Earth's resources,
represents the increased pollution of the planet over the past decades -
and the oceans and atmospheric air. The world's oceans are constantly
polluted mainly due to the expansion of oil production in offshore fields.
Huge oil spills are detrimental to ocean life. Into the ocean
138
waste. The United States alone dumps up to 50 million tons of waste into the ocean. For each
a square kilometer of ocean water now accounts for 17 tons of various waste
from sushi. And a dead ocean, scientists believe, is a dead planet.
The most vulnerable part of nature has become fresh water. waste water,
pesticides, fertilizers, disinfectants, mercury, arsenic, lead, zinc
huge quantities end up in rivers and lakes. In the CIS republics annually
Untreated wastewater is discharged into rivers, lakes, reservoirs and seas,
containing tens of millions of tons of harmful substances. Not better position and in
other countries of the world. The Danube, Volga, Mississippi, Velikiye are heavily polluted
American lakes. According to experts, in some areas of the Earth
80% of all diseases are caused by poor quality water, which is forced
people consume.
It is known that a person can live five weeks without food, five weeks without water.
days, without air - five minutes. Meanwhile, air pollution
has long exceeded acceptable limits. Dust content, carbon dioxide content in
the atmosphere of a number of large cities increased tens of times compared to the beginning
XX century 115 million passenger cars in the US absorb oxygen 2 times
more than is created on the territory of this country by all natural
sources. Total emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere (industry,
energy, transport, etc.) in the USA is about 150 million tons per year, in
CIS - more than 100 million tons. In 102 CIS cities with a population of more than 50 thousand people
the concentration of substances harmful to health in the air exceeds medical levels
the norm is 10 times, and in some cases even more. Acid rain containing
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which appear during operation
thermal power plants and factories in Germany and Great Britain fall in
Scandinavian countries and bring death to lakes and forests. The CIS territory receives
with acid rain coming from the West, there are 9 times more harmful substances,
how they are transferred to reverse direction. Accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant
showed the environmental threat created by nuclear accidents
power plants that exist in 26 countries around the world. Serious problem
became household waste: solid waste, plastic bags, synthetic
detergents, etc.
The clean air and rivers filled with the aroma of plants disappears around cities
turn into sewers. Piles of cans, broken glass and more
garbage, landfills along the road
139
the long dominance of the industrial world.
16--18% of the territory of Russia are regions where environmental risk
for health is 10-100 times higher than the norms established for the majority
countries
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL PROGRESS AND ECOLOGICAL ALTERNATIVE
question, let's think: is scientific and technological progress in itself
causes destruction of the natural environment, or its negative impact
due to the ways of using the achievements of science and technology,
social order? Historical experience has shown that destructive
impact on nature was exerted by economic activity driven only by
private interest. Experience has also shown that society is able to limit
negative influence of private interests, it can find reasonable ways
regulation of relations between production and nature.
Among some scientists and members of the public, the environmental threat
1 Is it possible to agree with the statement: we are now becoming members of a fashionable society that is on the verge of destruction? Give reasons for your position. 2 In the mid-1990s, 90 of the top 200 multinational corporations were headquartered in the United States, accounting for half of all sales. Please comment on this data. 3 The American philosopher E. Wallerstein developed the theory of the world system. This system, which began to take shape in the 16th century, includes a core (industrial countries of the West), a semi-periphery (Wallerstein included states in southern Europe, such as Spain), a periphery (countries of Eastern Europe) and an external arena (states of Asia and Africa, involved in the world economy only as raw material appendages). At the same time, the philosopher argued that the countries included in the core organize the world economic system in such a way that it primarily meets their interests. Consider the provisions of this theory. What seems true to you, and what is difficult to agree with? If you follow the author’s logic, which countries today form the core of the system; constitute the semi-periphery and the periphery? Is the rain arena still intact? 4 In the famous treatise “Towards Eternal Peace,” I. Kant outlined the conditions for achieving a reliable and just peace: when concluding a peace treaty, the possibility of a new war cannot be maintained; not a single independent state can be acquired by other states by inheritance, exchange, purchase or gift; standing armies must eventually disappear; no state should forcibly interfere in the political structure of another state. Are these requirements relevant today? Justify your answer. 5 Developing countries with the lowest national income per capita in 1972 spent 17.2% on military expenditures, 12.7% on education, and 4.6% on health care. By 1983, the share of military expenditures in them increased to 19.5%, while the share of expenditures on education decreased to 4.7%, and on health care to 2.7%. Please comment on this data. 6 The English economist T. Malthus argued that the world's population is growing in geometric progression, and the increase in food, from which it can feed itself, is in arithmetic progression. What conclusions follow from this statement? Do you separate them? 7 There are two points of view on the role of global problems in the development of humanity. Some argue that it will not be possible to resolve them, and their appearance foreshadows the imminent collapse of modern civilization. Others believe that people will find acceptable means of solving global problems, and the joint search itself has an integrative effect on humanity, brings people together, and contributes to the formation of a single civilization. What's your point of view?
