Sixties of the 19th century. The era of great reforms in Russia (60s of the 19th century)

The entire public life of Russia was placed under the strictest supervision by the state, which was carried out by the forces of the 3rd department, its extensive network of agents and informers. This was the reason for the decline of the social movement.

A few circles tried to continue the work of the Decembrists. In 1827, at Moscow University, the Kritsky brothers organized a secret circle, the goals of which were the destruction royal family, as well as constitutional reforms in Russia.

In 1831, N.P.’s circle was discovered and destroyed by the tsar’s guards. Sungurov, whose participants were preparing an armed uprising in Moscow. In 1832, the “Literary Society of the 11th Number” operated at Moscow University, of which V.G. was a member. Belinsky. In 1834, the circle of A.I. was opened. Herzen.

In the 30-40s. Three ideological and political directions emerged: reactionary-protective, liberal, revolutionary-democratic.

The principles of the reactionary-protective direction were expressed in his theory by the Minister of Education S.S. Uvarov. Autocracy, serfdom, and Orthodoxy were declared the most important foundations and a guarantee against shocks and unrest in Russia. The conductors of this theory were professors of Moscow University M.P. Pogodin, S.P. Shevyrev.

The liberal opposition movement was represented by the social movements of Westerners and Slavophiles.

The central idea in the concept of the Slavophiles is the conviction in the unique path of development of Russia. Thanks to Orthodoxy, harmony has developed in the country between different layers of society. Slavophiles called for a return to pre-Petrine patriarchy and the true Orthodox faith. They particularly criticized the reforms of Peter the Great.

Slavophiles left numerous works on philosophy and history (I.V. and P.V. Kirievsky, I.S. and K.S. Aksakov, D.A. Valuev), in theology (A.S. Khomyakov), sociology, economics and politics (Yu.F. Samarin). They published their ideas in the magazines “Moskovityanin” and “Russkaya Pravda”.

Westernism arose in the 30s and 40s. 19th century among representatives of the nobility and various intelligentsia. The main idea is the concept of community historical development Europe and Russia. Liberal Westerners advocated a constitutional monarchy with guarantees of freedom of speech, the press, a public court and democracy (T.N. Granovsky, P.N. Kudryavtsev, E.F. Korsh, P.V. Annenkov, V.P. Botkin). They considered the reform activities of Peter the Great the beginning of the renewal of old Russia and proposed to continue it by carrying out bourgeois reforms.

Huge popularity in the early 40s. acquired the literary circle of M.V. Petrashevsky, which over the four years of its existence was visited by leading representatives of society (M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.N. Pleshcheev, A.N. Maikov, P.A. Fedotov, M.I. Glinka, P.P. Semenov, A.G. Rubinshtein, N.G. Chernyshevsky.

Since the winter of 1846, the circle became radicalized; its most moderate members left, forming the left revolutionary wing led by N.A. Speshnev. Its members advocated a revolutionary transformation of society, the elimination of the autocracy, and the liberation of the peasants.

The father of the “theory of Russian socialism” was A.I. Herzen, who combined Slavophilism with socialist doctrine. He considered the peasant community to be the main unit of the future society, with the help of which one can reach socialism, bypassing capitalism.

In 1852, Herzen went to London, where he opened the Free Russian Printing House. Bypassing censorship, he laid the foundation for the Russian foreign press.

The founder of the revolutionary democratic movement in Russia is V.G. Belinsky. He published his views and ideas in “Notes of the Fatherland” and in “Letter to Gogol,” where he sharply criticized Russian tsarism and proposed the path of democratic reforms.

RUSSIAN JOURNALISM IN THE AGE OF REFORM IN THE 60S OF THE 19TH CENTURY

So, in the first half of the 19th century. the high social position of Russian journalism was consolidated, the type of literary and social monthly was determined as the leading one in the press system.

In journalism, a lot of space is occupied by the personal element, the authority of the leader. The main figure in the press becomes the literary critic. It is not the publisher or editor, but the leading critic-publicist who determines the direction, significance and authority of the publication.

As before, few private newspapers are published, although the “Gubernskie Gazette” (since 1838) and some special publications appear.

A significant breakthrough is taking place in the field of freedom of speech thanks to the efforts of Herzen and his Free Printing House in exile.

