The hallmark of society as a system is. Society: concept, signs, functions

Society

3) humanity as a whole;

4) all definitions are correct.

1) culture; 3) society;

2) biosphere; 4) civilization.

1) part of the material world;

2) system;

3) forms of uniting people;

4) natural environment.

1) natural conditions;

2) no changes;

3) public relations;

1) the army; 3) politics;

2) nation; 4) school.

1) natural soils;

2) climate;

3) productive forces;

4) environment.

2) man and technology;

3) nature and society;

1) the stability of the elements;

3) isolation from nature;

3) self-development;

Society and nature

1) society is a part of nature;

2) nature is a part of society;

1) society and nature;

2) techniques and technologies;

3) civilization and culture;

2) the presence of signs of the system;

3) conscious activity;

4) urban growth.

1) nature is a part of society;

3) remained a part of nature;

1) presidential elections;

1) the action of elemental forces;

2) the presence of signs of the system;

3) the existence of laws;

4) change, development.

Society and culture

1) society; 3) biosphere;

2) civilization; 4) culture.

1) production; 3) culture;

2) civilization; 4) reform.

1) buildings;

2) knowledge;

3) symbols;

1) knowledge; 3) transport;

2) soil cultivation;

3) rules of conduct in society;

4) creation of works of art.

1) all elements of material and spiritual culture are inextricably linked;

2) all elements of material and spiritual culture exist independently of each other;

3) culture represents the measure of the human in a person;

4) each generation accumulates and preserves cultural traditions and values.

7. Cultural universals are called:

1) a set of norms of behavior;

2) features of the national culture;

3) the body of knowledge about society;

4) some common features or forms inherent in all cultures.

8. Which of the following is true:

1) society is a part of culture;

2) society and culture are inextricably linked;

3) society and culture exist independently of each other;

4) society can exist outside of culture.

9. Cultural universals do not include:

1) the presence of a language;

2) the institution of marriage and family;

3) religious rituals;

4) features of the national culture.

10. Material culture includes:

1) vehicles;

2) value system;

3) worldview;

4) scientific theories.

The relationship of the economic, social, political and spiritual spheres of society

1. Demographic changes in the state reflect primarily the manifestation of the sphere of social life:

1) economic; 3) political and legal;

2) social; 4) spiritual.

2. Economy, politics, social relations and spiritual life of society are:

1) independently developing spheres of society;

2) interrelated spheres of society;

3) stages of social life;

4) elements of social life.

3. The social sphere of society includes:

1) power, state;

2) production of material goods;

3) classes, nations;

4) science, religion.

4. Relationships in the process of material production can be attributed to:

1) the economic sphere;

2) the political sphere;

3) social sphere;

4) the spiritual realm.

5. Production costs, labor market, competition characterize the sphere of society:

2) social; 4) spiritual.

6. The electoral system, the procedure for adopting laws characterize the sphere of society:

1) economic; 3) political;

2) social; 4) spiritual.

7. The political sphere of public life includes:

1) relationships between classes;

2) relations in the process of material production;

3) relations arising from state power;

4) the relationship of morality and ethics.

8. Relationships between representatives of different confessions are characterized by:

1) the economic sphere;

2) the political sphere;

3) the social sphere;

4) the spiritual sphere.

9. What sphere of public life are scientific discoveries, writing novels:

1) the economic sphere;

2) the political sphere;

3) social sphere;

4) the spiritual realm.

10. Choose the correct judgment:

1) all spheres of public life are interconnected;

2) all spheres of social life develop independently of each other;

3) the political sphere of public life cannot influence the economy;

4) there is no relationship between the phenomena of economic and social life.

Person

Man as a product of biological, social and cultural evolution

1. Are the judgments about the generic traits of a person correct? A person is distinguished from animals by the ability:

A. Create a socio-cultural environment.

B. Work together.

1) only A is true; 3) both judgments are correct;

2) only B is true; 4) both judgments are wrong.

2. A person from any animal is distinguished by the ability to:

1) exchange of information with their own kind;

2) imitation (assimilation of the forms and behavior of others);

3) cooperation (joint production of tools);

4) the transfer and mutual assimilation of various emotional states.

3. An important difference between humans and animals is:

1) self-awareness; 3) reflexes;

2) instincts; 4) needs.

4. Both man and animal are characterized by:

1) labor activity;

2) care for offspring;

3) cognitive activity;

4) self-realization.

5. The main factors of anthroposociogenesis (human origin) include:

1) natural selection and 1) 2,3,4,5;

struggle for existence; 2) 2.3;

2) labor; 3) 2.4.5;

3) religion; 4) 1,2,4,5;

5) thinking;

6) the custom of burying the dead.

Human being

1) consciousness; 3) abstraction;

2) being; 4) movement.

2. The concept of "person" includes:

1) a single concrete person, considered as a biopsychosocial being;

3. The concept "individual" means:

1) anyone who belongs to the human race, since he possesses the properties and qualities inherent in all people;

2) a single concrete person, considered as a biosocial being;

3) a subject of conscious activity, possessing a set of socially significant traits, properties and qualities that a person as a subject realizes in public life;

4) social individuality, uniqueness, which is formed in the process of upbringing and human activity under the influence of a specific socio-cultural environment.

4. The concept of "personality" means:

1) a single concrete person, considered as a biosocial being;

2) anyone who belongs to the human race, since he possesses the properties and qualities inherent in all people;

3) a subject of conscious activity, possessing a set of socially significant traits, properties and qualities that a person as a subject realizes in public life;

4) a person who has reached the age of majority, possessing all the full rights and freedoms determined by citizenship.

5. Individuality is:

1) specific features inherent in humans as a biological organism;

2) a person's temperament, his character;

3) the unique originality of both natural and social in a person;

4) a set of human needs and abilities.

6. A single representative of the human race is called:

1) an individual; 3) personality;

2) individuality; 4) the creator.

7. By what criterion are sanguine, choleric, melancholic and phlegmatic people distinguished:

1) character; 3) personality type;

2) temperament; 4) individuality.

Activities and creativity

1. Creativity, in a broad sense, is:

1) an activity that generates something new;

2) inventive activity;

3) rationalization activity;

4) an activity that generates something new, socially significant.

2. Knowledge, the conditions for obtaining which are not realized:

1) creativity; 3) activities;

2) intuition; 4) imagination.

3. A necessary component of a person's creative activity, which is expressed in the construction of an image or a visual model of its results, in cases where information about the conditions and means of achieving the goal is insufficient:

1) intuition;

2) fantasy;

3) deduction;

4) induction.

The purpose and meaning of human life

Self-realization

1. Self-realization is:

1) self-actualization;

2) the realization of their capabilities and abilities;

3) I am a concept;

4) the results of life.

Human inner world

1. Rules of conduct that act as requirements of the highest, unconditional wisdom, which do not need explanation and proof, are norms:

1) religious;

2) traditions and customs;

3) morality;

4) political.

