Sciences on the nature of the research carried out are divided by. Classification of scientific research
To define the concept of "science".
Science - a field of human activity aimed at developing and systematizing objective knowledge of reality. The basis of this activity is to collect facts, their continuous update and systematization, critical analysis and, on this basis, the synthesis of new knowledge or generalizations, which not only describe the observed natural or social phenomena, but also allow to build causal relationships with the ultimate goal of forecasting. Those hypotheses that are confirmed by facts or experiments are formulated in the form of laws of nature or society.
Science in a broad sense includes all conditions and components of relevant activities:
separation and cooperation of scientific labor;
scientific institutions, experimental and laboratory equipment;
research methods;
system of scientific information;
the entire amount of earlier scientific knowledge accumulated.
Defining the concept of "scientific research".
Scientific research is the process of studying, experimenting, conceptualization and verification of the theory related to the receipt of scientific knowledge.
Types of scientific research:
The fundamental study undertaken mainly to produce new knowledge regardless of the prospects of application.
Applied research is directed mainly to apply new knowledge to achieve practical purposes, solving specific tasks.
Monodisciplinary research is carried out within the framework of individual science.
An interdisciplinary study requires the participation of specialists from various areas and is carried out at the junction of several scientific disciplines.
A comprehensive study is carried out using a method of methods and techniques through which scientists seek to cover the maximum (or optimal) the possible number of significant parameters of the studied reality.
A single-factor or analytical study is aimed at identifying one, the most significant, according to the researcher, aspect of reality.
The search research is aimed at determining the prospects for working on the topic, finding ways to solve scientific tasks.
A critical study is carried out in order to refute the existing theory, models, hypothesis, law, etc. or to verify which of the two alternative hypothesis more precisely predicts reality. Critical studies are carried out in areas where a rich theoretical and empirical supply of knowledge has been accumulated and there are tested techniques for the implementation of the experiment.
Specifying research. This is the most common type of research. Their goal is to establish boundaries, within which the theory predicts facts and empirical patterns. Usually, compared to the initial experimental sample, the conditions for conducting the study, the object, the technique change. Thus, it is recorded, on which region of reality the previously obtained theoretical knowledge is distributed.
Reproducing research. Its purpose is to accurate repetition of the experiment of precursors to determine the accuracy, reliability and objectivity of the results obtained. The results of any research should be repeated in a similar experiment conducted by another scientist with relevant competence. Therefore, after opening a new effect, patterns, creating a new technique, etc. There is avalanche of reproducing research, designed to check the results of the discoverers. The reproducing study is the basis of the whole science. Consequently, the method and specific technique of experiment must be intersubjective, i.e. Operations conducted during the study should be reproduced by any qualified researcher.
Development - Scientific research, introducing into practice the results of specific fundamental and applied research.
3. To define the concept of "scientific knowledge."
Scientific knowledge is a system of knowledge about the laws of nature, society, thinking. Scientific knowledge is the basis of the scientific picture of the world, as describes the laws of its development. Essence of scientific knowledge [edit | edit wiki text]
Scientific knowledge is:
cognitive basis of human activity;
socially determined activities;
knowledge having a different degree of reliability.
Empirical and theoretical levels [edit | edit wiki text]
Scientific knowledge is usually considered on two levels - empirical and theoretical. Each of these levels uses its special research methods and has a different meaning for scientific knowledge as a whole.
Empirical knowledge [edit | edit wiki text]
Empirical knowledge accumulates as a result of direct contact with reality in observation or experiment. Science relies on firmly established facts obtained by empirical, that is, experienced, by. At the empirical level there is a fact of accumulation, their primary systematization and classification. Empirical knowledge makes it possible to formulate empirical rules, patterns and laws that are statistically derived from the observed phenomena.
The main methods of empirical knowledge is:
Experiment - observation of objects and phenomena in controlled or artificially created conditions in order to identify their essential characteristics;
Observation is a targeted perception of phenomena of objective reality without making changes to reality, which is investigated;
Measurement is to identify the quantitative characteristics of the studied reality. As a result of the measurement, there is a comparison of objects according to certain properties;
Comparison is the simultaneous identification of the relationship and evaluation of common properties for two or more objects;
Description - fixation by means of natural or artificial language information about objects and phenomena.
Information obtained using empirical methods is subject to statistical processing. After that, scientists can make certain generalizations. The information obtained must be verified, so scientists are obliged to describe in detail the sources of information and the methods used.
Theoretical knowledge [edit | edit wiki text]
Empirical knowledge in itself rarely can exhaustively explain a certain phenomenon. Such knowledge is small-oriented, that is, it does not open up new scientific search capabilities. That is why the theoretical level of knowledge is needed on which the resulting empirical data fit into a certain system. At the same time, no empirical research is impossible without certain theoretical principles.
Thus, the essence of theoretical knowledge is a description, explanation and systematization of processes and patterns identified by empirically, as well as an attempt by the holistic coverage of reality.
The main methods of theoretical knowledge is:
Formalization - the construction of abstract models that should explain the essence of the studied phenomena;
Axiomatization is a theoretical construction based on axioms, that is, allegations, the truth of which is not necessary to prove;
The hypothetical deductive method is to build deductive interconnected hypotheses explaining empirical facts.
The main components of theoretical knowledge is:
The problem is a form of knowledge, the content of which is that it is not yet good, but what you need to know, i.e. it is knowledge of ignorance, the question arising in the course of knowledge and requiring an answer; The problem includes two main stages of the movement of knowledge - the formulation and decision.
The hypothesis is a form of knowledge in the form of an assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts. Hypothetical knowledge is probabilistic, and not a reliable character and requires verification, justification. Some hypothesis are subsequently transformed into theory, while others are modified, refined and specified, and the third are discarded as false. The decisive criterion of the truth of the hypothesis is the practice in all its forms, while the logical (theoretical) criterion of truth plays a supporting role.
Theory - knowledge that gives a holistic mapping of natural and substantial relations in a certain area of \u200b\u200breality. The theory is built in order to explain objective reality. The main task of the theory is a description, systematization and explanation of all available empirical data. However, the theory does not describe directly the surrounding reality. When formulating the theory, researchers operate with ideal objects, which, unlike real, are not characterized by an infinite, but limited number of properties.
The theoretical level of knowledge has two components - fundamental theories and theories describing the specific area of \u200b\u200breality, relying on the relevant fundamental theories.
4. Describe the stages of research of scientific research.
Scientific research is targeted cognition, the results of which are in the form of a system of concepts, laws and theories. Describing a scientific study, usually indicate the following distinguishing features: - This is a necessarily targeted process, achieving a conscious goal, clearly formulated tasks; - This is a process aimed at finding a new, creativity, to the opening of an unknown, on the nomination of original ideas, to the new coverage of the issues under consideration; - It is characterized by systematic: here are ordered, the process of research and its results are also listed; Stages of scientific research. Any particular study can be represented as a number of stages. Selection of research topics. Definition of the object and the subject of the study. Defining goals and objectives. Formulation of the title of work. Development of hypothesis. Drawing up a research plan. Work with literature. Selection of research methods. Organization of the research conditions. Research (material collection). Processing research results. Formulation of conclusions. Registration of work. Each stage has its own tasks that are solved often consistently, and sometimes at the same time.
5. What is a scientific problem and a problem situation?
It should not be confused by the concepts of "problem" and "problem situation". The problem is a certain state of scientific knowledge; The problem must be realized and put exactly theoretically. As for the problem situation, this concept characterizes the current scientific and technical and practical needs. For example, in the medical and biological sciences talk about the problems of preventing one or another disease, but in this case we are talking about the problem situation in which the whole A combination of needs not only theoretical, but also organizational, social, daily psychological and other plans. Any scientific problem is surrounded by its own scientific and practical context (i.e. the problem situation) in which it matures. But the opposite is incorrect: not any problematic situation is being implemented in a conscious scientific problem.
6. Give the classification of sciences.
Attempts to classify the fields of human knowledge on various reasons were made since the time of antiquity. So, Aristotle (one of the first attempts) highlighted three large groups of such areas: theoretical (physics and philosophy), practical (gives guidance ideas for human behavior, ethics policies) and creative, poetic (knowledge is carried out to achieve anything beautiful, aesthetics ). Theoretical knowledge (knowledge is conducted for himself) He divided (according to his subject) for: 1) "First Philosophy" (subsequently "metaphysics" - science about the highest principles and the first reasons for the existing, inaccessible for the senses and befells are speculative); 2) mathematics; 3) physics (studies various states of bodies in nature). Aristotle's formal logic created by them did not identify with philosophy, considered the "body" (instrument) of any knowledge.
The classification of the Roman Encyclopedist Brand Warron included the following sciences: grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astrology, music, medicine and architecture.
Muslim Arabic scientists shared sciences for Arab (poetics, oratory art) and foreign sciences (astronomy, medicine, mathematics).
Attempts to classify continued in the Middle Ages. Hugo Saint-Victorsky in Didascalicone divides science into four groups:
Theoretical sciences (mathematics, physics).
Practical sciences.
Mechanical sciences (navigation, agriculture, hunting, medicine, theater).
Logic, including grammar and rhetoric.
F. Bacon divided science to 3 groups (depending on such cognitive abilities, like memory, reason, imagination)
history as a description of the facts (including natural and civil);
theoretical sciences, or "philosophy" in the broad sense of the word;
poetry, literature, art in general.
Roger Bacon also highlighted four classes of sciences: grammar and logic, mathematics, natural philosophy, metaphysics and ethics. At the same time, the basis of science on nature he considered math.
7. Give the definition of "scientific research.
8. Specify the goals and objectives of the scientific research.
The purpose and objectives of the study determine the directions by which the applicant reveals the thesis.
The purpose of the study, delivered in the work, is what the applicant seeks in its scientific studies, that is, the final result of the work. The purpose of the work is usually consonant with the name of the theme of the dissertation research. The purpose of the work may be a description of a new phenomenon, studying its characteristics, identifying patterns, etc. The wording of the research goals is usually beginning with the preamble: "Develop ..", "install ...", "justify ...", "reveal ...", etc.