Russia's defeat in Crimean War exposed the extreme backwardness of the country, which was under conditions of serfdom and autocracy. The second half of the 50s is marked by the strengthening of the revolutionary movement in the country, and the need for socio-economic changes becomes more and more tangible. Under the pressure of the liberation movement and the needs of economic development, many representatives of the ruling class begin to express ideas about the abolition of serfdom through reforms from above.

The ideas of Belinsky and his associates about the need to abolish and destroy serfdom become common property. Now the struggle is unfolding around the conditions for the liberation of the peasants. Russian journalism had to play an important role here.

Among the landowners there was still a large layer of conservatives who wanted to keep the old relations unchanged. Liberals sought to liberate peasants from serfdom, while ensuring maximum privileges for landowners and capitalists. And only revolutionary democrats sought such orders after the abolition of serfdom, when the people received land, political freedom, when the interests of the people, especially the peasantry, were reliably protected.

Each of these areas had its own print media: magazines and newspapers.

"Russian Messenger"

The organ of the liberal-conservative trend, first of all, turned out to be the magazine M.N. Katkova "Russian Messenger" The magazine, organized in 1856, on the eve of reforms, advocated the abolition of serfdom, the elimination of the old bureaucracy, but while maintaining autocracy and the dominant position in the country of noble landowners.

After peasant reform Katkov turns more and more to the right. He actively opposes the democrats (especially Herzen and Chernyshevsky), condemns the Polish uprising of 1863, and declares himself a patriotic statesman. In magazines and newspapers "Moskovskie Vedomosti" which he has been acquiring on lease since 1863, Katkov criticizes any anti-Russian actions and intentions of the European powers, rebels against the internal turmoil of the liberals, and exposes sedition. “It is only due to a misunderstanding that they think that monarchy and autocracy exclude “people’s freedom”; in fact, it ensures it more than any stereotyped constitutionalism.”

“We call ourselves loyal subjects,” the publicist proudly asserted. This position found many supporters; the authority of Katkov the journalist was quite high.

Liberal positions were taken by Kraevsky's Otechestvennye zapiski, the newspapers St. Petersburg Vedomosti, Our Time and others.

"Contemporary" 1650-1860

But the most important, striking and significant in content and influence on society was the democratic magazine "Contemporary", the editor of which was still N. Nekrasov. Having survived the years of the “dark seven years” (1848-1855), a brutal political reaction that hampered the development of advanced Russian journalism after the European revolution of 1848, Nekrasov, already in the mid-50s, took a number of measures to revive the magazine, attracted prominent writers: I.S. Turgeneva, I.A. Goncharova, L.N. Tolstoy and others, opens the humorous department “Yeralash” (where the literary parody character Kozma Prutkov first appears), searches for and finds new employees.

In 1854, N.G. began collaborating with Sovremennik. Chernyshevsky is a great democratic revolutionary, first as a literary critic, and then as a publicist, politician and organizer of all revolutionary forces in the country. Chernyshevsky began by reviving Belinsky's principles in both literary criticism and journalism. With the support of editor Nekrasov, he begins the struggle for the democratization of Sovremennik itself (“On sincerity in criticism”, “Essays on the Gogol period of Russian literature” and other articles). He gives battle to representatives of noble aesthetics and liberal fiction writers who found themselves in the magazine during the years of reaction. Great value had the ideas of his dissertation “On the aesthetic relationship of art to reality”, philosophical works “Anthropological principle in philosophy”, etc. Nekrasov supports young employee, and gradually liberals, including Turgenev, one after another begin to leave Sovremennik.

With the arrival of N.A. to the magazine in 1858. Dobrolyubov, the positions of the revolutionary democrats are significantly strengthened.

By 1859, the contradictions of Russian life had become so acute that a revolutionary situation had developed in the country, when a peasant uprising against serfdom and landowners was becoming more and more real.

During these years, Sovremennik began to play a particularly important role as a center of advanced ideology, the ideological headquarters of the liberation movement. The magazine is undergoing internal and external restructuring in order to most successfully conduct revolutionary propaganda. Issues related to the discussion of peasant reform, the conditions for the liberation of peasants from landowners, which have been constantly discussed in the magazine since 1857, are actually removed from the agenda. They give way to the propaganda of revolution, uprising as the most radical means of overcoming the oppression of the landowners.