2. The concept that defines the spiritual attitudes and values \u200b\u200binherent in an individual or a social group in a particular historical era:

1) ideology;

2) social psychology;

3) mentality;

4) intuition.

3. The means of introducing a person to the way of life and the way of action of society, that is, to its culture, is:

1) worldview;

3) ideology;

4) education.

4. A type of worldview, a distinctive feature of which is the development of a theoretically and actually grounded picture of the world:

1) ordinary;

2) scientific;

3) religious;

4) humanistic.

5. A type of worldview, a distinctive feature of which is that it is to a decisive extent formed under the influence of life circumstances, is based on personal experience and common sense:

1) ordinary;

2) scientific;

3) religious;

4) humanistic.

Consciousness and unconsciousness

1. Indicate the correct combination of mental manifestations of a person. Mental manifestations of a person related to the sphere of the conscious:

A. Noble intention.

B. Panic actions.

D. Accurate understanding.

1) ABC; 3) ABG;

2) BVG; 4) all of the above.

2. The sphere of the conscious includes:

1) the instinct of self-preservation; 3) noble intention;

2) creative inspiration; 4) panic mood.

3. The sphere of the conscious does not include:

1) strong conviction;

2) purposeful recall;

3) creative inspiration;

4) accurate understanding.

4. Indicate the correct combination of mental manifestations of a person. Mental manifestation of a person, related to the sphere of the unconscious:

A. Self-preservation instinct.

B. Panic actions.

D. Creative insight.

4) all of the above.

Self-knowledge

1. A person's comprehension of his mental activity, words, actions:

1) reflection;

2) self-actualization;

3) self-realization;

4) cognition.

2. Awareness and assessment of their actions, feelings, thoughts, motives of behavior, interests, their position in the world is the basis of:

1) self-preservation;

2) self-realization;

3) self-education;

4) self-awareness.

3. The process of cognition, where a person makes himself the subject of study, is called:

1) self-education;

2) self-knowledge;

3) self-realization;

4) self-control.

Behavior

1. Indicate the correct combination of characteristics of human behavior. Traits that unite the behavior of humans and other living beings:

A. Collaboration (joint production of tools).

Cognition

Knowledge of the world

1. The English philosopher F. Bacon believed that:

2) knowledge is power;

3) knowledge is the result of knowledge;

4) knowledge is given by God;

5) the truth is specific.

2. Knowledge is subject, and can contain both knowledge about objects, their properties and functions, and:

A. Involuntary.

A. Rational cognition.

B. Sensual cognition.

1) only A is true;

2) only B is true;

3) both judgments are correct;

4) both judgments are wrong.

6. Rational cognition as opposed to sensory cognition:

1) inherent only to educated people;

2) forms the concept of the subject;

3) is the criterion of truth;

4) leads to useful results.

7. Name the first three positions representing the forms of sensory cognition, the next three forms - rational cognition:

1) judgment; 4) concept;

2) perception; 5) presentation;

3) sensation; 6) inference.

Arrange the numbers in ascending order. Answer:

8. From the listed forms, select the forms of rational knowledge:

1) concept;

2) judgment;

3) observation;

4) analysis;

5) perception.

9. "Some metals are liquids" are:

1) concept; 3) inference;

2) judgment; 4) observation.

10. Philosophers F. Bacon and D. Locke are:

1) empiricists; 3) dualists;

2) rationalists; 4) agnostics.

11. True knowledge as opposed to false:

1) is obtained in the course of cognitive activity;

2) corresponds to the very subject of knowledge;

3) requires effort to understand;

4) is presented using scientific terms.

Truth and its criteria

1. Truth from the point of view of modern science is:

1) the correspondence of one thought to another;

2) "thing in itself";

3) the correspondence of thought to the subject;

4) the result of knowledge.

2. Choose the correct judgments about the views of empiricists and rationalists:

A. Scientific knowledge.

B. Parascientific knowledge.

1) only A is true;

2) only B is true;

3) both judgments are correct;

4) both judgments are wrong.

12. Name the social form of knowledge of the world: Social forms of knowledge of the world

Scientific knowledge

1. A feature of scientific knowledge is:

1) striving for objectivity;

2) progressiveness;

3) use of the experiment;

4) there is no right answer.

2. What are the levels of scientific knowledge:

3. Laws, principles, concepts, theoretical schemes, logical consequences form:

1) scientific facts;

2) scientific theory;

3) a scientific school;

4) scientific dogma.

A. Research A. Einstein, M. Planck and other outstanding scientists radically changed the concept of space, time, matter.

Spiritual life of society

Culture and spiritual life

1. All types of transformative activities of man and society, as well as its results are:

1) culture; 3) spiritual culture;

2) civilization; 4) material culture.

2. Which of the following is a tradition:

1) celebration of Maslenitsa;

2) invention of the telephone;

3) holding a civil forum;

4) works of poets of antiquity.

3. Which of the following characterizes innovation in culture:

1) celebration of the New Year;

2) religious norms;

3) the invention of radio;

4) the rule of etiquette to let women go ahead.

4. Elements of social and cultural heritage that persist for a long time, over the life of many generations, are:

1) cultural traditions;

2) cultural universals;

3) innovation;

4) civilization cycle.

5. What position characterizes the phenomenon of innovation in culture:

1) creation of a new one, an increase in cultural wealth in the process of inventions;

2) the transfer of cultural values \u200b\u200bfrom generation to generation;

3) the accumulation and transfer of works of art, scientific discoveries;

4) elements of cultural heritage that have developed over many generations.

6. Which of the statements is incorrect:

1) culture represents the measure of the human in a person;

2) tradition and innovation - ways of cultural development;

3) each generation accumulates and preserves cultural traditions and values;

4) each generation creates its own samples of culture, not relying on the experience of previous generations.

7. Culture in a broad sense means:

1) the level of development of science and technology;

2) the totality of all human achievements;

3) the level of education of the population;

4) all genres of art.

8. The element of spiritual life is:

1) holding a film festival;

3) construction of a new theater building;

4) increasing the political activity of the population.

9. The works of innovative creators are, as a rule, elements of:

1) mass culture;

2) elite culture;

3) folk culture;

4) screen culture.

The science

1. The field of activity, the function of which is the development and theoretical systematization of objective data, is:

2) public consciousness;

3) education;

4) art.

2. A feature of scientific knowledge is:

1) theoretical nature;

2) the formation of an aesthetic attitude;

3) subjective nature;

4) emotional and artistic reflection of reality.

3. Science as a form of culture is not characterized by:

1) creation of material assets;

2) connection with mental work;

3) the presence of a goal;

4) the creation of spiritual values.

4. Which of the judgments about the essence of science is incorrect:

1) science is the result of the activities of scientists aimed at understanding the surrounding world;

2) science is thinking in concepts, and art is in artistic images;

3) the immediate goals of science - description, explanation and prediction of the processes and phenomena of reality;

4) the scientific picture of the world is its emotional-figurative model.