After formulating the goal, the objectives of the study are formed (the dissertation tasks). The objectives of the study determine the main stages of the study to achieve the goal. When formulating the tasks of the study, it is necessary to take into account that the description of the solution of these tasks will be the maintenance of chapters and paragraphs of the thesis, the names of which consistently set tasks. When determining the tasks, it is necessary to divide scientific research on the main stages and in accordance with their content to formulate the objectives of the study. Each stage is usually dedicated to a separate task. In the list of solved tasks, it is necessary to allocate the largest without crushing them into smaller tasks. The wording of tasks usually begins with words: "Explore the essence", "clarify the definition", "systematize", "analyze", "clarify and add", "justify", etc.
9. Justify the requirements for a scientific research.
A number of requirements are made to a review-analytical study:
Correlation of the content of the analyzed literature with the chosen topic;
Fullness of the list of studied literature;
Depth of study of primary literary sources in the content of the abstract;
Systematics of presentation of existing literature data;
The logicality and literacy of the text of the abstract, accuracy of the design, compliance with bibliographic requirements.
Experimental The study is the most time-consuming and complex type of research, but at the same time it is most accurate and useful in scientific terms. In the experiment, some artificial (experimental) situation is always created, the causes of studied phenomena are distinguished, the effects of these reasons are strictly monitored and the statistical links between the studied and other phenomena are revealed. For experimental research, the following requirements are needed:
1) a clear wording of the problem, themes, objectives and objectives of the study tested in it hypotheses;
2) the establishment of criteria and signs for which it will be possible to judge how successfully the experiment has passed, confirmed or did not confirm the hypotheses proposed in it;
3) accurate definition of an object and subject matter;
4) the choice and development of valid and reliable methods of psychodiagnostics of the states of the object under study and the subject before and after the experiment;
5) the use of consistent logic of evidence that the experiment was successful;
6) the definition of a suitable form of representing the results of the experiment;
7) Characteristics of the area of \u200b\u200bscientific and practical application of the experimental results, formulation of practical conclusions and recommendations arising from the experimental experiment.
10. Describe the forms and methods of scientific research.
Empirical and theoretical. In science, the sputum and theoretter levels of the study. This distinction has its base 1. - methods for dispense of activity; 2. - the nature of the results achieved. Empir Study involves developing research programs, observation and experimental organs, description and generalization of expert data, their classification, primary generalization. In a word for empirny, knowledge is characterized by factotecting activity. Theoret Cognition is essential knowledge carried out at the level of high-order abstractions. Here, the tools, categories, laws, hypothesis are advocating the gun, the cognition historically, the cognition is preceded by theoret, but only this way cannot be achieved complete and true knowledge.
Empir Study, reveals all new danyenabludes IExpeach, puts new tasks before theorette thinking, stimulates it to further improvement. However, the knowledgeable knowledge theoret is posing before observing and experimenting increasingly complex tasks.
Every observation is not from collecting facts, but from attempting to solve some task, the cat always lies a well-known assumption, guessed, setting the problem.
Setting the problem and ISLES program. People seek to know what they do not know. The problem is a question, with the cat we appeal to nature itself, to life, to practice and theory. Put the problem sometimes is no less difficult than finding its solution: the correct setting of the problem to a certain extent directs the search activity of thought, its aspiration. When the scientist puts the problem and tries to solve it, he inevitably develops and explores the program, takes the plan of its activities. At the same time, he comes from the alleged response to his question. This is an assumed answer acts as a hypothesis.
Observation and experiment. Observation is a deliberate, directed perception, aimed at identifying the essence of the properties and relations of the object of knowledge. It M.B. immediately and indirect devices. Observation acquires scientific importance when it allows you to display objects with the highest accuracy and can be repeatedly repeated when variationing conditions.
But people cannot confine themselves to the role of only a hub: observation only fixes what life itself gives, and the study requires an experiment, with which an object or is reproduced artificially, or is made by the objective conditions that meet the objectives of the research collaborated. During the expert, the researcher actively interferes with the research process.
In the process of knowledge, a mental experiment is also applied when the ac-worker operates with the images, mentally puts the object in determination.
Expestoronnen. From one stor, it is able to enjoy or refute the hypothesis, and with DR - it contains the possibility of identifying unexpected new data.
So experimenting the activities of a complex structure: the basis of the foundations of ex-scientific theories, hypothesis; mat base - appliances; Direct OsuranceExper; experimenter; Colich and Qachi Analysis Respect Experims, their generalization is theorette.
Needs Condition H Research UAVL Facts. The fact, from Factum - made, accomplished. The fact is the phenomenon of a material or spiritual world that has become certified by the property of our consciousness, the fixation of any object, phenomena, properties or relationships. "Facts are the air of the scientist," Pavlov said. The most characteristic for scientific fact is his accuracy. The fact must be comprehended, justified. Facts always turn out to be mediated by our understanding, interpretation. For example, the sweeps. Louds talk about the same, but as in different ways. So The evidence is by no means a complete guarantee of the real confidence of the fact.
Facts themselves do not make up science. Facts should be subjected to selection, classif, generalization and explanation, then they will be included in the tissue of science. The fact contains a lot of random. Therefore, the basis for H analysis is not just unique, but many facts reflecting the main tendency. Only in mutual communications and integrity, the facts can serve as a basis for theoretobic region. From respectively, it is possible to build any theory.
Description, and explanation. In the course of the observation of and the description is described, logging. Main n. The description of the description is its accuracy, accuracy of reproduction of observation data and experiment.
Explanation is an operation focused on identifying the causal dependence of the object of research, comprehension of the laws of its functioning and development and, finally, the disclosure of its essence. Explain - it means to comprehend the object in the light of existing, historically accumulated knowledge, the definition of principles, laws, categories.
Hypothesis. None of the theory was born in the finished form. First, it is sowing as a hypothesis. At the same time, the Hospus itself does not arise immediately, it passes a certain formation stages. At first, this is an assumption, a guessed arising from the observation of new facts. It can be subject to change, modifications ... in the P-Tems of the Hypothesis itself as the most likely an assumption. The hypothesis is an assumption that comes from the facts, conclusion, trying to penetrate the essence of the world's insufficiently studied area.
The rationale and the prove of the hypothesis is carried out on the basis of an analysis of accumulated knowledge, comparing it with already known facts, with established new facts and those facts, the cat can be established in the future. In other words, the justifications of the hypothesis involves its assessment from the point of view of effectiveness in explaining the existing facts and foreseeing new ones.
Hospus acts as a definition of existing knowledge. But it is fundamentally wearing a probabilostacharakt. The degree of value of the hypothesis is determined by the level of probability. (Freud. Sadro Earth from Marmalade).
Theories. The theory is the highest, reasonable, logically consistent system of scientific knowledge, which gives a holistic view of significant properties, patterns, pichin-independent relationships that determine the nature of the functioning and development of the reality of reality.
The theory may vary by inclusion in it new ideas and facts. When within the framework of this theory, I detected a contradiction that is intractable at its framework, its permission leads to the construction of a new theory. The core of theories makes the laws that are part of it. In theory, such essences are distinguished: the initial empiric base (facts, experiment data,); various kinds of assumptions, postulates, axioms; the logic of the theory, permissible within the framework of the Rules of the Log of Conclusions and Doca-B; A combination of approved statements with their evidence; Laws of sciences, as well as foresight.
Disassemble descriptive terriotic, mathemmatized, interpretational and deductive theories.
Rotate points in the history of science are becoming a revolution. The roar in science is expressed to the change in its source principles, concepts, categories, laws, theories, i.e. In changing the scientific paradigm. Under the paradigm, they understand: developed and adopted in this scientific community of norms, samples of empir and theory of thinking, acquired the nature of the conviction; The method of choosing an object of research and explanation of a system of facts in the form of sufficiently reasonable principles and laws, the image of a logically consistent theory.
11. Describe the stages of research work.
The peculiarity of scientific work is that it is, first of all, targeted and active activities. For science, a systemic organization, validity and evidence is characteristic. Though in science, random discoveries are known, however, only a carefully planned and well-equipped scientific research and well-equipped scientific research allows you to open and deeply know the objective patterns of development of both nature and society. That is, for the success of scientific research, it must be properly organized, plan and perform in a certain sequence. These plans and sequence of actions depend on the type, object and objectives of the scientific research.
As applied to applied research work, the following main stages are allocated.
1. The formulation of the topic, determining the purpose, tasks, object and the subject of the study.
2. Drawing up concept, program and research plan.
3. Development of a system of research methods and techniques of their effective use.
4. Collection, systematization and analysis of empirical material. Experimental studies. Check and clarifying the hypothesis.
5. Analysis and registration of research results.
6. Implementation of results and determination of economic efficiency.
4.1. The formulation of the topic, determining the purpose, tasks, object and the subject of the study. This stage of scientific research suggests:
ü overall familiarization with the problem on which research should be carried out;
ü Preliminary familiarization with the literature and classification of the most important directions;
ü Selection and preparation of bibliographic lists of domestic and foreign literature;
ü Study of scientific and technical reports on the topic of various organizations of the corresponding profile;
ü compiling sources annotations;
ü drawing up abstracts on the topic;
ü analysis, comparison, criticizing the information being worked;
ü a generalization, criticism, making your own judgment on worked issues;
ü Formulation of methodological conclusions on information review.
Thus, the main focus on the first stage is given to the study and analysis of literary and other sources in order to:
1) substantiation of the scientific problem and the topic of research;
2) identifying and accumulating scientific facts through the analysis and synthesis of various sources of knowledge, as well as the scientific description of the facts;
3) theoretical generalization of the results of the primary scientific research (explanation, comparison, conclusions);
4) formulating an object, subject, objectives and objectives of the study.
Determine the terminology of this stage. In research work distinguish areas, problems and topics.
The scientific direction is the scope of scientific research of the scientific team dedicated to the solution of any large, fundamental theoretical and experimental tasks in a certain branch of science.
The problem is a complex scientific task that covers a significant area of \u200b\u200bresearch and has a perspective value.
The problem is the discrepancy between the desired and valid; A controversial situation in science that requires its permission.
Problem This is the initial stage of the study on which the researcher is aware of the presence of an unknown and puts the goal by searching, cognitive activity to make an unknown known. The presence of the problem acts as a motivation of the study ("trigger").
That is why the preliminary stage of the study of any kind is to identify the problem formulation, determination of its relevance, significance and scope.
The correct wording of the problem is half of success, as it means the ability to separate the main thing from the secondary and divide what is known from what is unknown on the research topic, and this defines a further search strategy.