Chernyshevsky already realized at this time that the reform, which the autocratic government and landowners were preparing in fear of the onslaught of the revolution, would be a deception: the fundamental interests of the people would not be satisfied. Based on this, he begins the ideological preparation of a peasant uprising.

Invariably condemning and exposing the feudal landowners, the magazine, however, deals the main blow at this time to liberal ideology, realizing that the liberals, with their policy of conciliation, can nullify all the efforts of democracy and the people. The magazine opens a “Politics” section. Chernyshevsky begins to lead it, transferring the department of literary criticism under the leadership

Dobrolyubova. Analyzing the events of European history and the facts of the class struggle of peoples in the “Politics” department, Chernyshevsky convinces his readers of the inevitability of revolution and the need to isolate liberals.

Dobrolyubov in his critical articles, such as “A Ray of Light in the Dark Kingdom”, “What is Oblomovism?”, “When will the real day come?” etc., debunks serfdom, condemns liberals for indecisiveness and betrayal of popular interests, fosters faith in the liberating forces of the people, who cannot endlessly tolerate their oppressors. Using the plot of Turgenev’s novel “On the Eve,” the critic calls to fight against the “internal Turks” and not to trust the government’s reforms. In 1859, Dobrolyubov, with the approval of Nekrasov, organized a new satirical department in Sovremennik (actually a magazine within a magazine) called “Whistle”. And this department was directed primarily against Russian and international liberalism, all carriers of reactionary, anti-people ideas. Here Dobrolyubov showed himself as a talented satirist poet.

In his articles of political content, Dobrolyubov, analyzing the experience of the historical development of advanced European countries, comes to the conclusion about common revolutionary ways to overcome the resistance of the exploiting classes both in Europe and in Russia (“From Moscow to Leipzig”). The peculiarity of Russia should lie only in a more decisive and consistent struggle against exploitation and liberal-bourgeois compromise.

Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov achieve great perfection in the methods of revolutionary propaganda. An example of revolutionary propaganda under tsarism and cruel censorship is Chernyshevsky’s article “Isn’t this the beginning of change?” In form, this is a literary-critical article dedicated to folk stories writer N. Uspensky. But in this form of a critical article, the revolutionary writer was able to put a sharp assessment of the state of the country, the idea of ​​the inevitability of a revolution to satisfy the just demands of the Russian people. In the course of analyzing literary sources, Chernyshevsky quotes in the article the poem “Song of the Wretched Wanderer” from Nekrasov’s poem “Peddlers”, which contains the following words:

I'm going to the village: man! Do you live warmly?

It's cold, stranger, it's cold,

It’s cold, dear, it’s cold!

I'm on the other side: man! Are you eating and drinking well?

Hungry, wanderer, hungry,

Hungry, dear, hungry! Etc.

And then he asks the imaginary peasant: “Can’t you live warmly? But isn’t it possible for you to live a satisfying life? Is the land bad if you live on black soil, or is there little land around you if it’s not black soil? Why are you looking?” (PSS T.7. P. 874). But the question of land is one of the fundamental issues of the Russian (and not only Russian) revolution.

In an effort to shatter the idea of ​​the Russian peasant as a downtrodden and passive creature, Chernyshevsky resorts to allegory in the article, comparing the people with an uncomplaining, meek horse on which they carry water all their lives. But “the horse rides and rides calmly and prudently - and suddenly it rears up or neighs and carries off...”. So in the life of the most humble person, of the people, there are moments when he cannot be recognized, for “he cannot have the strength to remain coldly in an unpleasant position forever.” The quiet activity of the meekest horse cannot do without such antics. Such an impulse is a revolution, which “in five minutes will move you (and yourself, of course) so far forward that it would not be possible to move at a measured, quiet pace in a whole hour” (ibid., pp. 881-882). And so that the reader has no doubt that we are talking about the social behavior of people, Chernyshevsky calls to remember the liberation impulse of the people in the Patriotic War of 1812. No less indicative from the point of view of the skill of a revolutionary publicist is the article “Russian man at rendez vous” and many other. Allegory and allegory very often turned out to be a reliable means of revolutionary propaganda.

There is no doubt about the skill of Chernyshevsky, who knew how to talk about the revolution in the censored press and educate real revolutionaries with his articles.