5.What is the function of science associated with the solution of questions concerning the structure of matter, the structure of the Universe, the origin and essence of life:

1) cultural and ideological;

2) prognostic;

3) production;

4) social.

6. In the creation of a scientific and technical basis for the development of the productive forces of society, the function of science is manifested:

1) cultural and ideological;

2) social;

3) production;

4) prognostic.

7. In solving global problems of our time, the most important function of science is:

1) social;

2) production;

3) cultural and ideological;

4) prognostic.

8. Which of the following does not apply to the ethical norms of science:

1) social responsibility of scientists;

2) obtaining commercial profits from research;

3) unselfish search and defense of truth;

9. The development of genetic engineering, biotechnology makes the most relevant ethical standards such as:

1) social responsibility of scientists for the consequences of their discoveries;

2) unselfish search;

3) making commercial profit;

4) striving for knowledge of the truth.

10. Which of the signs does not characterize science as a form of culture:

1) logical proof;

2) imagery;

3) consistency;

4) complex descriptions of the object.

4.6. Education and self-education

1. What is the process of humanitarization of education:

1) in increasing attention to humanitarian and social disciplines;

2) in the maximum convergence of national educational systems;

3) refusal from the ideologization of education;

4) in increasing attention to the individual, her interests, needs.

2. According to the Law of the Russian Federation "On Education", education is:

1) a purposeful process of education and training in the interests of a person;

2) a purposeful process of education and development in the interests of society;

3) a purposeful process of education, training and development in the interests of a person, society and the state;

4) a purposeful learning process in the interests of the state, society, and individuals.

3. In accordance with the Constitution in the Russian Federation, it is mandatory:

1) higher education;

2) initial vocational education;

3) complete secondary education;

4) basic general education.

4. One of the principles of education, in which special attention is paid to the individual, his interests and needs, is:

1) humanization;

2) humanitarization;

3) internationalism;

4) standardization.

5. The process of familiarizing with culture, values \u200b\u200bof human society, knowledge about the world, accumulated by previous generations, is called:

1) science; 3) education;

2) art; 4) creativity.

6. Which of the following does not apply to the basic guarantees of the right to education?

1) basic general education is compulsory;

2) general accessibility and free of charge basic general education;

3) free receipt of higher education on a competitive basis;

4) complete secondary education is compulsory.

7. Education in the modern world is distinguished by:

1) extremely secular character;

2) general availability;

3) a variety of ways to obtain;

4) exclusively state character.

8. Which of the following does not characterize the principle of humanization in education:

1) special attention is paid to the moral education of a person;

2) introduction of distance learning forms;

3) attention to the individual, her interests;

4) the introduction of new humanitarian disciplines in teaching.

9. Which of the statements about the nature of self-education is incorrect:

1) distance learning is a form of self-education;

2) self-education helps to increase the individual level of culture;

3) self-education is not an end in itself, it is dictated by the objective needs of society;

4) self-education is characteristic of a person during the period of initial socialization.

10. Secondary vocational education can be obtained in:

1) college; 3) gymnasiums;

2) high school; 4) the university.

1. The set of norms that determine human behavior in society and based on public opinion is:

1) morality; 3) law;

2) ethics; 4) cult.

2. Science, the subject of which is the norms of morality, the rules of decent behavior, is:

1) ethics; 3) cultural studies;

2) aesthetics; 4) philosophy.

3. The ideas of political moralism, that is, the inextricable link between politics and morality, were first formulated:

1) Aristotle; 3) Machiavelli;

2) Marx; 4) Lenin.

4. A special form of social consciousness that regulates the actions of people in society with the help of norms is called:

1) culture; 3) morality;

2) right; 4) religion.

5. The difference between moral norms and legal norms is that they:

1) are generally binding;

2) based on public opinion;

3) supported by the power of the state;

4) are formally defined.

6. Which of the statements about moral and legal norms is incorrect:

1) morality and law contribute to social harmony, harmonization of relations between people;

2) morality and law regulate the activities of people with the help of norms;

3) the majority of legal norms are based on moral norms;

4) moral and legal norms are always formally defined.

7. The form of the normative-evaluative orientation of the individual, communities in behavior and spiritual life, mutual perception and self-perception of people are:

2) morality;

3) culture;

1) legal; 3) moral;

2) professional; 4) religious.

1) I. Kant; 3) K. Marx;

2) O. Spengler; 4) Plato.

10. An unconditional, compulsory requirement that does not allow objections, mandatory for all people, regardless of their origin, position, circumstances, are called:

2) a legal norm;

4) corporate rule.

Society

1.1. 1.3; 2.4; 3.3; 4.4; 5.3; 6.3; 7.3; 8.4; 9.4; 10.3

1.2. 1.3; 2.1; 3.2; 4.2; 5.1; 6.4; 7.3; 8.1; 9.3; 10.1

1.3. 1.4; 2.3; 3.1; 4.1; 5.2; 6.2; 7.4; 8.2; 9.4; 10.1

1.4. 1.2; 2.2; 3.3; 4.1; 5.1; 6.3; 7.3; 8.4; 9.4; 10.1

1.5. 1.1; 2.3; 3.4; 4.1; 5.4; 6.4; 7.1; 8.3; 9.3; 10.3

1.6. 1.1; 2.2; 3.2; 4.2; 5.2; 6.3; 7.1; 8.3; 9.4; 10.4

1.7. 1.2; 2.4; 3.4; 4.1; 5.2; 6.4; 7.1; 8.2; 9.1; 10.2

1.8. 1.1; 2.3; 3.1; 4.3; 5.4; 6.3; 7.3; 8.2; 9.3; 10.3

1.9. 1.3; 2.1; 3.4; 4.1; 5.1; 6.2; 7.4; 8.2; 9.1; 10.2

Person

2.1. 1.3; 2.3; 3.1; 4.2; 5.4

2.2. 1.2; 2.1; 3.1; 4.3; 5.3; 6.1; 7.2

2.3. 1.3; 2.3; 3.4; 4.2; 5.2; 6.1

2.4. 1.1; 2.2; 3.2; 4.3; 5.2; 6.4; 7.2; 8.4; 9.1; 10.4; 11.2; 12.2; 13.2

2.5. 1.1; 2.2; 3.2; 4.3

2.6. 1.1; 2.3; 3.1; 4.1

2.7. 1.2; 2.3

2.8. 1.4; 2.4; 3.2; 4.1; 5.2; 6.3; 7.1

2.9. 1.3; 2.3; 3.4; 4.2; 5.1

2.10. 1.3; 2.3; 3.3; 4.3

2.11. 1.1; 2.4; 3.2; 4.2; 5.3

2.12. 1.3; 2.2; 3.3; 4.3; 5.2; 6.humanistic

2.13. 1.4; 2.1; 3.1; 4.4

Cognition

3.1. 1.1; 2.3; 3.3; 4. subject; 5.3; 6.2; 7.2; 8.3; 9.3; 10.3

3.2. 1.1; 2.2; 3.2; 4. presentation; 5.1, 6.2, 7.235146; 8.1.2; 9.2; 10.1; 11.2

3.3. 1.3; 2.3; 3.4; 4.1; 5.1-B; 2-A; 3-B

3.4. 1.4; 2.4; 3. scientific revolutions; 4.4; 5.2; 6.3; 7.1; 8.1; 9.3; 10.2; 11.2; 12.art