Any problem consists of a number of topics.
The topic is a difficult, requiring solution to the scientific task, covering a certain area of \u200b\u200bscientific research.
Topics may be theoretical, practical, mixed.
Setting (selection) of problems or is the difficult, responsible task. The topic must have the following characteristics:
A) relevance - the value of the theme at the moment time for the progress of science and technology. This is the answer to the question why this study must be carried out right now, and not later;
B) scientific novelty - the topic in such a production has never been developed and is not being developed at present, i.e. duplication is excluded;
C) economic efficiency - the decision proposed as a result of scientific research should be more efficient solutions;
D) practical significance - the possibility of using the results of a scientific research to solve topical problems and tasks, both in production and related or interdisciplinary studies.
E) compliance with the profile of the scientific team (organization).
No less important is the allocation of an object and subject matter. Recall the definition (see clause 2): Scientific research is an activity aimed at the comprehensive study of the object, process or phenomenon, their structure and connections, as well as obtaining and implementing the results useful for a person. Its object is the material or ideal system, and the subject is the structure of the system, the interaction of its elements, various properties, the patterns of development, etc.
The object of the study is certain existing out and independently of our consciousness of the reality phenomenon.
It must be remembered: the object of the study exists objectively, regardless of the will of people, it is not created and not constructed by them.
As an object of research, for example:
ü Social institutions and systems (school, university, hospital, education system, health system);
ü Separate elements of social institutions and systems (pedagogical team, studentism, main medical education);
ü processes (training, upbringing, socialization, market metabolism);
ü mechanisms for the functioning of systems and processes (pedagogical technologies for the formation of competencies);
ü Different types of activity, states and properties of the individual;
ü dependence and relationships (for example, personality - group, conflicts between individuals), etc.
The subject of the study, in contrast to the object, is subjective in nature, that is, it is determined by the researcher himself. The object and subject matter, of course, are interrelated. But the subject of the study, as a rule, covers only the individual elements and the relationship of the object being studied.
The subject of the study is that the attention of the researcher is directly directed, about which the new (missing) information is required.
The subject of the study is a generalizing structure (device) of the object under study or its individual private aspects, conditionally separable mechanisms of the objectivity of an object that predetermining the observed properties (manifestations) of the object under consideration.
For example, an object is a sociotechnical system, and the subject is an economic device of the sociotechnical system.
Anatomy - a living organism is the structure of a living organism.
Physiology - a living organism - processes inside a living organism.
Generalizing and private structures, and individual mechanisms of vital activity things or phenomena have their carriers, namely, things and phenomena themselves. The required information can be "removed" only from things and phenomena in their whole livelihoods. In this regard, the information base of the study is quite often mixed with its object.
For example, when studying demographic processes (fertility, migration, mortality), information "remove" by regions and settlements. Meanwhile, neither settlement, nor regions are objects of research. They are an information base, and not only by demographic, but also by many other processes related to other aspects of their livelihoods.
The form of scientific foreclosure in the scientific study is the hypothesis - the necessary link between the theory and the research on the way of obtaining a new knowledge. Definition and requirements see above (clause 3.). Sometimes scientific research is carried out without hypotheses. This happens when the task is raised, on the one hand, to turn the "all known" from everyday view to the scientifically established fact, and on the other - to give an accurate scientific characteristic of "all known" facts.
Initially, hypotheses can be adjusted, complemented, develop during the study, but according to the results of the study, it should be clearly indicated that from the initial hypothetical assumptions it was confirmed which changes were made to their content, which did not receive due confirmation at all (for in science and negative result Very important).
In the structure of scientific research, its goal and tasks occupy an important place.
Acellent activity understand the ideal image of the desired result.
The purpose of the study is a planned end result that has a large theoretical and practical importance for a particular branch of scientific knowledge.
It is designed not to illustrate already established and indisputable positions, but to identify new connections and relationships. The universal goal of any research is to obtain new, reliable knowledge about nature and society, allowing to transform, adapt to the human needs and society to the needs of man.
The goal has a decisive influence on the organization, methods and other structural components of the scientific research, acts as its dominant, as a lighthouse, illuminating the path to the researcher in difficult contradictions of the problem under study. The goal of a scientific study is designed to clearly outline its area and content, answer the question, what is the essence of the problem being studied and is it possible to obtain the necessary data for its comprehensive coverage during the study.
The objectives of the study are very diverse. In one case, they can provide, in one case, the disclosure of the essence of complex physiological, economic, pedagogical and other phenomena and processes, in another - identifying the dependence between factors affecting students and changes that occur in their personal characteristics under the influence of these factors in the third - the development of new forms and methods of training and education of young people, the treatment of individual diseases, in the fourth - to determine the conditions under which one or another method or means of exposure bring the greatest effect, etc.
The objectives of the study are specific areas of studying the individual aspects of the problem under study, the implementation of which leads to the achievement of the general purpose of the study.
The objectives of the study are mainly in two types: empirical and theoretical.
Empirical tasks include:
ü Settlement, clarification and classification of scientific facts that belong to the subject of the study, the characteristics of their and observed dependencies;
ü Study of specific conditions and scope of dependencies formulated in the form of trends, patterns, principles;
ü empirical verification of truth patterns, theories, hypotheses, models;
ü Setting the reality of alleged hypothetical processes, phenomena;
ü Decision of constructive cognitive tasks.
Theoretical tasks include:
ü Detection and study of specific reasons, links, dependencies, interactions, processes that allow you to explain certain facts of real reality;
ü Construction of new hypotheses that theoretically explain the facts detected, trends, processes, phenomena, causal relationships, activity mechanisms;
ü The formulation of theoretical knowledge in the form that allows it to check it empirically.
Usually, three - five research tasks are put forward in scientific papers. This is not fundamentally. The main thing is that when they decide the essence of the phenomenon is disclosed.
It is necessary to emphasize that all the tasks of the study, regardless of their species, are closely interaction and inseparable interdependence. At the same time, each task exists in a dialectical unity in the overall aim of the study, its object, subject and hypothesis.
Drawing up concept, program and research plan.
The concept of research is a complex of the main position (presentations) on how to conduct a study. This is a holistic, logically linked viewing system, combined by any common idea and aimed at achieving the goal of the study.
The choice of the study concept of a significant impact has a predominant in this time interval in a specific paradigm knowledge branch.
Scientific paradigm - a system of views arising from the fundamental ideas and scientific achievements of large (outstanding) scientists who determine the focus of thinking of the majority of researchers.
Based on the concept, the detailed program is being developed.
The study program is a set of provisions that defines the goal and objectives of the study, its subject, the conditions for conducting the study, the resources used and the estimated result.
The program is considered as a means of achieving a research goal, as a form of concretization of the concept.
Program sections:
1) justification of the relevance of the chosen topic;
2) disclosure of its degree of development in the scientific literature;
3) object, object, goal, objectives and hypothesis of the study;
4) theoretical methodological basis, system of methods;
5) scientific novelty, theoretical and practical significance;
6) resource provision;
7) how to test and verify the theoretical conclusions received and practical recommendations;
8) research efficiency indicators;
9) Stages and scope of work and other issues whose solution will contribute to the successful implementation of the work plan.
On the basis of the program, the detailing plan is developed.
The study plan is a set of indicators reflecting the connection and a sequence of key activities (actions) leading to the full implementation of the program and resolving the problem. The study plan is considered as the organizing factor of consistent movement towards the purpose of the study.
4.3. Development of a system of research methods and techniques of their effective application. The stage has extremely important and will be considered in the next lecture.
4.4. Collection, systematization and analysis of empirical material. Experimental studies. Check and clarifying the hypothesis. This stage occupies a central place in the scientific research. The history of science convinces that to make some scientific findings, it is possible to develop theoretical provisions on the basis of the facts (definition, see clause 3).
Requirements for the collection of empirical material:
ü Select no random facts, but only those that are "measured" and have accurate criteria that are characterized;
ü take not separate facts, but the whole set of facts related to the question under consideration, without a single exception;
ü Facts are value only when they are deeply understood;
ü After collecting and accumulating the actual material, it is necessary to classify the facts, analyze and summarize them.
Experimental experiment involves additional stages characteristic of experimental studies:
ü Development of the purpose and objectives of the experiment;
ü Experiment planning;
ü Development of research program techniques;
ü choosing measurement tools;
ü Designing devices, layouts, devices, models, stands, installations and other means of experiment;
ü Justification of measurement methods;
ü conducting an experiment in the laboratory, on experienced sites, in enterprises;
ü Processing measurement results.
Experiment is one of the stages of the study. But the stage is so important that his role often exaggerates to an independent study. Often, experiments are considered as synonymous with research.
Meanwhile, the experiment itself is one of the ways, and the most expensive, targeted receipt of information necessary for evidence (refutation) nominated in the study of the hypothesis, which cannot be obtained by any other way.
The experiment is the "room" of the object of study in special conditions, monitoring its behavior, due to changes in conditions, and fixation of information (indicators) reflecting this behavior. Based on the results of the experiment, the hypothesis extended can be confirmed or refuted.
Experience is a single experiment. The experiment is set, as a rule, a series or even several series of monotonous experiments.
The experiment is most often carried out by original, carefully thought-out techniques. For example, the experiment of Ivan Petrovich Pavlova (to evict the presence of conditional reflexes and the signaling system conducted over the dogs).
Special care requires a social experiment, since in its process it is possible to appear a specific effect that called the effect of Pygmalion (Opened R. Rosenthalem).
Pygmalion effect - manifestation of the prejudice of the experimenter affecting the result of the experiment. That is, formulating the attitude of the experimenter to the subject, you can predict the outcome of the experiment in some cases.
So, for example, when teachers characterized students in one case as capable, and in the other as unable (with their actually the same abilities), the positive attitude towards students in the first case was reflected positively on the pedagogical situation in general and success of students, as well as their estimates .
12. The concept of scientific knowledge methodology.
The concept of the methodology of science
Methodology of science - This is a scientific discipline that studies methods of scientific and educational activities. Methodology in a broad sense (see Methodology) is a rational reflexive independent activities, aimed at studying the methods of transformation by a person of reality - methods (rational actions that need to be taken to solve a certain task or to achieve a certain goal - see the method). The use of methods is carried out in any sphere of scientific and cognitive activity (see Science). The methodology of science performs research, search, develop and systematize the methods used in this activity to obtain scientific knowledge and those general principles with which it is sent (see scientific knowledge methods).