The ideas of the revolution were no less clearly reflected in Dobrolyubov’s articles and reviews. As an example, we can cite Dobrolyubov’s article “When will the real day come?”, marked by the critic’s ardent sympathy for the fighters for the happiness of the people - Insarov and Elena Stakhova.

The popularity of Sovremennik in the 60s was exceptionally great. The magazine's circulation reached 6-7 thousand copies. Chernyshevsky published special reports on the distribution of the magazine and reproached those cities and towns where they did not subscribe to the magazine and did not receive a single copy, although he understood that not everyone could find the means to subscribe,

The significance of Sovremennik in the history of Russian journalism is exceptionally great. It was one of the best magazines of the 19th century. His main advantages were complete ideological unity, strict consistency of direction, devotion to the interests of the people, progress and socialism. Journalism has acquired unprecedented importance. The best articles of Russian journalism, many of Nekrasov’s poems, Chernyshevsky’s novel “What is to be done?” were published here, and the satirical work of the great Russian writer M.E. began here. Saltykov-Shchedrin.

All the years of publication of Sovremennik, the censorship kept a vigilant eye on it; in 1862, the magazine was suspended for its revolutionary direction for six months, and in 1866, after the death of Dobrolyubov and the arrest of Chernyshevsky, it was completely closed in violation of the legislation on personal press by order of the king.

The leaders of the magazine - Nekrasov, Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov - had exceptional authority and influence on their contemporaries. The articles of Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, and the poems of Nekrasov were read with enthusiasm by leading figures of other peoples inhabiting Russia and the Slavic countries. The fact is that the process of development of liberation ideas in Russia in the 60s coincided with the awakening of civic activity of the peoples of Ukraine, Transcaucasia, the Volga region, part of Central Asia, the struggle for national and social independence of Bulgaria, Poland, Serbia and others Slavic peoples. The influence of Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov on L. Karavelov, X was enormous. Botev, S. Serakovsky, S. Markovich and many others. Russia itself went from being a stronghold of reaction to important factor revolutionary movement in Europe.

Consistent struggle against the remnants of feudalism, oppression, exploitation, foreign enslavement, criticism of the strategy and tactics of bourgeois liberals, revolutionary animation, dedication, selflessness predetermined this influence.

« Russian word»

The second magazine of revolutionary democracy of the 60s of the XIX century. appeared "Russian Word". The magazine was organized in 1859, but acquired a democratic character only in 1860 with the arrival of the new editor G.E. Blagosvetlova. Blagosvetlov is a typical commoner. The son of a poor priest, who was left early without financial support, graduated from St. Petersburg University on his own, but did not find a place in the government service due to his democratic beliefs and political unreliability.

The magazine "Russian Word" had a popular science bias. Here, along with issues of literature and literary criticism, much attention was paid to natural science knowledge and facts scientific life. He was very popular among students and in the Russian provinces. By changing the staff, Blagosvetlov managed to increase the magazine's circulation from 3 to 4.5 thousand copies. The editor’s most successful decision was to invite D.I. to the role of leading critic in the magazine. Pisareva.

Entering Russian journalism at a crucial moment in Russian public life In the 60s, the critic had to determine his place among the main contending trends. And he identified him as an ally of Sovremennik and Chernyshevsky, which he directly stated in the second part of one of the first large articles published in Russian Word, “Scholastics of the 19th Century.”

Pisarev acted as a lawyer for “hungry and naked” people, a supporter of the emancipation of the individual from any social and family constraints and bonds. First of all, he defended the mental emancipation of man from dogmas and moral concepts generated by serfdom. Fighters for the freedom of mankind from mental darkness and oppression (Voltaire, Heine) deserve the highest praise from critics.

On the eve of the peasant reform of 1861, Pisarev spoke out in defense of Herzen’s authority, spoke sharply negatively about the dynasty of the reigning house of the Romanovs in Russia, in general about a society divided into classes, where one appropriates the fruits of the labor of another (see the articles “On the Chedeau-Ferroti brochure” , "Bees"). Pisarev advocates materialism.

In an article about a brochure by the hired writer Chedeau-Ferroti, Pisarev directly called for the overthrow of the Russian autocracy. For attempting to publish this work in an illegal printing house, the publicist was imprisoned for four years in the Peter and Paul Fortress.