3.5. 1.1, 2. theoretical; 3.2, 4.1, 5. observation; 6. hypothesis; 7.1, 8.1

3.6. 1.4; 2.2; 3.2; 4.2; 5.2; 6.3; 7.3; 8.4; 9.3; 10.2; 11. self-esteem; 12.3

3.7. 1.1; 2.3; 3.1; 4. opinions, judgments; 5.3; 6.2; 7.2

Spiritual life of society

4.1. 1.1; 2.1; 3.3; 4.1; 5.1; 6.4; 7.2; 8.1; 9.2

4.2. 1.2; 2.1; 3.4; 4.1; 5.1; 6.1; 7.3; 8.2; 9.3; 10.4

4.3. 1.3; 2.2; 3.2; 4.2; 5.4; 6.3; 7.3; 8.2; 9.3; 10.1

4.4. 1.3; 2.2; 3.1; 4.3; 5.4; 6.2; 7.1; 8.2; 9.3; 10.4

4.5. 1.1; 2.1; 3.1; 4.4; 5.1; 6.3; 7.1; 8.2; 9.1; 10.2

4.6. 1.1; 2.3; 3.4; 4.1; 5.3; 6.4; 7.3; 8.4; 9.4; 10.1

4.7. 1.3; 2.2; 3.4; 4.1; 5.2; 6.3; 7.2; 8.4; 9.2; 10.3

4.8. 1.1; 2.1; 3.1; 4.3; 5.2; 6.4; 7.2; 8.3; 9.1; 10.1

4.9. 1.3; 2.3; 3.4; 4.1; 5.4; 6.3

Society

Society as a dynamic system

1. The concept of "dynamic system" refers to:

1) only to society; 3) both to nature and to society;

2) only to nature; 4) neither to nature, nor to society.

2. Complete the definition "Society is ...":

1) a certain stage in the historical development of mankind;

2) a certain group of people united for joint activities;

3) humanity as a whole;

4) all definitions are correct.

3. What concept does the definition refer to: "A part of the material world that is isolated from nature, closely related to it, which includes ways of interaction between people":

1) culture; 3) society;

2) biosphere; 4) civilization.

4. The concept of "society" does not include the provision:

1) part of the material world;

2) system;

3) forms of uniting people;

4) natural environment.

5. The main features of society as a system include:

1) natural conditions;

2) no changes;

3) public relations;

4) the stage of historical development.

6. The main subsystems of society include:

1) the army; 3) politics;

2) nation; 4) school.

7. The elements of society include:

1) natural soils;

2) climate;

3) productive forces;

4) environment.

8. Public relations include ties between:

1) climatic conditions and agriculture;

2) man and technology;

3) nature and society;

4) by various social groups.

9. What characterizes society as a dynamic system:

1) the stability of the elements;

2) the immutability of social groups;

3) isolation from nature;

4) renewal of social forms.

10. What characterizes society as a dynamic system:

1) the presence of public relations;

2) connections between subsystems of society;

3) self-development;

4) ways of interaction between people.

Society and nature

1. Which of the judgments more accurately reflects the relationship between nature and society:

1) society is a part of nature;

2) nature is a part of society;

3) society and nature interconnected form the real world;

4) society has lost touch with nature.

2. Environmental issues exemplify the relationship:

1) society and nature;

2) techniques and technologies;

3) civilization and culture;

4) property relations and social structure.

3. The common feature of society and nature is:

1) acting as a creator of culture;

2) the presence of signs of the system;

3) conscious activity;

4) the ability to exist independently of each other.

4. Which example illustrates the influence of nature on the development of society:

1) adoption of a new Labor Code;

2) the influence of rivers on the economic life of the Slavs;

3) the establishment of a living wage;

4) granting benefits to war veterans.

5. An example of the interaction of nature and society is:

1) global warming;

2) changes in the demographic situation;

3) development of the sphere of production;

4) urban growth.

6. Problems generated by the interaction of society and nature are called:

1) scientific and technical; 3) cultural;

2) social; 4) environmental.

7. The relationship between nature and society is manifested in the fact that:

1) nature is a part of society;

2) nature determines the development of society;

3) nature has an impact on society;

4) nature does not depend on society.

8. In the process of development, society:

1) separated from nature, but closely related to it;

2) has become isolated from nature and does not depend on it;

3) remained a part of nature;

4) has ceased to influence nature.

9. Which example illustrates the interaction of nature and society:

1) presidential elections;

2) increasing the marginalization of society;

3) adoption of environmental legislation;

4) a concert of symphonic music.

10. What distinguishes nature from society:

1) the action of elemental forces;

2) the presence of signs of the system;

3) the existence of laws;

4) change, development.

Society and culture

1. The concept of "second nature" characterizes:

1) society; 3) biosphere;

2) civilization; 4) culture.

2. All types of transformative human activity, aimed not only at the external environment, but also at himself, are:

1) production; 3) culture;

2) civilization; 4) reform.

3. Material culture includes:

1) buildings;

2) knowledge;

3) symbols;

4. The spiritual culture includes:

1) knowledge; 3) transport;

2) household items; 4) equipment.

5. The original meaning of the word "culture" is:

1) the creation of artificial materials;

2) soil cultivation;

The concept of "society" is considered in two main aspects. The first assumes its philosophical explanation. In this aspect, society is called a part of the material world isolated from nature, which represents a form of historical development and human activity.

In history, cultural studies and sociology, society is usually considered as a system, a specific social organism (American, English, Italian, etc.) or a certain stage in the history of mankind (generic, capitalist, etc.).

The emergence of society by different philosophers and scientists has historically been interpreted in different ways. Today it is recognized that society is determined both at the level of social communities and at the level of individuals. This is what makes it possible to talk about as a system ", with its subsystems and constituent, structural elements.

The main element of any society is a person (a socially developed person). The subsystems of his life are the social, economic, political, social and spiritual spheres, which are closely intertwined and interact. Society as a system can exist precisely because of this interaction.

In addition to large subsystems, smaller links are also distinguished in society, for example, various communities. These include classes, ethnic communities, families, social groups, various collectives, etc., the interaction of which is usually called

Groups with stable relationships between them are formed into a social structure. Their members have common characteristics. It can be kinship, common origin, ethnic characteristics, common worldview (religious) attitudes, and others. dictates the norms of behavior to a person, instills value orientations, fosters the level of relevant claims.

The system of society is supported by - sustainable ways to meet the social needs of people. The main one is the state, which is the guarantor of legality, security, order and protection for a person. In turn, a person for the state is one of the participants and a taxpayer.

In the course of the historical development of society, changes occur in its structure, the principles on which it is based. Some types of groups lose their meaning, others appear. As a result, constant social integrity is maintained.