Science Methodology has always been organically related to philosophy of scienceand theory of knowledge (epistemology), as well as logic (see logic) as a whole and especially with logic science. All these types of rational-reflective activities of knowledgeing thinking and scientific and educational activities are closely intertwined with each other, and any of their artificial demarcation is hardly possible and unproductive. Nevertheless, in the general context of all these disciplines, the concept of science methodology is focused on the highest possible approximation to the real practice of scientific activities, to identify and articulate constructive ways to build scientific knowledge.
Scientific knowledge represents an institutionally enshrined type of activity in which the development of a person of reality becomes a instrumentally mediated interaction process researchers (scientists). The effectiveness of such interaction, and, consequently, the reproduction and development of science as such, is ensured by the accumulation and broadcast of cognitive experience and knowledge, which becomes possible due to sustainable cognitive practices, which are the methods of implementing a scientific and educational process. The systematic development of scientific methods is the most important condition for the formation and development of science as a social system. The use of scientific methods makes the process of scientific search with a potentially reproducible procedure, which is of fundamental importance from the point of view of ensuring the reliability of the research results, since the latter becomes verifiable parameters. In addition, indirectness of scientific research formed and subject to transformation by scientific methods causes the possibility of training scientists and is a prerequisite for the specialization of the scientific and educational process, creating the conditions for the formation of science as a professional infrastructure with a complex system of labor separation system and due to this capable of concentrating and coordinating research and research resources.
Modern scientific knowledge is a comprehensive process of interaction between researchers about the formation and use of scientific knowledge for the purpose of understanding, explanation, forecasting and transforming reality. Specialization of research activities in modern science involves the differentiation of the methods of implementing a scientific and educational process. Moreover, the reproducibility of the latter within a single, albeit nonlinear, the structure of activity implies that such methods are not disparately created by the science of knowledge tools, but a set of functionally interrelated cognitive practices.
Methodological research in modern science is made to divide into common, private and specific:
General Methodology of Science Explore the problems of substantiation of scientific knowledge regardless of which of the specific scientific disciplines it is obtained. Its central problems are: a study of such universal operations of scientific knowledge, as an explanation and understanding, as well as ways to substantiate scientific knowledge; analysis of the criteria for acceptability (or adequacy) of systems of scientific assertions (scientific theories); study of those categories systems that are used as coordinates of scientific thinking; Differences between the sciences of nature and the sciences of culture; Problems of unity of scientific knowledge.
Private methodology of science Explore the methodological problems of individual sciences or their narrow groups, being presented in cognitive spaces of the corresponding disciplines. The sphere of this methodology includes, for example, the methodology of physics, methodology of biology, methodology of sciences of the historical series and many others. So, in physics, the explanation operation is applied in biology; At the same time, many biological explanations use the concept of a goal that loses its meaning in relation to physical objects. What is a target, or teleological, biological explanation and why can it be used only in biological sciences, but not in physics, cosmology or chemistry? Is it possible to replace a teleological explanation to the usual explanation for other natural sciences through a scientific law? These and similar issues relate to a private methodology. A characteristic feature of any particular methodology is that it is important for some separate science or narrow group of sciences, almost no interest for other disciplines.
Specific methodology of science, called sometimes methodologyExplore the methodological aspects associated with individual operations within specific scientific disciplines. Intradisciplinary methods of theoretical and empirical research, including the methodology of specific studies, are the advantage of highly specialized cognitive practices. The sphere of this methodology, varying from science to science, belongs, for example, a technique for conducting a physical experiment, a technique of experiment in biology, a survey method in sociology, a methodology for analyzing sources in history and the like.
13. Describe the levels of scientific knowledge methodology
General scheme of levels of methodology:
1. Higher level - ideological (philosophical) level;
2. The level of general scientific principles and forms of research (scientific worldview);
3. Specific scientific methodology;
4. The last level is the methodology and technique of research.
1. Philosophical methodology.
The philosophical level of the methodology actually functions not in the form of a rigid system of norms or technical techniques - (leads to dogmatization of scientific knowledge), and as a system of prerequisites and cognitive activity. This includes substantive prerequisites (the ideological foundations of scientific thinking, the philosophical "picture of the world") and formal relating to the general forms of scientific thinking, to its historically definite categorical system.
1) It carries out the constructive criticism of cash scientific knowledge from the point of view of the conditions and boundaries of its application, the adequacy of its methodological foundation and the general trends of its development.
2) Philosophy gives the ideological interpretation of science results from the point of view of a particular picture of the world.
If the philosophical picture stimulates intra-propelled reflection, it helps the production of new problems, finding new approaches to scientific research facilities, the philosophical interpretation of the results of science serves as a starting point of all serious research, the necessary substantive prerequisite for the existence and development of theoretical knowledge and its interpretation in something holistic for each development phase knowledge.
the necessary component of the philosophical methodology is a social and cultural analysis of science.
Reflexing those ideals, the cat is inherent in that philosophy, we will rely. One of the leading value ideals, Mamardashvili, is the ideal of rationality. It is worth the adaptive schemes of understanding the life, the idealogy of mechanistic determinism, the reason scheme is a consequence (V. Wandt and D. Watson). The postulate of the directness of both of them: the reason is definitely the ODR consequence. Feeling \u003d\u003e perception; S \u003d\u003e R.
Critico-constructive F-I - the implementation of the revision of the initial axiom of philosophy. Wonderview coup.
Example: Ptolemyevsky picture of the world, a geocentric approach. After the works of Copernicus, Galilee, Bruno \u003d\u003e Change of worldview, heliocentric approach. Transition from world monocartines to the category of diversity. Mamardashvili. According to the Ptolemy system, such accurate opticals were made and measure the instruments, for example, astrolabia, which, according to the Ptolemy System, the Columbus opened America. Copernicus and Bruno did not change, did not discard the world of Ptolemy.
Any serious religious system (Christianity, Islam, Judaism)-Mimic vision of reality. Monism always solves 1 task of a synergistic nature: how to build order from chaos. This is a normal evolutionary step of development, norms of thinking. (Theory of dissipative structures).
Any serious philosophical picture of the world constructs reality.
Philosophical paintings of the world decide:
1) the task of generating order from chaos
2) Critical-constructive task, understanding of cultures of thinking, to-rye standing for each discovery
3) Akseological / value task. Performance.
4) Determines the ideal forms of reality. Hence the constructive function.
2. The level of general scientific principles and forms of research.
This sphere was widely developed in the XX century, which was a factor in the transformation of methodological research in a relatively independent area of \u200b\u200bscientific knowledge.
An example of a substantive concept is the theoretical cybernetics, the concept of the nosphere of Vernadsky. Formal concepts - Disciplines of applied mathematics (type of research of operations, game theory, etc.), logic and methodology of science, which are associated with the analysis of the science language, ways to build scientific theories, logical and methodological features of idealization, formalization, modeling, and the like . The general scientific nature of the problems developed at this level does not mean that they certainly relate to all and any sectors of science: their specificity is determined by relative indifference to specific types of substantive content and at the same time appeal to some common features of the process of scientific knowledge in its sufficiently developed forms.
This level is associated with an understanding of causality, with science of our time. Here, BiX-ZM, associative psi, mechanical determinism (brick just does not fall on the head). An exception is a cognitive psi, considering everything through a prism - a person \u003d a device for receiving, recycling, the extraction of information. Cognitive Psi, as well as BIX-ZM, asks for itself an ideal of rationality. The world is rational, predict. The rational model of the world is the basis for the design of all psychologies.
3. Specifically scientific methodology.
Level is applicable to a limited class of objects and cognitive situations specific to this area of \u200b\u200bknowledge. At this level of methodological studies, philosophical and general scientific principles are specified and transformed in relation to this science and the reality that it studies. Specifically scientific methodology - a set of methods, principles of research and procedures used in a particular scientific discipline. Methodology of psychology includes the problems of specifically psychological knowledge (the rules and conditions for conducting experiments, the requirements for the representativeness of the data and to the methods of their processing), and the questions nominated in the adjacent sciences (N., use in the psychology of matmethods), or on more "high" levels of methodology. Attracting methodological means with overlying levels cannot carry the nature of mechanical transfer: to give a valid, not an imaginary effect, these tools should obtain the relevant subject interpretation and development.
4. Methodology and technique research.
The level of procedure and technology research is associated with research practice. These are norms and requirements for receiving research and practical work. It includes the norms of experimental research and classifications of ex-type species, requirements for the development of psychodiagnostic methods and their classification. Methodological norms are present in practical psychology. It is designed to provide uniformity and reliability of the source data to be theoretical understanding. This is a set of procedures that ensure the obtaining of uniform and reliable empirical material and its primary processing, after which it can be included in the Cash Massif. We are dealing with highly specialized methodological knowledge, which, due to its inherent functions of direct regulation of scientific activity, is always negligible.
Each of the levels of methodological knowledge performs its functions in scientific knowledge. All levels of the methodology form a complex system. The philosophical level acts as a meaningful basis of all methodological knowledge. Only at this level formative sets of researcher are formed. Historically, the specific boundaries of each scientific theory, each method, are comprehended by turning point in the development of scientific discipline. The worldview interpretation of the results of science given under this level is also of paramount methodological importance.
But the philosophical knowledge works in a specific scientific study not in itself, but in close relationship with other levels. The philosophical and methodological provisions and principles are refracted, it is concretized: first at the level of general scientific principles and concepts, and then at the level of a special-scientific methodology.
The distinction function of these levels is to overcome errors:
· Revaluation of the community of knowledge of lower levels, an attempt to give them a philosophical is an ideological characteristic.
· Direct transfer of provisions and patterns, specifying them on the material of private areas of knowledge.
· Methodology allows you to assess how true the conclusions about a person are obtained and how adequately they are transmitted in culture.
14. Give the definition of concepts method, method and technique
Method (from Dr. Greek. Μέθοδος - path of research or knowledge, from μετά- + ὁδός "path") - a systematic set of steps, actions that are aimed at solving a certain task or achieve a certain goal.