Pisarev thought a lot about the potential abilities of the Russian peasantry for revolutionary struggle. The publicist considered the lack of consciousness among the mass of the people to be a great disadvantage and sought to promote knowledge on a maximum scale, believing that knowledge itself is such a force that a person who has mastered it will inevitably come to recognize socially useful and revolutionary Activities directed against tsarism and exploitation.

Pisarev is a talented critic and interpreter of the work of many Russian writers: L. Tolstoy, Turgenev, Ostrovsky, Dostoevsky, Chernyshevsky. On the eve of the reform and after it, he defends the type of commoner in literature, the type of new people like Bazarov from Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons”, and then the hero of Chernyshevsky’s novel “What is to be done?” Rakhmetov and others. He promotes literary characters who, being realists, people who know how to work and benefit people at any time, are capable of becoming leaders of the revolution during the direct struggle of the masses for social justice and renewal (articles “Bazarov”, “Realists”, “Thinking Proletariat”). His talented defense of the image of Bazarov and the entire novel “Fathers and Sons” by I.S. is known. Turgenev in a polemic with Sovremennik critic M.A. Antonovich.

As a follower of Belinsky, the critic advocates art that is true to the truth of life, realism, high ideology and morality.

Pisarev most decisively condemned the so-called “pure art”.

At the same time, Pisarev is a complex, contradictory figure. He is characterized by certain hobbies and straightforwardness in promoting his beliefs, utilitarianism, and the fallacy of some denials.

Pisarev had an exceptional talent as a polemicist, and therefore many of his works cannot be considered without taking this circumstance into account. A number of Pisarev’s so-called misconceptions were only a deliberate polemical aggravation of problems. Pisarev also loved paradoxical posing of questions.

In general, Pisarev was no less persistent and consistent fighter against feudalism and its products in all spheres of life, its remnants in Russian life after 1861, than the leading employees of Sovremennik. The publicist had a deep understanding of social processes and the question of the driving forces of the Russian revolution, especially in the context of the end of the revolutionary situation of the 60s. His skepticism about the readiness of the Russian peasantry for revolution turned out to be historically justified.

Along with Pisarev, the magazine “Russian Word” defended the “hungry and naked” N.V. Shelgunov, V.A. Zaitsev, N.V. Sokolov, P.N. Tkachev. The French reporter and publicist Elie Reclus fruitfully collaborated as a permanent foreign observer.

The anti-monarchical, anti-feudal position of the magazine more than once caused repression by tsarism. Simultaneously with Nekrasov’s Sovremennik, Russkoe Slovo was suspended for 6 months in 1862 and was finally closed in 1866.

"Time"

In the 60s, the Russian writer F.M. began his journalistic activity. Dostoevsky.

Together with his brother Mikhail in 1861-1863. he published a magazine "Time".“Notes from the House of the Dead”, “Humiliated and Insulted” by F.M. were published here. Dostoevsky, “Everyday Scenes” by N.A. Pleshcheeva, “Sin and misfortune do not live on anyone” by A.N. Ostrovsky and others. A large place was devoted to French criminal chronicles, masterfully processed by the editors; the articles touched upon issues of youth education; There were departments for domestic news and foreign news. The magazine was varied and interesting to the public and attracted up to four thousand subscribers.

Dostoevsky led criticism and polemicized with Dobrolyubov on issues of art and literature.

An important role in the magazine was played by the idealist critic N.N. Strakhov, who, with the consent of the publishers, defended a certain special identity of the Russian people, developed the ideas of the so-called pochvennichestvo as opposed to Westernism, speculative Western European utopian socialism. The magazine argued that Russia’s trouble is not in serfdom (especially since it has been abolished), but in the separation of the intelligentsia from the people. He accused Sovremennik of being groundless, of trying to instill Western European diseases in the Russian people, and although the “soilers” were not homogeneous in their views, they were united precisely by their disagreement with the revolutionary democrats.

Strakhov especially vehemently objected to the material approach to improving the lives of the people. Changing the position of the masses must come through moral and religious improvement: the world cannot be healed either by bread or gunpowder, but only by “good news.” The patience of the Russian people was interpreted as a commendable virtue; Strakhov, by his own admission, tried to convey his hostility towards the nihilists. Dostoevsky.