Modern ideas about society are based on a systematic approach. People are connected by common activities that are aimed at achieving common goals. The most important characteristic of society is its integrity, which exists despite the complex hierarchically structured relations.

Society is a system that successfully reproduces itself over time and generational change. The reproduction mechanism is based on existing stable relationships, which are practically independent in relation to its individual elements and structural links.

Society is also characterized by openness, which means its ability to exchange with the natural environment, energy, matter and information. Moreover, society, of course, has a much higher degree of organization in comparison with its environment. It is aimed at the constant satisfaction of its own needs, which indicates the effectiveness of its functioning.

Society as a system has unity, integrity and stability, which ensure adequate functioning in various spheres, all systems and subsystems.

Society - the social organism, which includes all types of communities, is characterized by integrity, dynamism, openness, self-organization, spatio-temporal being. Society is whole, so all the elements are in interaction. This relationship forms a unity of a higher order: groups, social communities, individuals, entering the system, acquire new forces and master a more effective way of action.

Sociology uses the fundamental position in its subject general systems theory: the order, the organization of the whole, of the system, is always higher than that of individual parts.

Social system there is integrity, acting in the form of social communities, institutions and organizations, the main elements of which are people, their norms and interactions.

Integrity is a system-forming quality of society, manifests itself in the production of material goods, ideas, the production of the person himself. But the main thing is that the main elements of the social system are people, their norms, sanctions, connections, relationships. The social system is based on activities aimed at reproducing the system itself.

Stability- this is a state of the system in which it is able to function and change, while maintaining the stability of its structure and functions to strong external influences. The system is able to adapt to changes, react to them positively.

Instability, instability - this is a state when the impact, both external and internal, exceeds some critical values, while emergency measures are required to preserve the system. If this does not happen, then the system passes into another qualitative state. For example, low incomes of the population, low living standards, strikes, etc. may be within the "norm". But when the norm is violated, the system degrades, crime increases, the quality of consumption falls, people's health deteriorates, life expectancy decreases, etc.

Society needs to maintain stability. The mechanism for maintaining stability is that it is necessary to achieve and maintain a balance of interests of social groups and social actors. It should be noted the importance of "social programs" that provide a living wage, support human potential (children, pensioners, disabled people in the first place). The share of social programs in the state budget is an indicator of the stability of society.

The destabilization of the social system contributes to the creation of coercive measures, voluntary and totalitarian) bans on strikes, elections, the introduction of various moratoriums, etc.

The sociological concept of the systemic nature of society includes the teaching about social time and social space. Social time is a form of real movement of any social system, regardless of how it is comprehended and experienced by us. The sociologist focuses on the carriers of social time: the individual, social communities, society as a whole. The term social time itself appeared in the middle of the 20th century. In sociology, there is a difference between the time of society and natural time. Time in society acts in the form of activity. This is the duration of the event, the amount of hours to create an item, the life time. This means that time also expresses the qualitative side of being, i.e. the content of the social process (slowdown, acceleration, rise, fall, regression, progress). Social science has discovered a non-physical form of time - working time, which is: 1) a quantitative measure of labor; 2) the main content of the time of human civilization. This means that in society there is always not a single, monolithic time, but a spectrum of social rhythms conditioned by the nature of individual social communities.

Thus, social timeIs a living form of activity that acts both as calendar time and as the cumulative time of an individual, social community, society as a whole, and as function, conditions and measure of social action.

Exist the problem of social space. Space (socially organized space) is a form of being of the material-objective and personal environment of society. It is characterized by objectivity, territorial distribution of the population, social distance between the individual and communities. Social space - this is the space of the natural environment of society and the space of "humanized" nature. This is "living space", i.e. the space of social interaction of communities, associations, collectives, their "location" in the system of social relations. And also this is the space of individual being (places of residence and work, recreation areas, the area of \u200b\u200binterpersonal communication).

Thus, the following systemic features of society are most essential for sociological analysis: integrity(as an internal quality that coincides with social production), sustainability (relatively constant reproduction of the rhythm and mode of social interactions; dynamism - (generational change, continuity, deceleration, acceleration ; openness (the social system preserves itself due to the exchange of substances with nature, it is possible only under the condition of equilibrium with the environment and obtaining a sufficient amount of energy and matter from the external environment ); self-development (its source is within society, it is production, distribution, consumption based on the interests and incentives of social communities); space-time forms of being, as well as ways of organizing it (people are united by activities, goals and needs).

The concept of society and social system.Sociology considers society in the following aspects. E. Durkheim considered society as a supra-individual reality based on collective ideas. M. Weber believed that society is the interaction of people, which is a product of social action. T. Parsons defined society as a system of relations between people, the connecting principle of which are norms and values. K. Marx characterizes society as a historically developing set of relations between people, which are formed in the process of joint activities of people.

These definitions reflect this approach to society as an integral system of elements.

In everyday language, the term "society" used in very early meanings. At first glance, it seems that the answer to the question "What is society?" not difficult. Indeed, the concept of "society" has long and firmly entered our scientific and everyday lexicon. But as soon as we make an attempt to give a definition, we immediately become convinced that there can be many such definitions.

Let's try to remember the familiar to us stable phrases, which would include this word. For example: a society of book lovers, a noble society, etc. In this case, by society, we mean a certain group of people united for communication, joint activities, mutual assistance and support for each other.

But here is another set of related concepts: primitive society, feudal society, French society. Here, using the concept of "society" we mean a certain stage in the historical development of mankind or a specific suffering. If we move further in this direction (from the particular to the general), then humanity as a whole is also called society - in its historical and prospective development. This is the entire population of the Earth, the totality of all peoples. We can say that this is a part of the material world, isolated from nature, which includes the ways of interaction between people and the forms of their unification.

In sociology, the concept of "society" has a broader universal meaning. SocietyIs a universal way of organizing social ties and social interaction, which ensures the satisfaction of all basic needs of people, self-sufficient, self-regulating and self-reproducing. Society arises as the ordering, strengthening of social ties, the emergence of special institutions, norms that support and develop these ties.

Society is not just a collection of united people, primordial and cultural individuals of collectives interacting and exchanging services with each other. All these collectives form a society by virtue of their existence under a common authority, which exercises its control over the territory delineated by borders, maintains and implants a more or less common culture. It is these factors that transform the aggregate of relatively specialized initial corporate and cultural collectives into society (E. Shiels. Society and Societies: Macrosocial Approach // American Sociology. - M., 1972).

The irreducibility of society to a simple sum of individuals is the main problem of its study... It is important for the originality and originality of each person to identify, capture, analyze the consistently recurring, typical in the life of society. This is the main task of the science of society. Systems analysis can be the most productive method for investigating these problems.

Many prominent sociologists have attempted to view society as a system. But due to the ambiguity of the methodological positions of the authors of the study, they seem to be too contradictory and diverse.