Unlike the area of \u200b\u200bknowledge or research, it is copyrighted, that is, a specific person or a group of persons, a scientific or practical school. By virtue of its limitity, the framework of action and the result, the methods tend to be outdated, transforming into other methods, developing in accordance with the time, the achievements of technical and scientific thought, the needs of society. A combination of homogeneous methods is customary to be called approach. The development of methods is a natural consequence of the development of scientific thought.
Types and types
Analytical method
Deductive method
Dialectical method
Inductive method
Intuitive method
Scientific method
Generalized method
Experimental method
other.
In mathematics [edit | edit wiki text]
The method in mathematics is synonymous with the method, the algorithm for solving the problem, achieving the goal.
The method in object-oriented programming is a procedure or function belonging to a class or object.
In software engineering, the method is a technical way to build software. Cf. with methodology.
Method in computer science is a unified generalized way to solve problems of a specific class.
The solution method is erroneous if it gives the wrong results for certain tasks.
The solution method is correct if it gives the right results for all tasks of this class.
The technique is, as a rule, a certain "recipe", the algorithm, the procedure for conducting any aimed actions. The technique is different from the methods of admission and tasks. For example, the mathematical processing of the experiment data can be explained as a method (mathematical processing), and a particular choice of criteria, mathematical characteristics - as a technique.
1Thenium "Methodology" in various industries
1.1 formation
1.2Psagnicity
2 payments to the technique
3-memetic training physics
3.1Plan analyzing physical quantities in teaching physics in the main school:
3.2Plan analyzing physical phenomenon when teaching physics in the main school:
3.3Plan analyzing the physical device when teaching physics in the main school:
4cm. also
5Reads
The concept of "technique" in various industries [edit | edit wiki text]
Education [edit | edit wiki text]
Methodology in education - a description of specific techniques, methods, techniques of pedagogical activity in individual educational processes; "Collecting rules for educational activities."
Methods of learning item includes:
objectives of training
educational goals
developing goals
raising goals
practical goals
principles of learning
means of education
forms of education
teaching methods
general learning methods
private learning methods
Psychodiagnostics [edit | edit wiki text]
The psychodiagnostic method is aimed at solving a wide range of tasks, a psychodiagnostic technique - to solve private tasks. The technique, in contrast to the method, is a specific instructions for diagnosing, data processing and interpretation of the results. In the framework of the same method, there may be a practically infinite number of techniques.
Requirements for the methodology [edit | edit wiki text]
The necessary requirements for the methodology, as a specific "recipe", the procedure, are the following:
realistic;
reproducibility;
independent;
compliance with the objectives and objectives of the planned action, validity;
performance.
Methods of teaching physics [edit | edit wiki text]
Plan for analyzing physical quantities in teaching physics in the basic school: [edit | edit wiki text]
alphabetic designation; view;
defining formula;
units;
which characterizes, shows;
other ways to determine.
For example, physical value density:
letter denotation ρ (PO), table value;
defining formula ρ \u003d m / v;
units of measurement [kg / m3];
characterizes the amount of mass of the substance contained in a unit volume;
another method of determining is tabular;
For example, physical value Power:
alphabetic designation P (PE);
defining formula p \u003d a / t;
units of measure [W];
characterizes the process of performing operation of electric current, electrical appliances; Shows the work perfect per unit of time;
another method of determining is p \u003d Ui (for electric current).
Plan analysis of the physical phenomenon when teaching physics in the basic school: [edit | edit wiki text]
signs;
conditions of occurrence;
mechanism of the phenomenon (reason);
tools descriptions (values, laws);
application;
prevention of harmful effects;
15. Essence and general principles of general scientific and philosophical methodology
Methodology is the doctrine of the organization of activities. Such a definition is definitely determined and the subject of the methodology is the organization of activities. (Novikov A.M.)
In the structure of the methodological knowledge of E.G. Yudinvodelits four levels: 1) philosophical, 2) general scientific, 3) specifically scientific and 4) technological.
The second level includes general scientific methodology, which is theoretical provisions used practically to all scientific disciplines.
At the third level, specifically scientific methodology, which represents the totality of all the principles and methods used in any particular science.
The fourth level occupies the technological methodology, which is the methodology and technique of research, i.e. A set of procedures that ensure the flow of reliable empirical material and its primary processing. The nature at this level is regulated and clearly pronounced.
Philosophical level
The philosophical level of the methodology is not functioning in the form of a rigid system of norms or technical techniques (which leads to dogmatization of scientific knowledge), and as a system of prerequisites and reference points of cognitive activity. This includes
formal, relating to general forms of scientific thinking, to its historically definite categorical system.
Philosophy plays a two-way methodological role:
1) it carries out a constructive criticism
By source of financing:
1) budgetary research (funded at the expense of the state budget);
2) indigenous studies (funded by customer organizations on economic contracts);
3) non-financial studies (executed on the initiative of the scientist, individual plan of the teacher).
By intended purpose:
1) Fundamental studies are theoretical or experimental activities aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the basic laws of the structure, the functioning and development of man, society, the environmental environment.
For example, to the number of fundamental include research on the patterns of functioning of biological systems, their interaction between themselves and with the environment.
2) Applied Studies are studies aimed at applying new knowledge to achieve practical goals and solve specific tasks.
In other words, they are aimed at solving the problem of using scientific knowledge obtained as a result of fundamental studies in the practical activity of people.
For example, as applied can consider work on the technological use of the laws of the organism biogenesis in various industries.
Studies combining signs of fundamental and applied, called theoretical and applied.
3) Development - research that are aimed at introducing into the practice of specific fundamental and applied research.
By duration:
1) long-term research;
2) short-term research;
3) express research.
By number of participants:
1) individual research;
2) collective studies.
In relation to the knowledge of the knowledge:
1) physico-mathematical;
2) Chemical, etc. (see clause 2).
Depending on the forms and methods of research:
1) experimental studies;
2) methodological research;
3) descriptive studies;
4) experimental analytical studies;
5) historical and biographical research;
6) Mixed type studies.
In the theory of knowledge allocate two levels of research:
1) theoretical;
2) empirical.
Theoretical The level is characterized by the predominance of logical methods of knowledge. At this level, the facts obtained are investigated, processed with the help of logical concepts, conclusions, laws and other forms of thinking.
Here, the studied objects are mentally analyzed, summarized, their essence, internal ties, the laws of development are comprehended. The theoretical level is as if a section of the object under study at a certain angle of view given by the worldview of the researcher. It is based on a clear focus on an explanation of objective reality and its main task is to describe, systematization and explanation of the entire multiple data of the empirical level.
Empiricalthe level is characterized by the predominance of sensual knowledge (studying the external world through the senses). The knowledge obtained on the empirical level is the result of direct contact with reality in observation or experiment. At this level of knowledge, the following cognitive tasks are solved:
1) collect facts about the object of knowledge;
2) obtaining data based on observations, measurements, experiments;
3) drafting diagrams for visual perception of the most important trends in the functioning of the object of the study;
4) Classification of scientific facts, data and other empirical information.
Structural components of theoretical knowledge are problem, hypothesis and theory.
Problem - This is a complex theoretical or practical task, the methods of solving which are unknown or are not fully known.
Hypothesis(Greek Hypothesis is an assumption, guessing) - this is a scientific assumption put forward to explain any phenomenon that requires verification and evidence in order to become a reliable scientific theory.
Scientific hypothesis - This is a verifiable assertion that connects the variables characterizing the phenomenon under consideration, and determining the direction of data collection.
Descriptive hypothesis - This is the assumption of the essential properties of objects, the nature of the links between the individual elements of the object being studied. Are divided into structural (assumptions about the nature of the relationship in the studied phenomena and processes) and functional (assumptions about the degree of strength of these ties)
Explanatory hypothesis - This is the assumption of causal dependencies.
Forecast hypothesis - This is the assumption of trends and laws of the development of the object of research.
Characteristic properties of scientific hypothesis:
1) relevance (adequacy and validity) - refers to the facts to which it relies;
2) the testability of the experimentally comparability with observation data or experiment (the exception is unroven hypotheses);
3) compatibility with existing scientific knowledge;
4) the hypothesis should have an explanatory force - from the hypothesis there should be a number of confirming the facts, consequences;
5) Simplicity - the hypothesis should not contain any arbitrary assumptions, subjective layers.
Theory(Greek. Theoria - Consideration, Research) - This is a logically organized reliable knowledge, a conceptual knowledge system that adequately and holistically reflects a certain area of \u200b\u200breality.
Properties of theory:
1) the theory is one of the forms of rational mental activity;
2) the theory is a holistic system of reliable knowledge;
3) The theory not only describes a combination of facts, but also explains them, reveals the origin and development of phenomena and processes, their internal and external forces, causal and other dependencies;
The structure of the theory is formed concepts, judgments, laws, scientific provisions, teachings, ideas And other elements.
Concept - This is a thought that reflects the essential and necessary signs of a certain set of objects and phenomena. The content of the concept is a set of signs that are combined in this concept.
Scientific term - This is a word or a combination of words, denoting the concept used in science.
Conceptual apparatus - This is a combination of concepts (terms), which are used in a specific science.
Judgment (statement) - This is a thought in which it is argued or denying anything through the connection of concepts.
Principle - This is a guiding idea, the main initial position of the theory. Principles are theoretical and methodological.
Axiom - This is the position taken without a logical evidence due to immediate persuasiveness.
Postulate - This statement (judgment) adopted within the framework of any scientific theory for true, although not provable to its means, and therefore the role of axioms in it.
Law - These are necessary, significant, sustainable, repetitive relations between phenomena (in nature and society). The law reflects the general ties and relationships inherent in all phenomena of a certain subject area. The law is objective and exists regardless of the consciousness of people.
Pattern - The aggregate of the action of many laws or the system of essential, necessary general relations, each of which constitutes a separate law.
Position - This is a scientific approval formulated by thought.
Doctrine - This is a combination of theoretical provisions about any field of reality phenomena.
Idea - This is a new intuitive explanation of an event or phenomenon or a defining core position in the theory.
Concept- This is a system of theoretical views, united by scientific idea (scientific ideas).
The structure of the empirical level of research make up facts, empirical generalizations and laws (dependencies).
Fact:
1) an objective event, the result related to objective reality (fact of reality) or to the sphere of consciousness and knowledge (fact of consciousness);
2) knowledge of any event, phenomenon, the accuracy of which is proved (truth);
3) a proposal that fixes knowledge obtained during observations and experiments.
