On earth even before the appearance of man. History of the development of planet earth
Determine the sentence in which both highlighted words are written CONTINUOUSLY. Open the brackets and write down these two words.
On Earth, even before the advent of man, events took place for millions of years that changed our planet: mountain ranges rising from sea waters were undermined by snow waters, and ALSO by glaciers that descended from mountain peaks.
In many countries, recreation areas are expanding (FOR) DUE to vast areas of former quarries: (FOR) EXAMPLE, in Greece it is planned to develop several quarries where sports fields, attractions and beaches will be located.
(C) FOR long hours, Andrei Rublev remained in the temple (ALONE) with his teacher Theophan the Greek, who revealed the secrets of painting to the icon painter.
The unique composition of the text is determined by variable repetitions, when the thesis (F)INITIALLY is formulated, and (FAR)THEN repeated many times.
The lightning flashed, and hordes of clouds rushed WHERE (IN) DISTANT.
Explanation (see also Rule below).
Let's give the correct spelling.
On Earth, even before the appearance of man, DURING (the preposition is written separately) millions of years, events took place that changed our planet: mountain ranges rising from sea waters were undermined by snow waters, and ALSO (the conjunction is written together: can be replaced by the conjunction I) by glaciers that descended from the mountain peaks
In many countries, recreation areas are expanding DUE to (the derivative preposition is written separately) vast areas of former quarries: FOR EXAMPLE, in Greece it is planned to develop several quarries where sports fields, attractions and beaches will be located.
FOR (derivative preposition) long hours, Andrei Rublev remained in the temple ALONE (the adverb is written together) with his teacher Theophan the Greek, who revealed the secrets of painting to the icon painter.
The unique composition of the text is determined by variable repetitions, when the thesis FIRST (the adverb is written together) is formulated, and THEN (the adverb is written together) is repeated many times.
Lightning flashed, and hordes of clouds rushed SOMEWHERE (-THAT, -EITHER, -SOMETHING are written with a hyphen) IN THE DISTANCE (the adverb is written together).
Answer: first, then.
Answer: first then|then first
Source: Demo version of the Unified State Exam 2016 in the Russian language.
Rule: Task 14. Continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling of words
Continuous, separate and hyphenated writing of various parts of speech.
According to the “Specification”, this task tests knowledge of the most voluminous, most diverse and therefore most complex material. In this section “References” the rules of school textbooks will be systematized, as well as supplemented with the information that is necessary for the successful completion of the Unified State Examination task and mastering practical literacy. The set of rules that will be analyzed is not accidental: the creation of the list was preceded by work on studying assignments from past years, FIPI Bank, as well as printed publications, the authors of which are the creators of KIMs (Tsybulko I.P., Egoraeva, Vasiliev I.P. and others ).
Table 1 contains a collection of words; a distinctive feature of many is the presence of homonyms, that is, words that sound the same but have different spellings. To indicate parts of speech and explanations Abbreviations used:
noun - noun
num. - numeral
adv. – adverb
places – pronoun
deepr. – participle
p/p - derived preposition
n / n - non-derivative preposition
v/s – introductory word
fe - phraseological unit
| Letter | CONSOLIDATED/SEPARATELY/HYPHEN | EXPLANATION |
|---|---|---|
| B | would, b | together only in union so that, so that. I went to bed earlier to don't miss the train. ( union = in order to, would cannot be moved or removed) To not to be left without a certificate, you will have to study how the particle "by" is written. So that Don't forget, I'll write it down in my diary. |
| separately in all other cases: What would Should I read? ( local + frequent, would can be moved or removed.) Said would earlier; How would don't be late; What would did I do without you? I'll be back that would neither happened. | ||
| IN | after all | according to the rule for writing particles. Always hyphenated. |
| at the end unlike (difference) in the dark aside in general (not possible at all) openly all the time doesn't matter through thick and thin | always separately |
|
| at the bottom double (triple...) go home after | always together |
|
| in view of | missed it in view of illnesses (p/p, =because of) have in mind (FE) decoration as butterflies |
|