WALLERSTEIN, IMMANUEL(Wallerstein, Immanuel) (b. 1930) - American thinker, founder of world-systems analysis, one of the leaders of modern left-wing social science.
Born in New York on September 28, 1930. Studied sociology at Columbia University in New York (BA 1951, MA 1954, PhD 1959). He worked at Columbia University (1958–1971), McGill University (1971–1976), Binghamton University (1976–1999) and Yale University (since 2000). Since 1976, he has headed the Fernand Braudel Center for the Study of Economies, Historical Systems and Civilizations (at Binghamton University), whose employees are actively involved in the development and promotion of the world-system approach. In 1994–1998 he was president of the International Sociological Association.
Having begun his scientific career as a sociologist of African studies, Wallerstein began to study in the 1960s general theory social economic development. The world-system theory he developed is based on the principles of comprehensive historical analysis proposed by the French historian Fernand Braudel. It synthesizes sociological, historical and economic approaches to social evolution.
Wallerstein is distinguished by his enormous scientific productivity: he has published more than 20 books and over 300 articles.
The main work of I. Wallerstein is a multi-volume volume Modern world-system: the first volume (1974) examines the genesis of the European world-economy in the 16th century, the second (1980) examines its development during the period of mercantilism, and the third volume (1989) brings its history up to the 1840s. In other works, Wallerstein analyzes the evolution of the capitalist world-economy in the 19th and 20th centuries. and even makes predictions for the 21st century.
The main concept of the concept developed by Wallerstein is world-economy- system international relations based on trade. Beyond world-economies different countries can unite into world-empires based not on economic, but on political unity. He views history as the development of various regional world-systems (world-economies and world-empires), which competed with each other for a long time, until the European (capitalist) world-economy became absolutely dominant. Thus, Wallerstein challenges traditional formational and civilizational approaches to history, proposing a new, third paradigm of social development.
It was traditionally believed that capitalism as a social system initially arose in some of the most developed countries, and only then did the capitalist world economy begin to take shape. According to Wallerstein's concept, on the contrary, capitalism initially developed as complete system world relations, the individual elements of which were national economies.
Capitalism was born, according to Wallerstein, in the 16th century, when, due to a coincidence of circumstances, Western Europe world-empires gave way to world-economies based on trade. The capitalist world-economy gave rise to the colonial expansion of Western European countries, by the 19th century. it suppressed all other world-economies and world-empires, remaining the only modern world-system.
According to Wallerstein's theory, all countries of the capitalist world-economy live in the same rhythm, dictated by Kondratieff's “long waves”.
The capitalist world-economy is characterized by an “axial division of labor” - division into a core (center) and periphery. The countries of European civilization, which form the core of the world economy, play the role of the leading force in world economic development. Non-European countries (with some exceptions) form the periphery, i.e. are economically and politically dependent. The backwardness of the countries of the periphery is explained, according to Wallerstein, by the deliberate policy of the core countries - they impose on the subordinate countries such an economic specialization that preserves the leadership of the developed countries. Although developed countries promote the ideology of "free trade", Wallerstein considers capitalism to be a deeply anti-market system, since the core countries monopolize their privileged position and defend it with force. However, in the 20th century. The line between the core and the periphery began to be partially erased due to the active attempts of previously backward countries (for example, Japan) to break into the circle of active participants in the world economy.
In addition to the antagonistic relationship between the core and the periphery, another core of the evolution of the capitalist world-economy is the struggle between the countries of the core. The role of hegemon in world trade was successively played by Holland (17th century), Great Britain (19th century) and the USA (20th century); the intervals between periods of hegemony were filled with economic and political confrontation between the economically strongest powers ( Anglo-French wars 18th century, First and Second World Wars in the 20th century). According to Wallerstein, in the modern era, America is losing its status as an absolute leader: “The United States is still the strongest power in the world,” he writes, “but it is a fading power.”
By placing the main blame for the backwardness of the Third World on the developed countries of the West, Wallerstein continues the traditions of the Marxist theory of imperialism. The approach he proposed to explaining history has gained enormous popularity among left-wing economists in developed and developing countries. They are especially impressed by the pronounced anti-Americanism of Wallerstein's ideas.
Although many social scientists disagree with Wallerstein, world-system theory has had a huge impact on the growth of interest in history as a unified global process and contributed to the birth of historical global studies.