Empirical generalization - This is a system of certain scientific facts.
Empirical laws - Reflect the regularity in phenomena, resistance in relations between the observed phenomena. These laws are not theoretical knowledge.
The interaction of empirical and theoretical levels thing is:
1) the aggregate of the facts is the practical basis of the theory or hypothesis;
2) Facts can confirm the theory or refute it;
3) The scientific fact is always permeated by theory, since it cannot be formulated without a system of concepts, interpreted without theoretical ideas;
4) Empirical research in modern science is predetermined, directed by the theory.
Modern scientific and theoretical thinking seeks to penetrate the essence of studied phenomena and processes. This is possible with a holistic approach to the object of study, the consideration of this facility in the occurrence and development, that is, in the application of a historical approach.
Study in the scientific sense - It means to conduct search research, as if looking into the future. Imagination, fantasy and dream, relying on real achievements of science and technology, are the most important factors of scientific research. It also means to be scientifically objective. It is impossible to discard the facts aside only because they are difficult to explain or find it practical application: the essence of the new in science is not always visible to the researcher himself. New scientific facts, and even discoveries, due to the fact that their significance is poorly disclosed, can remain in the reserve of science for a long time and not used in practice.
The development of the idea to the problem of solving the problem is usually committed as a planned process of scientific research. Science is also known for random discoveries, but only planned, well equipped with modern means, scientific research reliably allows you to open and deeply know objective patterns in nature. In the future, the process of targeted and general ideological processing of the initial intention continues, clarifications are made, changes, additions, the intended research scheme is developing.
Scientific research - These are targeted knowledge, the results of which are in the form of a system of concepts, laws and theories. Describing a scientific study, usually indicate its following distinctive signs:
It is necessary focused the process, the achievement of a conscious goal, clearly formulated tasks;
This is a process aimed at search for new, on creativity, to the opening of an unknown, on the nomination of original ideas, to the new coverage of the issues under consideration.
Scientific research characterized systematic: here are ordered, the research process itself is also listed, and its results; It is inherent in strict evidence and consistent justification of the generalizations and conclusions made.
Object Scientific and theoretical research is not just a separate phenomenon, a specific situation, but a whole class of similar phenomena and situations, their aggregate.
purposeDirect tasksscientific and theoretical studies are to find a common in a number of single phenomena, to open the laws on which such a phenomena occurs, is evolving, that is, to penetrate their deep essence.
As basic tools Scientific and theoretical research apply the following: a set of scientific methods, comprehensively substantiated and reduced into the system; The totality of concepts, strictly defined terms associated between sobody and forming a characteristic language of science.
The results of scientific research are embodied in scientific works (articles, monographs, textbooks, thesis, etc.) and then, after their comprehensive assessment, are used in practice, taken into account in the process of practical knowledge and are generally included in the steering documents.
Distinguish:
1. Empire study: do not have the theoretical base, only the initial scientific facts are allowed to accumulate.
2. Theoretical study: Some theoretical generalizations based on which new theoretical conclusions are formulated.
The nature The study distinguish:
Fundamental - knowledge of reality without taking into account the practical effect on the use of knowledge.
Applied- are carried out in order to obtain knowledge to be used to solve a specific practical task.
Monodisciplinary - conducted within a separate science.
Interdisciplinary - spend within the framework of several sciences.
Analytical - aims to identify one of the most significant aspect of reality.
Integrated - focused on the coverage of the maximum possible number of significant parameters of the reality under study.
In the goal conduct:
Search - spend then if the stated problem has not been previously raised, or an attempt is made to solve a new way.
Critical - are carried out in order to refute the existing theory, models, laws, or to verify which of 2 alternative hypothesis is more accurately predicted by reality.
Specifying - aimed at establishing the region, managing theories or empirical patterns.
Reproducing - based on accurate repetition of the study of previous, to determine reliable, reliable and objective results obtained.
Still allocate:
Overview and analytical research - selection and study of literature on the topic of study with a consistent system presentation and analysis of recycled material.
Overview-critical overview + criticism of what has already been done on the problem and the corresponding conclusions.
Theoretical - contains the theoretical provisions of the author, is aimed at solving the problem. In such a study, the logic and consistency of judgments should be traced.
Empirical (experienced) - based on real reliable facts. Does not involve creating artificial situations to identify and collect the necessary facts. In such a study, it is simply observed, Fixir, describing what is happening in life without the intervention of the researcher. It happens descriptive(new facts are extremely mined and described) and explanatory(Collection, analysis + explanation).
Methodical research is in the development, justification, verification in practice on validity criteria, reliability, accuracy of the new technique.
Experimental study is the most complex time consuming. An artificial situation is always created in the experiment, the causes of the studied phenomena are distinguished, the actions of these reasons are strictly monitored, the identification of statistical ties between phenomena.
Stages of scientific research
Any scientific research includes a number of stages.
1. Statement of the scientific problem
The problem is a theoretical or actual question that requires permission.
Types of scientific problems:
The problem of describing the phenomenon
The problem of identifying patterns
The problem of explanation
Problem prediction.
Stages of problem formulation:
1) Detection of Info Deficiency
2) awareness of the need to eliminate this deficit
3) Description of the problem situation in the natural language
The problem must be relevant. The problem is selected based on preferences and interests.
At this stage, the topic of study is formulated, it should not exceed 6-7 words.
The common goal is the image of the future result to which the study should lead. Most often found:
Description of a new fact or phenomenon;
Identifying the relationship of mental phenomena;
Study of the dynamics of psychiatric phenomena;
Generalization as the allocation of the most essential phenomena.
The object is determined, this is a fragment of the real world to which the research effort is sent.
There are 2 object definition approaches:
1) object - specific mental phenomena
2) Object-element measurement, i.e. Those units that are subjected to measuring procedures.
The object of the study may be:
Individual, Diabe, group.
The subject is those or other parties, SV-BA, the Har-ki of the object, which are scientific interest in connection with the problem being solved. The subject of the study is the psyche (mental processes, states, sv-va, etc.). Tasks are the goals of the second order through the solution of which the ultimate goal is achieved.
You can put forward a preliminary hypothesis.
2. Theoretical analysis of the problem
Working with the information that is on this problem further formation of the author's model of the studied phenomenon, clarifying the scientific problem.
3. Formulation of research hypotheses
The hypothesis is a scientific and sound statement of a probabilistic nature on the essence of studied reality phenomena. Signs of good hypothesis:
Adequacy problem
Believable
Checker
4. Research planning.
The study program is built, methods and specific methods of its implementation are selected.
5. Conducting a study of the OP planned plan
The results are fixed
6. Analysis and interpretation of the data obtained.
Primary data analysis, their mathematics processing, interpretation, the initial hypothesis is verified for accuracy, summarizing new facts, formulates patterns.
7. Formulation of conclusions.
Consider the types of research work depending on the methods applied methods. Recently, a special kind of experimental study has gained great popularity - testing. The purpose of a methodological study is to improve the methods of manufacturing products in the production of mineral mining; application of new technologies in pedagogy; improvement of the education process; studying the definition of the quality of the method and increase its accuracy in the study of the nature of society or the process of knowledge; Detection ...
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abstract
Types of scientific research
There are several classifications of scientific research: according to the method of their financing, duration used by methods, goals and subjects.
According to the method of financing, research works are divided intostate budget funded from public funds andhozdog-chorny. Financed by customer organizations based on contracts between them and contractors. In recent years, many studies are carried out on grants with the support of special Funds of the Russian Federation, RGNF, etc.
Duration allocatelong-term developed for several years andshort-term performed in one year.
Consider the types of research work depending on the applied research methods. In one case, the basis of the accumulation of empirical material is an experiment, in another - a comparative study of objects, in the third - the study and generalization of historical and scientific material, etc. Even in one work, you can apply various types of storage of material and illumination of facts. In any test, the central task is to accumulate its own, new scientific relations, processing and generalization of them, and most importantly - analysis and explanation of the facts with the subsequent formulation of conclusions and proposals.
P.T. Prikhodko allocated the following types of research and development work: experimental, methodological, calculating and analytical, descriptive, historical and biographical, mixed type.
Experimentalthe study implies the use of tested methods for clarifying important particular subjects of the topic; development of original devices for performing the tasks; laboratory testing of the new method; its production check; analysis and generalization of materials; conclusions. The basis of the accumulation of facts is the experiment. It is important for its rationale, the characteristics of the means and techniques, the estimation of measurement errors, the assessment of the accuracy of the results obtained.
Recently, a special kind of experimental study has gained great popularity -testing . The test is a special task or system of tasks to study mental abilities, the level of knowledge learning, etc. The procedure itself is simple and does not require difficult equipment. The results of test solutions allow a quantitative expression and open the possibilities of their mathematical processing.
Along with testing, there may be an interview or survey. The conversation for the teacher, as a rule, has a goal to clarify the information aboutthe student defined in the course of testing or testing, identify the ability to express their own thoughts, justify assumptions or actions. The interview involves personal contact of the test with the subject, on one student is given 10-15 minutes, at this time there are no other students. Questions are drawn up in advance, in case of difficulty with the answer, you can set one or two leading questions.
Dignity of questionnaire is the ability to quickly get the material. Questionnaires are also prepared in advance, questions must be clear, clear, eliminating ambiguous answers.
Questions questionnaires and tests can be open (requiring an independent response of the subject) or closed (in which the answer is selected from the proposed) types.
The purpose of methodical research is to improve production methods in manufacturing, mineral mining; application of new technologies in pedagogy; improvement of the education process; studying the determination of the quality of the method and increase its accuracy in the study of nature, society or the process of knowledge; Detection of qualitatively new methods. The empirical basis can serve as the experimental data or analysis of the previous material. The features include the identification of new characteristics of the method and proof in their favor; objective assessment of a particular method or methodology; developing a new and justification of its advantages; the historical continuity of the proposed method; economic justification.
Estimated analyticalthe study is applied. During its implementation, measurement methods, experimentation, modeling are used. Galilei claimed: "It is necessary to measure everything commensurate and to do is measurable what is not yet amenable to measure." The peculiarities of such a study are considered: obtaining experimental data as accurate and reliable scientific facts; Mathematical comprehension of processes and research results; Study of accuracy and error of calculations, taking into account application in practice.