SystemIs something whole, irreducible to the sum of its elements. The originality of the whole is ensured in a special way, the order of interrelation and interdependence of its parts. Any system is characterized by a certain integrity of its very contradictory elements. Society, considered as a system, is a complex, moving set of the most diverse contradictory and even mutually exclusive processes and structures. But for each of them there is a place, all of them seem to be necessary for the functioning of the system and ensuring its balance and stability.

The study of a system can begin with the study of its main structural components, mechanisms of functioning and interaction. The presence of different approaches to structuring society explains the complexity of the phenomenon itself. Let us recall only the main types of organization of social life that make up society: social connections and relationships, social institutions, social communities, groups, strata, social organizations, values, norms, social roles.

Further, when considering society as a system, it is necessary to determine the way of organizing its elements. At first glance, it is rather difficult to determine what unites and connects religion and government bodies, especially in a country where the church is separated from the state? What unites production and family relations in modern society, where the family is not included in the production structure. What do a car factory and a theater have in common?

Many answers to all questions lie in the field of functional analysis. Each of the above elements performs a specific function in society; serves to satisfy a certain group of needs of individuals. Society unites its structural units not by establishing direct interaction between them, but on the basis of their functional dependence.

Functional dependence - this is what gives the set of elements as a whole such properties. Which, individually, none of them possesses. The merit of T. Parsons is that he made an attempt to analyze the social system with the definition of the basic functional requirements, without which the system cannot exist. A system, according to Parsons, is an interdependent part striving for self-maintenance of the order of interconnections, i.e. balance. But equilibrium is not identical to the order of relationship. Rather, equilibrium is a stable order, more precisely, self-sustaining.

A real system is often in a nonequilibrium state and, like an open system, exchanges matter, energy and information with the environment.

According to the general theory of systems, in some cases, the system under consideration is characterized by different rates of processes, is influenced by neighboring systems, some of which can, as it were, overtake, while others lag behind. As a result, the processes inherent in the past, present and future are intensified in it. Under the influence of all these circumstances, a situation arises in which processes inherent in the past and present begin to prevail in the center of the system, and not in the periphery - processes inherent in the present and future. It should be noted that in relation to society, the concept of "periphery" does not necessarily have a geographical meaning, it can be social, political, cultural, economic, etc. We can talk about remoteness from the center of the system, which at the moment determines its essence. Therefore, in this case, the essence of systems and subsystems, the nature of real, although contradictory, connections between them are of great importance.

According to Parsons, society as a system can function only if the following requirements (functions) are met:

1) it must have the ability to adapt, adapt to changed conditions and the increased material needs of people, be able to rationally organize and distribute internal resources;

2) it must be goal-oriented, capable of setting the main goals and objectives and maintaining the process of achieving them;

3) it must remain stable on the basis of general norms and values, assimilated by individuals, and relieve tension in the system;

4) it must have the ability to integrate, to include new generations in the system. Having identified the main functions of the system, T. Parsons determines the real executors of these functions in society. He dwells on four subsystems (economics, politics, culture, and kinship) that are responsible for each of these functions. Further, he points out the social institutions that, within each subsystem, directly regulate adaptive, goal-setting, stabilizing and integration processes (factories, banks, parties, state apparatus, church, school, family, etc.).

Then he gives a set of social roles, the fulfillment of which is based on the observance of the norms arising from fundamental values \u200b\u200band, as a result, corresponding to the basic functional imperatives.

The stability of the social system depends on the consistent implementation of the functional division of activities at the level of institutions and social roles. Chaos, on the other hand, gives rise to the performance by some institution of functions unusual for it and, increasing the internal tension of the system, leads to an increase in social entropy. In sociology, entropy refers to phenomena that are opposite to the concept of social order. The social order is characterized by a certain level of orderliness in the organization of social ties and interactions, which makes it possible to talk about the mutual consistency and predictability of people's actions.

Any social system, especially society, must have a sufficient level internal orderliness, which is achieved mainly due to the functional expediency of the actions of individuals and social institutions.

Long before T. Parsons, sociologists identified functional subsystems. There was disagreement over the definition of quantity and functionality.

In our domestic science, it is customary to distinguish economica subsystem that ensures the production of goods necessary to meet the material needs of individuals; spiritual and cultural, allowing a person to realize his spiritual needs and contributing to the normative regulation of society as a whole.

Social, regulating the consumption and distribution of all goods ; political , carrying out general management and management of the company.

What is the significance of long-standing functional subsystems? The selection of those raises the question of which of them determines the appearance of society as a whole. In sociology, the search for this foundation, which gives new knowledge a unique look, has been going on for more than one decade, and there is still no single solution.

K. Marx preferred the economic system. The mode of production of material goods, material life determines the social, political and spiritual processes of life in general.

The events of the distant 1917 marked the beginning of the distortions of all the postulates of non-economic determinism: the political upheaval was not the result, but the beginning of a change in the economic basis. The impact of politics on social life was very strong, all spheres of society were under its total control.

The problem of economic and political determinism worried post-Marxists, since touched upon the foundations of the social theory of Marx, and the real practice of "building socialism." In Western countries, politics and economics functioned without interfering with each other, discussions took place between supporters of technological and cultural determinism.

Supporters technological determinism tend to see the determining factor of social life in material production. In their opinion, the nature of labor, technique, technology determine not only the quantity and quality of material goods produced, the level of consumption, but also the cultural needs of people.

Adherents culturaldeterminism believe that the core of society is made up of generally accepted norms and values, the observance of which ensures the stability and uniqueness of the society itself. Differences in cultures predetermine differences in the actions and actions of people, in their organization of material production, in the choice of forms of political organization.

Apparently, it is still considered obvious that society can function normally eachwhen the subsystem sequentially fulfills its functional purpose.

The functional approach made it possible to systematize knowledge about society, but this approach also has certain limitations. Within the framework of this approach, which requires the recognition of each institution, each social entity as performing a function useful for society, it is difficult to explain the reasons for the "crises" of conflicts in the collapse of systems. Western sociologists (R. Merton) suggested talking not only about explicit, positive functions, but also about latent functions that pose a threat to stability, generate various deviations from generally accepted norms and rules, which are a kind of source of tension.

In drawing conclusions, it should be noted that when we raise the question of the functioning of society, we must accurately represent the problem to which we want to get an answer. The elements of structural and functional analysis should be addressed if the main thing for us is to clarify the stability, stability of society as a system.

Through understanding society as a whole, we can come to the identification of specific functions that are performed by its structural components that ensure the unity of the entire social organism. If we are interested in the causes of changes in society, we should turn to theories of social conflict.

Typology of societies

Modern societies presently present a rather variegated picture with obvious and implicit differences (language, culture, geographic location, level of stability, degree of social integration, opportunity for personal self-realization).

Society is an extremely complex, multilevel formation, and any universal classification is hardly possible here. From the variety of features characteristic of society, it is necessary to make them type-forming, and on this basis create your own typology.