At the same time, the magazine ridiculed Katkov’s conservative opinions and his fear of Sovremennik. The magazine objected to K. Aksakov, challenging the thoughts of the article “The Public - the People” about the extreme contrast between the ideals and habits of the people and the privileged part of the population, the gentlemen.

Saltykov-Shchedrin and Antonovich in Sovremennik more than once spoke out against the inconsistency of Vremya’s position, the conservatism of a number of points in its social program, and the denial of the need for struggle.

In 1863, due to the magazine's coverage of the causes of the Polish uprising, the magazine was closed by the government. But F.M. Dostoevsky continued his publishing activities, having undertaken a monthly called "Epoch" which was published for two years (1864-1865). The magazine “Epokha” continued to defend the ideas of pochvennichestvo, discussed the new judicial reform and intensified polemics on a number of issues with the democratic magazines “Sovremennik” and “Russkoe Slovo”.

"Spark"

The era of revolutionary animation of the 60s led to the appearance of a large number of satirical publications in the country. The most expressive in form and content was a weekly magazine called "Spark"(1859-1873). Its publishers were the famous poet-translator Beranger Vasily Kurochkin and cartoonist Nikolai Stepanov.

The feuilletons in verse and prose of the poet V.I. deserve high praise. Bogdanov (author of the famous song “Hey, Dubinushka, Let’s Whoop”), dedicated to international events 60-70s - the revolutionary struggle in France, the liberation struggle of Latin American countries, etc.

Russian journalists of subsequent generations highly valued the role and traditions of Iskra as a satirical publication.

In the 60s, satirical magazines such as Alarm Clock, Gudok, and some others also deserve attention.

Review questions

1. When did M.N.’s independent editorial and publishing activities begin? Katkova, renting the newspaper “Moskovskie Vedomosti”, organizing the magazine “Russian Herald”?

2. What changes have occurred in the magazine “Sovremennik” N.A. Nekrasov in the late 1850s - early 1860s?

3. List the main problems of N.G.’s articles. Chernyshevsky on the peasant question.

4. What was the meaning of N.A. Dobrolyubov into the concept of “real criticism”?

5. For what purpose was the “Whistle” department organized in the Sovremennik magazine?

6. Was there a magazine “Russian Word” by G.E. Is Blagosvetlov an ally of Sovremennik?

7. What are the features of D.I.’s journalism? Pisareva?

8. What is the difference between the assessment of the novel by I.S. Turgenev’s “Fathers and Sons” in “Sovremennik” and in “Russian Word”?

9. What place did the Dostoevsky brothers’ magazine “Vremya” take in the system of Russian journalism of the 60s? What was the theory of “soilism”?

10. Controversy between F.M. Dostoevsky and N.A. Dobrolyubov on issues of art.

11. Indicate the advantages of the satirical magazine “Iskra”.

Texts for analysis

N.G. Chernyshevsky . Is it difficult to buy land? Is this the beginning of a change?

N.A. Dobrolyubov. What is Oblomovism?

M.A. Antonovich. Asmodeus of our time.

DI. Pisarev. Bazarov. Realists.

F.M. Dostoevsky. A number of articles about Russian literature.

In 1841, the British took Canton, Amoy and Ningbo. In 1842 the British captured Shanghai and Zhenjiang. The threat to Nanjing forced China to sue for peace. China ceded Hong Kong to England, opened Canton, Amoy and Fuzhou to English trade, returned Ningbo and Shanghai to Britain and paid an indemnity of 20 million dollars.

Notes:

* To compare events that took place in Russia and Western Europe, in all chronological tables, starting from 1582 (the year of the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in eight European countries) and ending with 1918 (the year of the transition of Soviet Russia from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar), the DATE column indicates date only according to the Gregorian calendar, and the Julian date is indicated in parentheses along with a description of the event. In chronological tables describing the periods before the introduction of the new style by Pope Gregory XIII (in the DATES column) Dates are based on the Julian calendar only.. At the same time, no translation is made to the Gregorian calendar, because it did not exist.

Literature and sources:

Russian and world history in tables. Author-compiler F.M. Lurie. St. Petersburg, 1995

Chronology Russian history. Encyclopedic reference book. Under the leadership of Francis Comte. M., " International relations". 1994.