In philosophy, mathematics, social sciences, less often in geology, medicine, astronomy, biology is performeddescriptive study. This is explained by the originality and complexity of the objects under study, processes and phenomena, as well as the impossibility of experiment due to their abstraction. The empirical basis is the original sources, historical facts. From research methods, analogy, comparison, consideration under a new angle of view, etc. is widely applied. Characteristic features are accurate, documentary description of scientific facts and primary sources (existing, but not studied); Disclosure of the facts, ideas in the relationship and identification of the laws of their development; analysis, generalization of actual material, determining conclusions; Disclosure of qualitative manifestations of facts, the essence of things on the basis of a comprehensive analysis of materials, determining patterns of phenomena.
In a descriptive study, primary sources are important, objectively existing, but not yet open to practice, not fully disabled. They are diverse and require a comprehensive assessment of their importance, reliability and reliability. Researchers cannot be limited to analyzing and generalize only large phenomena. It is necessary to carefully study and analyze individual facts that play a decisive role in the study of the problem. The requirements of specific sociological studies include observation in the specified conditions of place and time.
From a number of descriptive research in a separate group allocatedhistorical and biographicalby virtue of the identity of tasks and methodological methods of material development. In content, they are divided into scientific biographies; research on worldview and creativity; Analysis and generalization of the historical role of wonderful people; Studies on the priority of discoveries, etc. In such studies, the actual content of the development of concepts and ideas, their historical conditionability is reconstructed; The character and features, contribution of various peoples, individual scientists, are found out; The impact of the personality, as well as the economic and social structure of society for the content of the concept, science; Possible prospects are defined.
A variety of historical and biographical research ismethodologicalwhose purpose is to find the laws of the development of the facility. Under development, the accumulation of new facts and qualitative change, enrichment of the content of the concept, theory.
Recently, the attitude towards the history of science has changed, partly due to the emergence and development of science studies. At the same time, it was transformed as an understanding of science as a whole and an understanding of the subject, the objectives of individual disciplines studying the development of science and its various aspects, including the history of mathematics. The most important task of the history of science is the disclosure of the laws of the movement of science and the historical and scientific re-design, the basis of which is the study of the primary sources.
The study of the scientific knowledge of the past begins with the historiographic description of the empirical basis, to which the materials of archives, autobiography, tutorials of past years, monographs, memories of contemporaries, etc., in the future, requiring critical understanding. The main source is a set of scientific texts in which human knowledge about the world characteristic of the study period has been recorded. These include the texts of ancient papyrus, clay plates, stone stele, scientific articles, training courses, personal scientists, archival information, etc. The problems of their interpretation and classification are engaged in special scientific discipline - source studies.
In the course of the historical and historical and scientific research, the subject always deals with scientific or scientific philosophical text. Giving the historical text of a clear meaning, meaning its interpretation or interpretation is a complex thought process. The researcher must reflect both the internal content - the author's concept, the "system" of a thinker, abstracting from the system or exercise under the next evolution, and the external historical, which is beyond the work of the author of the author, the historical tradition, including its predecessors. Thus, one of the methodological principles is implemented - historical and logical. In addition, in the XX century. A special type of interpretations associated with social, economic, political institutions, religion, literature, art was formed.
When considering the development of the concept, the theory is important to take into account not only the facts, but also the causes of their occurrence, laws, the logic of development. A characteristic feature of many studies is to cover knowledge as a holistic, historically developing system, for this purpose, periodization of the history of the object is usually introduced for this purpose.
Along with the described classification of scientific research, there is another - on the intended purpose or the scope of their application:
1) academic (fundamental, "clean");
2) applied;
3) development.
Academic studies are aimed at studying theoretical issues of science and comply with its subject: in mathematics - these are quantitative relations and spatial forms of real objects and their properties, in computer science - information reflecting the properties of objects, as well as its transmission and processing processes. Resultapplied research are applications of theory and academic studies to solve practical problems, the creation and application of mathematical models, including computer.Development focusing on converting ready-made applications and preparation of material for implementation.
In physical and mathematical education it is advisable to allocate the following types of student research and development work:
- "clean" mathematical (or academic, fundamental),
historical and mathematicalas a private view of historical and biographical;
- Applied in the field of natural science, computer security, economy;
- Didactic as a private species of applied pedagogy, methods of her teaching and mathematics.
With the possible community of objects considered in them, they all differ in the target and subject matter. For "clean " mathematicalit can be a study of the properties of an object or its mathematical applications aimed at expanding knowledge about him;historical and mathematical- the process of development of the object;applied - Possible application of the facility to assess the existing and creating new methods of organization, control, solving problems of individual scientific and educational disciplines, for example, computer science or methodology of teaching mathematics.
IN economic researchconsider the methods of functioning and financing of the organization. It uses special methods: balance sheet, monographic, calculating-structural, statistical.Balance the method is based on a quantitative analysis of the object, comparing or opposing its parties.Monographicit assumes a deep study and a detailed description of the object (economic activities of individual units of the total combination, such as budget). Thus applies best practices, the level, dynamics, the structure of the development of the object, for example, production, training, as well as the effectiveness of resources are estimated.Estimated-constructiverepresents a set of scientific methods for the preparation of rational variants of solving economic problems and specific methods of optimal selection of proposed receptions.Statistical he studies the quantitative side of mass social phenomena due to their qualitative characteristic. It is characterized by observation, fixing its results in reports and groups with subsequent analysis, interpretation of data.
The calculation of the possible effect of the results of scientific research is carried out according to the reference book "Methodology for determining the economic efficiency of use in the national economy of new equipment, inventions and innovation offers." Economic efficiency is a relationship between labor costs and its results; expressed by quantitative indicators. The effect of the implementation of the research results may be social (improving the organizational working conditions, the development of education), environmental (reducing the degree of pollution), scientific and technical (increase in information for domestic consumption, the possibility of use in scientific research in other areas).
Also the preliminary, expected and actual economic effect is also distinguished. The preliminary is established when justifying the topic, the expected is calculated according to indicative indicators, taking into account the alleged introduction for one year or more. The actual is determined after the introduction (no earlier than a year). The most reliable criterion for the effectiveness of the study is the savings from the introduction of its results.
We give examples of the topics of the "clean" mathematical, historical and mathematical species of research.
Subject 1. Cubic determinants: their properties and types.
Object of study: Cubic (three-dimensional) determinants.
Subject of study: Properties and types of cubic determinants.
Purpose of the study: Submit definition, properties, types, examples of cubic determinants and rules for their calculation.
Objectives of research:
- analyze literature on the research topic;
- to submit a definition, a visual image, a method for the formation of members of cubic determinants of various orders (with the rule of definition of relevant signs);
- find a possible scheme for calculating cubic determinants of the second and third order;
- formulate analogue of the Sarryus rule;
- consider the main properties of cubic determinants, formulate analogues of the properties of square (two-dimensional) determinants;
- to explore possible ways of decomposing cubic determinants on the sum of square;
- Select special types of cubic determinants, describe the order and receptions of their calculations.
Methods : Analysis of literature, comparison of square and cubic determinants, analogy between them for the formulation of rules and properties of cubic determinants, an analogy between a two-dimensional and three-dimensional space in analytical geometry to remove properties, a scientific description and explanation.
Topic 2. Development of the concept of a cubic determinant.
Object of study: Cubic determinants.
Subject of study: The historical process of development of the concept of a cubic determinant.
Purpose of the study: Submit a historical review of cubic determinants.
Research tasks:
- to present the necessary theoretical information on cubic determinants;
analyzeworks: S. G Ü nTHER "Lehrbuch Determinanten-Theorie Fü r Studierende », E. Pascal" Die Determinanten. Eine Darstelung Ihrer Theorie Und Anwendungen Mit Rü cxicht AUF Die Neueren Forschungen »and other authors;
- consider a brief historical overview of the theory of determinants;
- draw up a chronological table of innovations in the field of cubic determinants;
- to highlight the stages of their development.
Methods : Historical and scientific analysis of literature, description of the history of the concept of determinant in general, analysis and systematization of historical information.
Currently, the share of pedagogical studies, which include didactic, psychological and pedagogical, sociological, valeological ones. They are aimed at disclosing and studying external and internal factors of education, pedagogical conditions and methods for the formation of motivation, installations, value orientations, creative thinking, personal development, etc. This is a process of learning and education, educational tasks, organization and management of educational or The educational process in which subjects are necessarily involved: teacher and student, teacher and parent.
IN psychologicalthe study is conducted by the search mechanisms of the psychic development of the subject, insociologicalreceive requests of the public, parents, children and their attitude to the innovations introduced in the educational system,valeologicalconsidered options for health-saving education.
Object didactic researchit is a specific area of \u200b\u200bpedagogical activity, for example, a learning process, education, extracurricular work in an educational institution. The element of the object, the study of which the specific work is devoted is the subject of the study. They may be methods of learning, formation of training classes, new optional courses, etc. The purpose of this study contains ways to resolve the problem formulated, taking into account the needs of teaching the educational subject in high school, schooling requests, students and parents, social order of society.
The empirical basis of such studies is the results of observations, interviews, surveys, surveys, testing, diagnostics, as well as the experience of teachers and actually acquired, for example, during the pedagogical practice of students.
An experiment is performed on the empirical level, within which hypothesis is put forward:descriptive (does not require an active impact on the object, for its proof enough questioning or interviewing),explanatory (requires active impact on the object, reveals and explains the laws of the functioning of the pedagogical process),prognostic(Formulates the conditions for achieving the specified qualities, reveals the essence of pedagogical contradictions and contributes to their permission).
Methods for the implementation of the didactic or psychological and pedagogical (parallel) experiments are described by V.I. Zagognaminsky. They are based on three principles:single difference, running groupand single similarity. The essence of the first principle is that, with the same exercising learning process in experimental and control classes, the results of the work depend only on the technique being checked. For the equalization of the composition of the Group, classes of the same level of knowledge and skills or classes with the same amount of successful on perfectly, well and satisfactorily are selected. As an experimental group, an average or weak class is often chosen, which is determined by tests or tests. Then the groups change places and spend the same experiment. The principle of the only similarity suggests such an experimentation in which it takes place in different conditions, for example, in two classes of one or different schools. Positive results allow us to judge the effectiveness of the proposed technique.