The most stable in sociology is the division of society into traditional and industrial. The traditional is understood as a society with an agrarian way of life, with sedentary structures and with a method of socio-cultural regulation based on tradition. Today we perceive such a society as backward and primitive. It is characterized by extremely low rates of production development, meeting the needs at the minimum level. The behavior of the individual is strictly controlled, regulated by customs, norms, social institutions. Thoughts about possible transformations seem blasphemous and seditious.

The term "industrial society" belongs to Saint-Simon, which emphasizes a different production basis of society. An industrial society is characterized by the flexibility of social structures, which change depending on the needs and interests of people, social mobility, and a developed communication system.

This is a type of organization of social life that ensures the fulfillment of an integrative function by society not on the basis of strict control over individuals and their unifications, but through the creation of flexible structures that allow one to reasonably combine the freedom and interests of the individual with the general principles that regulate their joint activities. "An industrial society is the coordination of machines and people to produce goods," noted D. Bell.

The period of the 60s is characterized by the emergence of new concepts of post-industrial society, developed in American (D. Bell) and Western European (A. Touraine) sociology.

These concepts have arisen naturally and naturally - structural changes have taken place in the economy and culture of the most developed countries, suggesting a completely different view of society itself as a whole.

It is generally accepted that post-industrial society presupposes extensive automation of production, the use of robots and computers, high-tech technologies, etc. In fact, the main content of the transition to a post-industrial society is not only in the automation of production processes, not in mass computerization or the introduction of biotechnology. These are only external, albeit important, forms of manifestation of post-industrialization.

The first stage of the scientific and technological revolution (1950-1960s) in developed countries was associated with the growth of consumption of workers, with their transformation into socially developed individuals. The current, second stage, called the "microelectronic revolution", with the individualization of the labor process, turning it for a significant part of the majority into a kind of creative activity, a means of self-realization.

The emergence of a post-industrial society represents a deep revolution: social, economic, technological, spiritual, which can be compared with the Neolithic revolution at the beginning of human history. It means “the end of utopia”, the previously seeming utopian idea of \u200b\u200bfreeing man from the power of economic expediency, from alienating labor, from the need to earn his bread by the sweat of his brow - this idea is now beginning to be implemented in practice in the most developed countries of the world.

Like any deep revolution in the West in the past, modern post-industrialization began primarily as a revolution of consciousness. From the change in the value orientations of the active minority from “to have” to “to be” (E. Fromm) - from the desire to acquire material wealth to self-expression, from domination over nature to harmony with nature, from the view of labor as a means of earning money to understanding labor as a means of realizing one's abilities and asserting oneself - this is where the formation of post-industrial society began. In the process of this formation, the leading social type of personality of the Western person and the nature of social relations change. It can be defined as "rich individuality", "multidimensional person" (Fromm). He has the opportunity to choose between being employed and his own business, between different ways of self-expression and material success.

The new labor motivation is inseparable from economic democracy, including the conscious participation of workers in decision-making and production management, as well as from measures to humanize labor, which become not only a means of reaching agreement between employers and personnel, but also technological and production necessity.

A characteristic feature of a booming post-industrial society is a two-story, two-sector economy, consisting of a sector for the production of material goods and services, where market relations dominate and the sector of "human production", where the accumulation of human capital is carried out and there is no place for market relations (O. Toffler, USA). At the same time, "human production" is less and less the prerogative of the "welfare state" and more and more - of civil society itself.

The new world order on a postindustrial basis does not at all imply that the world should be unified along a single Western or East Asian model. On the contrary, this world order can only take shape as an organic unity of the diversity of civilizations. The role of the socio-cultural characteristics of each country, each major region of the planet in the process of the formation of a post-industrial society does not weaken, but on the contrary, increases, since in a post-industrial society, more than ever in history, the importance of spiritual production is great ... “Post-industrial society is determined by the quality of life measured by services and services - healthcare education, entertainment, art, which are now desirable and possible for everyone ”(D. Bell).

The information society is on the verge of our history. Much in it will still have to be understood, explained, but it is already quite clear: the information society will not be able to establish itself on its own, without the purposeful action of people.

It is widely believed that humanity has already entered that stage of its development, which is called the information society, that it will inevitably replace a post-industrial society. This is evidenced by the unprecedented development of computer technology, space communications, information technology, etc.

But there are also qualitatively different opinions that refer the information society to the concepts of the distant future, considering it premature to discuss its features. All that we observe in the development of the information sphere is a simple improvement of the post-industrial society.

N.N. Moiseev, developing this topic, believes that entry into the information society should be associated with the establishment of the Collective General Planetary Intelligence, with a qualitatively new stage in the development of civilization, and not only with electronics and computer engineering. The problem of the formation of the information society imposes on a person the burden of new responsibilities. In the context of a global crisis, humanity needs a new paradigm, different principles of development and existence on Earth of man as a biological species. Obviously, the traditional civilization, which we call post-industrial, has largely exhausted its potentialities. Having given unprecedented power to humanity, she did not teach how to use them. The discrepancy between needs and opportunities to satisfy them is one of the main contradictions of our time.

A. Touraine in 1969 wrote the book "Post-industrial society", where the main idea is traced: an industrial society is being transformed into an information society. On the basis of technological, informational progress, processes have developed that have caused serious concern. Thanks to preferential access to the most important socio-political information, proximity to electronic media, the state, the ruling elite become the owner of a colossal opportunity to influence the masses. It is precisely this danger - the growing role of the technocratic state and the gradual subordination of the civil state to it, notes Touraine in his work.

In the basis of typology, Marxism lays down differences in production relations. Accordingly, societies are distinguished: primitive, slave-owning, feudal, bourgeois societies and communist or socialist societies.

The existing different points of view show that the typology of complex education, which is society, cannot be unified and universal. It depends on the methodological approach of a particular researcher. It is necessary to understand the scientific and cognitive task of this or that approach and decide for yourself what is useful and valuable in the concept of a particular researcher.

Considering the basic principles of a systematic approach to society, we will define its basic concept.

System - it is a set of elements, ordered in a certain way, interconnected and forming some integral unity. The internal nature, the content side of any integral system, the material basis of its organization is determined by the composition, the set of elements.

A social system is a holistic education, the main element of which is people, their connections, interactions and relationships. These connections, interactions and relationships are stable and are reproduced in the historical process, passing from generation to generation.

According to the literature, there are several main parameters, signs, characteristics society as a social system.

1. Self-regulation... The ability of the system to adjust its activities taking into account the reverse influence of the environment. This means that each new stage of human activity that wants to change social relations takes into account previous efforts to transform the structure of society. Self-regulation is carried out by a spontaneous mechanism of reproduction and development of the structure of society. And it can also be carried out through conscious and planned management.

From the point of view of self-regulation, a society for successful functioning must meet the basic functional requirements: adaptation, achievement of goals, integration, retention of a model (control over its environment - primarily economic); to have a goal towards which social activity is directed, through the right to regulate relations between the elements of the system: individuals, institutions, to try to preserve and maintain the values \u200b\u200bof society.