Chronicle of world culture. M., " White City", 2001.

Culture of post-reform Russia (60s - 90s of the 19th century).

Russian culture second half of the 19th century century developed in conditions when new, capitalist relations were established in the country and various reforms were carried out. But at the same time, remnants of the serfdom system remained, a labor movement was born, general social protest against autocracy expanded, and serious changes took place in social structure. All this had an impact on the cultural development of Russia.

After the abolition of serfdom, society and the state realized the need for widespread education of the people. The development of industry and technology required competent workers. Real schools were opened for children of all classes. In the 1980s, the number of parochial schools increased. The first ones appeared Sunday schools. More than 10 thousand zemstvo (primary) schools were opened. Main type high school There were gymnasiums in which the main subjects were literature, languages, and history. There were also men's real schools; in the 90s, 300 women's clinics were opened educational institutions. The growth of higher education institutions continued. In the 60s there were 7 universities, after the reform 2 more were opened (in Odessa and Tomsk). The number of technical universities has increased. A foundation was laid for higher women's education: Higher Women's Courses were opened in St. Petersburg and Moscow. However, in general, the level of literacy of the population in Russia still remained one of the lowest in Europe (Balakina T.I. History of domestic culture. Part 2. - M., 1995, pp. 72-76).

Russian science achieved major successes in the second half of the 19th century. Russian physiologist I.N. Sechenov published the work “Reflexes of the Brain” in 1863; his research in the field of physiology and higher nervous activity was continued by I.P. Pavlov, having created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes. Biologist I.I. Mechnikov created a theory of the development of multicellular organisms and discovered the phenomenon of phagocytosis.

Mathematicians P.L. Chebyshev, Sofya Kovalevskaya; physicist A.G. Stoletov contributed to the development of mathematical science and physics.

The great chemist D.I. Mendeleev created periodic table elements, founded agrochemistry.

A.N. Lodygin invented the incandescent electric light bulb. P.N. Yablochkov created a transformer and an electric arc lamp.

The works of ethnographer N.N. became very famous. Miklouho-Maclay, who studied the nature and peoples of Oceania and New Guinea. The humanities have received widespread development. Professor-historian S.M. Soloviev in 1851 published the first volume of “History of Russia since Ancient Times” (a total of 29 volumes were published), bringing the presentation up to 1775. Historian V.O. Klyuchevsky created the five-volume “Course of Russian History”.

In the literature of this period they found a reflection social problems post-reform Russia, socio-political trends, people's life. The leading direction in literature was critical realism, the principle of which was the depiction of real life, a turn to life common man. A striking example of accusatory literature is the work of satirist M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“The History of a City”, “The Golovlevs”). A huge place in the literature of this period is occupied by the work of F.M. Dostoevsky (“Poor People”, “Crime and Punishment”, “The Brothers Karamazov”). The second half of the 19th century saw the heyday of L.N. Tolstoy (novels “War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”, “Sunday”). Continues in the 60s - 70s literary activity I.S. Turgenev - masters of the classic Russian novel (“On the Eve”, “Fathers and Sons”, “Smoke”).

The leader of the mixed youth was the poet N.A. Nekrasov (“ Railway", "Russian women", "Living well in Rus'"). At the end of the 70s, A.P.’s literary activity began. Chekhov (stories “A Boring Story”, “A Lady with a Dog”, “Duel”, “Ward No. 6”, “Man in a Case”; plays “The Seagull”, “The Cherry Orchard”, “Three Sisters”). During these years, M. Gorky, I.A. entered the literature. Bunin, V.V. Veresaev, V.G. Korolenko (Essays on the history of Russian culture of the second half of the 19th century./Ed. N.M. Volynkin. - M., 1976, pp. 148-169).

In the second half of the 19th century, the main type of printed publications remained magazines: Sovremennik (Saltykov-Shchedrin), Otechestvennye zapiski (Nekrasov), Russian Vestnik. Book publisher D.I. made a great contribution to the development of national culture. Sytin. He published textbooks, popular science books, cheap editions, collected works of classics of Russian literature, dictionaries, and encyclopedias. In the subsequent years of the 19th century, volumes began to be published in Russian. Encyclopedic Dictionary"Brockhaus and Efron. The publication of 12 main and 4 additional volumes was completed in 1907.