Any didactic study is aimed at a qualitative increase in the knowledge and skills of students. To substantiate the results of the experiment and the effectiveness of the proposed methodological techniques and funds, special indicators are introduced, such as student performance indicators, their skills and knowledge, difficulties of tasks, etc. The study includes a complex of diagnostic procedures necessary for initial orientation relative to the object of study, its structure, level of development, the nature of the relationship, i.e. Somesurvey personality, team, educational institution:
- Collection of information (indicates the nature and amount of information, the methods of obtaining it - questioning, testing, observation, study of documentation, etc.);
- processing and systematization of information (the processing criteria for processing and grounds are determined to classify information, logic schemes for its systematization);
- Summing up: interpretation of results, conclusions.
Consider some general issues and examples of the implementation of the didactic study. First, the researcher must determine the direction of the study in accordance with the inclinations, interests and requests. To do this, you can use the list of questions:
a) the section of school mathematics that you are interested in everything;
b) form of classes (lesson, additional classes, elective courses);
c) the level of assimilation of educational material (alignment, mandatory, advanced, creative);
d) learning profile (general education, humanitarian, mathematical, economic, etc.).
Based on the selected direction, it is necessary to formulate the topic of research (exchange or final qualifying work). The formulation of the topic should contain the problem of research, to be expressed by the right, correct methodical language using generally accepted terms, correspond to the main content of work and to carry a specific character, i.e. should not be abstract.
The main concepts of research are: problem, object and subject, goal, hypothesis, tasks, methods. Consider examples of didactic studies.
Topic 3. : Use of information and communication technologies when teaching mathematics in the main school.
Object of study: The process of learning mathematics using multimedia funds in the main school.
Subject of study: Terms and features of the organization of learning mathematics using multimedia.
Problem : Detection of ways to use information and communication technologies (ICT) when teaching mathematics in the main school.
Hypothesis : Systematic and targeted use of digital educational resources (CORs) and multimedia funds in the process of learning mathematics will contribute to the formation of ICT competence of students in the main school.
Purpose of the study: Detection of conditions for the use of ICT tools in mathematics lessons.
Objectives of research:
to perform an analysis of psychological and pedagogical, methodological, mathematical literature on the topic of research, in particular in the application of information technologies in mathematical education;
conduct survey among students and teachers educational institutions;
Analyze the results of the survey and identify the feasibility of using the COR in mathematics lessons;
Develop and conduct mathematics lessons using ICT funds;
Differentiated tasks and evaluate with their help the level of ICT competence of students.
Methods research: Analysis of literature, survey of students, surveying students and teachers of the educational institution, analysis of the COR, analysis of the results of the differentiated tasks performed by students.
Topic 4. : Study of the elements of combinatorics and the theory of probabilities in teaching mathematics in elementary school.
Problem : Study of the structure and content of the system of exercises by combinatorics and the theory of probabilities from the standpoint of an activity approach.
Object of study: The process of learning mathematics in elementary school.
Subject of study: Building a system of exercises on the elements of combinatorics and the theory of probabilities in the lessons of mathematics in elementary school.
Hypothesis : understanding and conscious assimction of the elements of the theory of probability and combinatoricsѐ conditions contribute to improving the efficiency of learning mathematics; The introduction of the elements of the theory of probability and combinatorics in primary school contributes to the development of the combinatorial-probabilistic style of thinking.
Purpose of the study: Building a system of exercises to study the elements of the theory of probability and combinatorics, which is focused on the use of productive activities of younger students.
Objectives of research:
learning and analysis of methodological, mathematical and scientific literature on the subject of research;
substantiation of the expediency of studying the elements of the theory of probability and combinatorics by children of younger school age;
identification of the mainѐ mOV and methods for mastering schoolchildren combinatorial and probabilistic tasks in the process of learning mathematics;
Experimental verification of developed methods.
Methods : Experiment, analysis of the literature and data obtained in Ho de experiment.
There is alsopsychological-pedagogicalthe study aimed at studying the impact on the subject of mental processes accompanying the process of upbringing or learning. When conducting such a study, a psychological and pedagogical experiment applies to create a situation that can be changed, making it an affordable study of mental processes (the formation of interest, etc.) or pedagogical phenomena (effective conditions for development, etc.). Depending on the conditions of the conduct and the nature of the tasks being solved, it may be natural, stateing or formative. To obtain quantitative characteristics, testing, high-quality - survey and interview.
Literature
Dzhurinsky A.N. History of education and pedagogical thought: studies. Location. For students pedavuses / A.N. Giurinsky. - M.: Humanit. ed. Center Vlados, 2008.
Gonev A.D. Basics of correctional pedagogy / ed. V.A. Salazhenina. - M.: Academy, 2007.
The history of pedagogy and education. From the origin of education in primitive society until the end of the twentieth century: / Ed. Acad. Rao A.I.piscunova. - M.: TC "Sphere", 2008.
Kraevsky V.V. Pedagogy methodology: new stage: studies. Manual for students Higher. studies. institutions / V.V. Kraevsky, E.V. Berezhnova. - M.: Academy, 2009.
Mizherikov V.A. Introduction to Pedagogical Activities / E. Mizherikov, T. A. Yuzfavičus. - M.: Rospenedagency, 2009.
Mudrick A.V. Social pedagogy: studies. For students ped. universities / A.V. Mudrik / Ed. V.A. Salazhenina. - M.: Academy, 2007.
Orlov A.A. Introduction to pedagogical activity: workshop: studies. - Method. pos. / A.A. Orlov, A.S. Agafonova. Ed. A.A. Orlova. - M.: Academy, 2007.
Pedagogy: studies. Manual for studies Higher. Ped. studies. institutions / ed. P.I. Bidcisters. - M.: Ped. Society of Russia, 2009.
Pedagogical Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ch. ed. B.M. Bim-Bad. - M., 2007.
Pedagogical technologies: Tutorial for students of pedagogical specialties / under the general ed. V.S. Cuckoo. - M.: ICC "March"; Rostov N / D: ICC "March", 2008.
Pityukov V.Yu. Basics of pedagogical technology. Educational and methodical manual. - M.: Publishing house "Gnome and D", 2007.
Robotova A.S. Introduction to pedagogical activities / Robotova A.S., Leontiev T.V., Shaposhnikova I.G. and others - M.: Academy, 2009. - 208 p.
Russian pedagogical encyclopedia in two volumes: volume I / ch. ed. V.V. Davydov. - M.: Scientific Publishing House "Big Russian Encyclopedia", 2008.
Russian pedagogical encyclopedia in two volumes: volume II / ch. ed. V.V. Davydov. - M.: Scientific Publishing House "Big Russian Encyclopedia", 2008.
Selko G.K. Modern educational technologies / G.K. Seleevko. - M., 2007.
Slostin V.A. Pedagogy: studies. Manual for studies Higher. Ped. studies. institutions / V.A. Slastin, I.F. Isaev, E.N. Shihanov. - M.: Academy, 2009.
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See also:
|
Scientific research is the process of studying, experiment, conceptualization and verification of the theory associated with the receipt of scientific knowledge.
Types of scientific research:
1. Fundamental study undertaken mainly to produce new knowledge regardless of the prospects of application.
2. Inland research, is aimed primarily to apply new knowledge to achieve practical purposes, solving specific tasks.
3. The search research is aimed at determining the prospects for working on the topic, finding ways to solve scientific tasks.
4. Development is a scientific research that implements the results of specific fundamental and applied research.
Types of scientific research:
1.Fundant research is aimed at cognition of reality without taking into account the practical effect on the application of knowledge.
2. Foreign research is carried out in order to obtain knowledge, which should be used to solve a specific practical task.
3. The monodisciplinary studies are carried out within a separate science (in this case - psychology).
4. Incillary studies require the participation of specialists from various areas and are held at the junction of several scientific disciplines. This group includes genetic research, research in the field of engineering psychophysiology, as well as research at the junction of ethnopsychology and sociology.
5. Composition studies are carried out using the methods of methods and methods through which scientists seek to cover the maximum (or optimal) possible number of significant parameters of the studied reality.
6. Modified, or analytical, research is aimed at identifying one, most significant, according to the researcher, aspect of reality.
34. Subject of scientific activity (from Lat. Sabjectum - lying at the base) - in the philosophy of science is currently interpreted in several senses:
1) as a separate scientist, with the name of which is connected to the opening;
2) as a special community of people - scientists specially occupied by the production of knowledge;
3) as all humanity, consisting of individual peoples, when each people, producing norms, ideas and values, fixed in its culture, acts as a special subject of cognitive activity. The subjects of scientific activity have special training, during which they use their knowledge of knowledge, mastering the means and methods of obtaining it, makes them their property on the basis of their ideological, value orientations, ethical principles and targets specific to this area of \u200b\u200bscientific knowledge of a certain study in studies Epochs. An authentic subject of knowledge is never only a gnoseological. This is a live person with its passions, interests, character, temperament, talent, will, etc. But in fact, under the subject of knowledge, nevertheless have in mind a certain impersonal logic clush of intellectual activity. The subject and its cognitive activity may be adequately understood only in their specific historical context. Scientific knowledge implies not only the conscious attitude of the subject to the object, but also to itself, to its activities, i.e. understanding of techniques, norms, research methods, traditions.
The subjects of knowledge are distinguished at each stage of the development of science: classical, non-classical, post-advertising:
At the stage of classical science, the subject of knowledge is a "gnoseological robinsone" (this is the subject "generally", outside the sociocultural and subjective characteristics; he knows the object "in itself", as if in a "pure form" without any extraneous introduction, absolutely objectively) ;
2) The subject of non-classical science no longer claims to absolute knowledge, since the knowledge gained:
a) relatively, which is often understood as a subjective,
b) instrumental, which means that this knowledge is intended to solve certain tasks,
c) the subject of knowledge is the not contemplating world of the episodeological machine, but an actively learning creature, and not only the objective of those objects of the object, but also the formative of the object itself,
d) the subject of knowledge is not so much a separate person, how many research teams;
3) The characteristics of the subject of postnotelyssic science is similar to the subject of the knowledge of non-classical science, but there are new differences: in connection with the globalization of scientific activities, the subject of knowledge goes beyond the framework of national borders and forms an international "scientific ethos" (R.K. Merton), which is able Solve modern tasks.