2. Openness... This is the ability of a system to exist through exchange with the environment, nature, with other systems of society, information, energy, matter. It is carried out in the form of open activities of people to create and maintain conditions for life, the development of exchange of activities, the creation of material and spiritual values.

3. Information content... It is the ability of a society to use social information provided by the experience of generations. It allows you to make a diagnosis of society, as well as predict future development, using complex and targeted programs in management.

4. Determinism... This is predetermination, conditioning, dependence. It means that the society in its development is dependent on the previous conditions. The productive forces and methods of human activity today will certainly affect the lives of future generations in the general direction of their development. And specific forms, methods, rates of development are determined by specific conditions.

5. Hierarchy means that society is a multifaceted system, characterized by a combination of various levels and links of organization and subordination, subordination, dependence between them.

6. Centrality... It means that in the development of society some element and activity is declared that make up the building, its basis, the foundation of society. Many scientists declare as the center of society - the mode of production of material goods, labor, religion, private property, knowledge, peace.

7. Integrity - this is an objective attitude towards a person, groups, communities of people, thanks to which conditions are created and their vital activity is organized. Integrity signs:

a) social integrity has no parts and elements;

b) social space has no trifles, and social time is irreversible;

c) the abilities of each of the subjects of human activity are inimitable and unique.

8. Anti-entropy... It means that a qualitative indicator of the progress of society is the reduction in labor costs per capita. This means that the share of economic activity in public life as a whole is decreasing due to an increase in labor productivity, management efficiency and an increase in the level of culture. This leads to an increase in the role and significance of the spiritual principle, free time in people's lives. In this case, labor is called any activity that is aimed at meeting social needs. He is opposed by anti-labor. He threatens the existence of society. It embodies the processes of social disorganization, degradation, and social decay. It manifests itself in one-dimensionality of thinking, narrowness of interests, shortsightedness of actions, and the same order of feelings.

Any universal classification of society, according to scientists, is difficult, since it is an extremely complex, multi-level education.

According to a number of Russian sociologists, the following should be attributed to the criteria of society:

· The presence of a single territory, which is the material basis of social ties arising within it;

· Universality (universal character);

· Autonomy, the ability to exist independently and independently of other societies;

· Integrability: society is able to maintain and reproduce its structures in new generations, to include more and more new individuals in a single context of social life.

Some sociologists consider the systemic definition of R. Koenig to be the optimal features of society, according to which society is understood as:

1. Specific type of lifestyle.

2. Concrete social unity formed by peoples.

3. Economic and ideological associations based on contracts.

4. Whole society, that is, the totality of individuals and groups.

5. Historically specific type of society.

6. Social reality is the relationship of individuals and the structures and social processes based on these relationships.

The historical processes of the development of society are determined by many analysts according to various criteria.

Thus, the outstanding German scientist, philosopher G. Hegel presents the world of the emergence and development of society in four periods: the Eastern world, the Greek world, the Roman world, the Germanic world.

The French scientist C. Fourier believed that mankind in its development passed through periods: "slave" primitiveness, savagery, barbarism, entered the period of civilization. Subsequently, humanity will go through "guaranteeism", "socialism", "harmonism".

American scientist W. Rostow called the stages of development of society "stages of growth."

First stage - a traditional society, which was an agrarian society with primitive technology, with an estate-class structure and the power of large owners.

Stage two - this is a "transitional society", a period of transition to capitalism.

Third stage - this is the era of "take-off", rise, that is, the period of industrial revolutions in Western countries.

Fourth stage - this is a period of "maturity", that is, an industrial society.

Fifth stage - this is the period of "high mass consumption".

The French thinker J. Condorcet divided the process of formation of society into ten eras: first era - the era of the primitive state; second - the era of transition from a shepherd's state to agriculture; third - this is the era of specialization and division of labor between people; fourth-fifth - these are the eras of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome; sixth and seventh - these are the eras of the Middle Ages; eighth - this is the era of printing and the flourishing of science; ninth - this is the era that preceded the formation of the French Republic; tenth - this is the era of bourgeois society.

American sociologist N. Smelser identified four types of society: societies living by hunting and gathering, horticultural societies, agricultural societies and industrial societies.

French sociologist R. Aron divided the entire history of human society into two eras: pre-industrial and industrial.

A. Toynbee, a famous English scientist, taking religion as a criterion for assessing the historical stages of the development of human society, identified five large living civilizations:

1) Orthodox Christian, or Byzantine society, located in South-Eastern Europe and Russia;

2) an Islamic society, concentrated in an arid zone running diagonally across North Africa and the Middle East from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Wall of China;

3) Hindu society in tropical and subcontinental India to the South-East of the arid zone;

4) Far Eastern society in the subtropical and temperate regions between the arid zone and the Pacific Ocean;

5) Western Christian society (countries of Western Europe, America, Australia, where Catholicism and Protestantism are widespread).

In recent decades, sociologists have been talking about the emergence of a completely new type of society. The main trend in advanced industrial societies today is to shift the focus from manufacturing to service. The United States was the first country to employ over 50% of the workforce in service industries. Australia, New Zealand, Western Europe, and Japan soon followed America's example. Now postindustrial society refers to a society based on information, services and high technology, rather than raw materials and production.

The information chip is an invention that transforms society, and with it social relations.

The list of these changes is almost endless.

Among modern theories, the concept of a post-economic society, proposed by V.L. Inotsemtsev.

The post-economic society, in his opinion, follows the post-industrial one. Its main feature is the exit of individual interests of a person from the purely material plane, the colossal complication of social reality, the multiplication of the variety of models of social life and even the options for its development in time.

V.L. Inozemtsev, in this regard, distinguishes three large-scale eras: pre-economic, economic and post-economic. This periodization is based on two criteria: the type of human activity and the nature of the relationship between the interests of individuals and society. In the early stages of history, the motive of activity was explained by instinctive impulses, like in all biological beings. Further, the conscious nature of the activity had a goal - the creation and consumption of the material product of labor. A new round of development led to the orientation of the individual towards improving himself, his abilities, qualities.

In this case, there is a typology of forms of activity: pre-labor instinctive activity; work; creation.

As for the second criterion - the nature of the alignment of the interests of individuals and society, V.L. Inozemtsev notes:

1) in the early periods, the collective interest of a group or community rigidly dominates over individual

2) in an economic society, which is based on labor, personal gain, personal material interest dominate the interests of the community, competition develops.

3) a post-economic society is characterized by the absence of a struggle of personal interests, the desire for material success is not the main thing. The world is becoming polyvariant and multidimensional, the personal interests of people are intertwined and come into unique combinations, no longer opposing, but complementing each other's arcs.

This means that the post-economic society has an intensive and complex economic activity, but is no longer determined by material interests, economic feasibility. Private property in it is destructive, society returns to personal property, to the state of non-alienation of the worker from the instruments of production. A new type of confrontation is inherent in post-economic society: confrontation between the information and intellectual elite and all people who are not included in it, who are employed in the field of mass production and are therefore forced out to the periphery of society.