Proceedings: The Modern World-System. Vol. I–III. Academic Press, 1974–1989; The Capitalist World-Economy. Cambridge University Press, 1979; Globalization or transition era? A look at the long-term development of the world-system. – Russian historical magazine. 1998. T.1. No. 4; Analysis of world systems: modern systemic vision of the world community. – In the book: Sociology on the threshold of the 21st century: main directions of research. M., RUSAKI, 1999; World-system analysis. Sociology and history. – Time of the World: Almanac modern research in theoretical history, geopolitics, macrosociology, analysis of world systems and civilizations. Vol. 2: Historical macrosociology in the twentieth century. Novosibirsk: Siberian Chronograph, 2000 (http://www.tuad.nsk.ru/~history/Author/Engl/W/WallersteinI/waller.htm); Analysis of world systems and the situation in modern world . Under general ed. B.Yu. Kagarlitsky. St. Petersburg, Publishing House "University Book", 2001.
- When participating in discussions about the paths of development of Russia, it is advisable to rely on knowledge about the multivariate nature of social development. A responsible choice excludes both proposals to copy any Western or Eastern models, as well as defense of the exclusivity of the Russian path of development, which does not allow the use of the experience of other countries and denies the general trends of world development.
- We need to learn to see the world as it really is. This means abandoning “black and white” assessments and simplified ways of understanding the contradictions of social development. Only by analyzing contradictions can we look for ways to solve social, including global, problems.
- A criterion that allows one to evaluate this phenomenon from the point of view of the development of society as a whole, living conditions and activities of people helps to determine the progressiveness of a particular phenomenon. The assessment of a particular phenomenon (process, event) will be more accurate if its various consequences are analyzed and their possible inconsistency is taken into account.
- In order to navigate the complex life of society, it is necessary to replenish and deepen your knowledge about social development. This will be helped by studying social disciplines at a university, as well as self-education.
Document
From the work of a modern Russian scientist, academician I. N. Moiseev (reflections on the place of Russia in civilized development).
Today Russia is a bridge between two oceans, two centers of economic power. By the will of fate, we saddled the path “from the British to the Japanese,” just as in the old days the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” We have received a bridge between two civilizations, and we have the opportunity to draw on the best that is on both banks - if we have enough intelligence, as our ancestors got it, who took a book from the Byzantines, and a sword from the Varangians. This is a circumstance given to us by nature and history; it can become one of the most important sources of our prosperity and stabilization. And our niche in world society.
The fact is that not only we need this bridge - everyone needs it. Not only Russia, but also the European Peninsula and the developing Pacific region, and even America.
The whole planet needs this bridge! This is where our niche, destined for us, lies - the north of the Eurasian supercontinent. This niche does not divide, but connects peoples, does not oppose anyone and does not threaten anyone. Our great national goal is not the assertion of our ambitions in Europe, not the implementation of Eurasian doctrines and utopias in the spirit as preached by the Eurasians of the 20s, but the transformation of the north of the Eurasian supercontinent, this bridge between oceans and different civilizations, into a super-strong, reliably working structure.
Questions and tasks for the document
- Determine how the author of the text views globalization.
- How do you understand the words of N.N. Moiseev about “the opportunity to draw on the best that is on both banks”?
- Why do you think the scientist considers Russia’s position “between... two centers of economic power” to be one of the sources of its prosperity?
- What is the connection between the proposed text and the content of the paragraph?
Self-test questions
- What explains the variety of ways and forms of social development?
- What is the process of globalization?
- What are the manifestations of globalization in the economic sphere? What contributes to it?
- What is the contradictory nature of the globalization process?
- What are the main global problems of our time? What causes their appearance?
- What points of view on the issue of progress have been expressed by philosophers in the past and in our time?
- What is the contradictory nature of progress?
- What criteria for progress were proposed by thinkers of different eras? What are their pros and cons?
- Why can the humanistic criterion of progress be considered comprehensive, overcoming the one-sided approach of other criteria?
Quests
- In the mid-1990s. Ninety of the top 200 multinational corporations were headquartered in the United States, accounting for half of all sales. Please comment on this data.
- American philosopher E. Wallerstein developed a theory of the world system. This system, which began to take shape back in the 16th century, includes a core (industrial countries of the West), a semi-periphery (Wallerstein included states in southern Europe, such as Spain), a periphery (countries of Eastern Europe) and an external arena (states of Asia and Africa, involved in the world economy only as raw material appendages). At the same time, the philosopher argued that the countries included in the core organize the world economic system in such a way that it primarily meets their interests.
Consider the provisions of this theory. What seems true to you, and what is difficult to agree with? If we follow the author’s logic, which countries form the core of the system today? constitute the semi-periphery and the periphery? Is the outer arena still standing?
- Try to evaluate the reforms of the 1860-1870s from the standpoint of the universal criterion of progress.
- Philosopher of the 20th century M. Mamardashvili wrote: “The final meaning of the universe or the final meaning of history is part of human destiny. And human destiny is the following: to be fulfilled as a Human. Become Human." How is this philosopher’s thought related to the idea of progress?