IN fine arts In the second half of the 19th century, the dominant movement was critical realism. The ideologist and organizer of artists of this movement was I.P. Kramskoy. In 1870, the Association of Art Traveling Exhibitions was created, which included members of the Artel, as well as almost all the major realist artists of that time. One of the most prominent representatives of critical realism in Russian painting was the artist V.G. Perov (pictures “Rural Peasant Procession at Easter”, “Troika”, “Hunters at a Rest”). Landscape artists I.I. glorified Russian nature in their paintings. Shishkin, A.K. Savrasov, V.D. Polenov, A.I. Kuindzhi, I.I. Levitan. The pinnacle of realism in Russian painting is considered to be the work of I.E. Repin (“Barge Haulers on the Volga”, “They Didn’t Expect”, “Refusal of Confession”; historical paintings “Princess Sophia”, “Ivan the Terrible and His Son Ivan”) and V.I. Surikov (“Morning of the Streletskaya Execution”, “Boyaryna Morozova”). V. Vasnetsov turned to the genre of folklore; he took fairy-tale scenes as the basis for his paintings: “Alyonushka”, “Bogatyrs”, “The Knight at the Crossroads”. Many paintings by artists of the second half of the 19th century were included in the collection of the Tretyakov Gallery. In 1898, the Russian Museum was opened in St. Petersburg.

The architecture and sculpture of this period is characterized by a mixture of styles: modern and antique stylization. Outstanding sculptor M.M. Antokolsky created a series of sculptural portraits: “Peter I”, “Yaroslav the Wise”, “Ermak”. In 1880, a monument to A.S. was unveiled in Moscow. Pushkin (on Tverskaya), its author is sculptor A.I. Opekushin. Under the leadership of M.O. Mikeshin, dozens of sculptors created the “Millennium of Russia” monument in Novgorod.

Classicism has finally become obsolete in architecture. Now, in accordance with the demands of life, industrial and administrative buildings, train stations, banks, bridges, theaters, and shops were built. The “neo-Russian” style - antique stylization - is becoming widespread. In this style they were built in Moscow Historical Museum(architect V.O. Sherwood), city council building (architect D.I. Chichagov), Upper shopping arcade - now GUM (architect A.I. Pomerantsev). Multi-storey and apartment buildings were built. Construction of shopping arcades has begun in Russia. Theater buildings were built in Rybinsk, Irkutsk, and Nizhny Novgorod. The Polytechnic Museum (architect Shokhin) was opened in Moscow.

The second half of the 19th century was the heyday of Russian musical art. The composers of The Mighty Handful created a number of great works: operas by Mussorgsky (Boris Godunov, Khovanshchina), Rimsky-Korsakov (The Pskov Woman), Borodin (Prince Igor, the Bogatyrskaya symphony). During this period, the greatest Russian composer P.I. worked. Tchaikovsky. He created 6 symphonies, symphonic poems “Romeo and Juliet”, “Manfred”, ballets “Swan Lake”, “Nutcracker”, “Sleeping Beauty”, operas “Eugene Onegin”, “Mazeppa”, “Iolanta” and others, 100 romances . At the end of the century, young composers entered musical life - S.I. Taneev, A.K. Lyadov, S. Rachmaninov, A.N. Scriabin. Composer, conductor, pianist A. Rubinstein creates the “Russian Musical Society” in St. Petersburg.

Theater plays a special role in the life of post-reform Russia. Theaters operated in 100 cities of Russia. The main centers of theatrical culture were the Maly Theater in Moscow and the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg. The glory of the Maly Theater is associated with the names of brilliant Russian actors: Maria Ermolova, Prov Sadovsky, Ivan Samarin, Alexander Lensky. In the 60s - 70s, private theaters and theater groups began to emerge in Moscow and other cities of Russia (Balakina T.I. History of Russian Culture. Part 2, - M., 1995, pp. 90-96).

The growth of capitalist production in post-reform Russia raised serious practical and theoretical problems before science and technology, education. The level of literacy of the population increased significantly, there was an unprecedented rise in scientific creativity and an increase in interest in science in society, and the expansion of book publishing and magazine business. This period saw the revival of social thought, literature and art, and the establishment of democratic principles in them.