Thoughts of the wise
“Progress consists in the greater and greater predominance of reason over the animal law of struggle.”
L. N. Tolstoy (1828-1910), Russian writer
The radical left has shown that many internal factors in developing countries are a reflection of external factors. Underdevelopment becomes the product of dependence, just as, in turn, dependence follows from underdevelopment. In 1978, Frank’s monograph “Accumulation in the World, 22” was published. It is an attempt to analyze the historical roots of the inequality that has developed in the modern world. The main idea is that the backwardness of peripheral societies is due to their inclusion in the world capitalist economy as dependent and subordinate partners. The world market becomes the environment in which world dualism arose and grew. Peripheral capitalism, being dependent on the metropolis, turns out to be infected with an inferiority complex and loses the ability to develop independently. There is not only dependent development, but also “underdevelopment”, which is a consequence of the export of foreign capital to colonial and dependent countries. The idea of strengthening asymmetric interdependence received an original interpretation in the concept of world economics by Immanuel Wallerstein. The main blame for the backwardness of the states of the third echelon of capitalist development lies with the countries of the “golden billion”. These highly developed countries of the first echelon manage the system of the capitalist world economy in such a way that backward countries are simply doomed to remain backward: their raw materials are bought at reduced prices, and high-tech products are sold to them at inflated prices; they are not allowed access to advanced technologies. A group of countries is also emerging that occupies an intermediate position (semi-periphery). They are peripheral in relation to the center, but at the same time they are the “center” in relation to even weaker countries (periphery)
Strictly speaking, there are two opposing opinions on this issue. Representatives of classical liberalism, developing the model of comparative advantage, prove the benefits of outward-oriented policies. Their views are extremely popular in a number of newly industrialized countries (Taiwan, South Korea, Brazil, etc.). In contrast, the radical left is quite critical of the possibilities of such development.
32. Basic economic concepts of developing countries: “peripheral economy”; "dependent development"; "self-reliance"; new international economic order.
THEORY OF PERIPHERAL ECONOMY Prebisch
At the heart of T."p.e." lies a critique of the existing system of international division of labor, which determines the specific place of developing countries in the world economy. In this case, the “center-periphery” model is used, where the emphasis is on the structural relationships of the “center” (leading powers), which has a monopoly on technology and producing means of production, and the “periphery” (economically backward countries of the world), which extracts raw materials and produces food . The impulses of the “center”, diverging to the “periphery”, lead to deformation of the development of the economy of the “periphery”, making it extremely vulnerable to external influences and fluctuations in the market situation. The economy of the “periphery” takes on a dual character: the main feature and an indicator of underdevelopment. Foreign trade cannot, under these conditions, be the main engine of economic development for the “periphery”. The world market is not capable of ensuring such a redistribution of income so that the “center” and the “periphery” simultaneously enjoy the benefits of increased labor productivity. Overcoming economic backwardness, according to T.E., is possible only on the basis of a radical restructuring of the international division of labor and deep structural reforms of the world capitalist economy.
Dependency theory or dependent development theory- a theory based on the assertion that the economic backwardness and political instability of underdeveloped, developing countries is the result of their integration into world economy and systematic pressure from developed powers. The central tenet of dependency theory is that undeveloped states in the “periphery” become poorer as a result of their resources and capital flowing to the rich countries of the “center.”
Undeveloped countries provide natural resources, cheap labor and developed countries with sales markets, without which the latter could not support such high level the lives of its inhabitants. Developed countries reproduce dependency structures in the rest of the world in various ways. This influence is multifaceted, it includes economic influence (finance, technology patents, etc.), direct political intervention (in the media, education, culture, etc.), issues of hiring and training of labor, etc. Developed countries through monopolization of markets, economic sanctions and military force actively oppose the attempts of the undeveloped to free themselves from dependence.
For scientists and practitioners in Asia and Africa there was no need to prove the existence of their countries’ dependence on the center. They were mainly concerned with the question of how to get rid of this dependence, what policies should be pursued to ensure the progress of their countries, which was also reflected in the names of the concepts they developed. One of them was the concept of alternative development, which was developed by the Indian R. Kothari, the Bangladeshi A. Rahman, the Indonesian Soejatmoko, the Sri Lankan P. Vignaraja, the Egyptian I.S. Abdullah and many other researchers, including from Latin America (E. Oteisu). Another was the concept of self-reliance, which was clearly formulated at the Third Conference of Non-Aligned States in Lusaka (1970). There is no fundamental difference between the two named concepts. Therefore, many of those who were adjacent to the first then participated in the development of the second. Finally, we can mention the concept of a new international economic order, which general outline was formulated at the IV Conference of Heads of State and Government of Non-Aligned Countries in Algeria (1973).