| up, above | look (where? adv.) up; located ( Where? adverb) up aim (what?) to the top(what?) tree, target ( ) |
|
| deep down | leave deep down (Where? nar.) leave deep into (what?) forests ( noun+n/a, there is an explanatory word) |
|
| In the end | become weak In the end (How? adv., =finally) rearrange the phrase In the end (what?) offers ( noun+n/a, there is an explanatory word) |
|
| instead, together to a place, in a place | spoke instead of me ( p/p, =for), together(adverb) with me. You can't: instead of me hit ( into what?) instead of falls, found ( Where?) at location ( noun+n/a, there is an explanatory word) |
|
| far away, far away into the distance, into the distance | look ( where?, adverb) into the distance; appears in the distance (Where? adverb.) into the distance ( what?,n/a+ noun. in Rod. case) seas; appears in the distance (what?) seas ( noun+n/a, there is an explanatory word) |
|
| at first | difficult at first(When? adv.) at first ( what?) books ( noun+n/a, there is an explanatory word |
|
| during | do during (When? nar.) hurts during (what?) sleep ( noun+n/a, there is an explanatory word) |
|
| down, below | fell ( Where? nar.)down; located ( Where? adverb)at the bottom aim ( into what?) down (what?) tree, target ( noun+n/a, there is an explanatory word), at the (very) bottom of the mountain |
|
| right up to | learn up to morning ( p/p, =to) clothe ( into what?) into the flesh and blood ( noun+n/a) |
|
| close in tight | come up close (How? adv. = very close) wrap in tight paper ( which one? adj.+n/a) |
|
| right | to turn right(where, adverb) into what? to the right possession of inheritance ( noun+n/a, there is an explanatory word) |
|
| has the right | has the right to know ( c/s, =has the right) share V(what?) law ownership of an apartment ( noun+n/a, there is an explanatory word), in criminal ( which one?)right |
|
| in continuation in continuation, in continuation | a preposition specifying a period of time. Combines with the words day, day, hour, week, etc.: throughout the day, throughout the lesson, throughout the year (similar to “throughout”) Noun continuation in different cases with the preposition in: in continuation ( into what?) of the novel new characters will be introduced. In the continuation of the novel ( what?) we learn about their fates. |
|
| first | see first (When? nar.) miss first days ( which? number+n/a) |
|
| due to as a consequence, as a result | flight delayed due to (p/p, =because of) bad weather Noun consequence in different cases: to intervene ( into what?) as a consequence(noun+n/a) ; errors in (preliminary) consequence(noun+n/a) |
|
| following | look ( where, what?) following(adv.) for the outgoing train to go after him, behind a friend ( p/p, =for) follow the trail ( noun+n/a) |
|
| during during, during | a preposition that specifies a period of time. Combines with the words day, day, hour, week, etc.: during the day, during the lesson, throughout the year (similar to “throughout”) Noun flow in the accusative or in the prepositional case with the preposition v: during ( into what?) rivers; ( about what) about the flow of the river. |
|
| E | if | always the same |
| AND | Same | Always separated by the particle rule. The particle contributes an amplifying value. Necessary same, Tell same, How same is it possible, like same, This same wrong, one and the same same, That same at the same time same time, exactly same. Not to be confused with unions ALSO and ALSO (see table) |
| Z | work and live abroad for lack of time or funds at the expense (treat at the expense of the establishment) | always the same |
| before dark | always the same |
|
| then | Adverbs and conjunctions: then (When? adv., =later) we will leave; For what asked? ( adv., = for what purpose?); small, but (union, =but) smart. Pronouns with prepositions: I came for those (which one exactly?) a kitten that I liked; I got in line for those (which one exactly?) by the man who went to the window. Similar: For how(exactly) queue? ( place + n/a, = for what product?) What (exactly) did you come back for? For the keys. Likewise: I thank you for That(for what exactly?) that you helped me; I'm not offended for That (for what exactly?) that you didn’t come, but for that ( for what exactly?) that he deceived me. |
|
| often frequently | often no result ( adv., =often) for frequent change of mood ( for which? adj.+n/a) | |
| AND | from afar | always together |
| So | So, let's start the lesson! ( introductory word) twisted So and this way ( How? people + union); So (how so?) many times, So all the time |
|
| TO | -KA | Always hyphenated according to the particle rule. Bring it -ka, Tell -ka, look -ka |
| TO | in a row | Repeatedly in a row (like, adverb = in a row) sneezed To a row(why, noun + n\n.) numbers, to a row acquaintances |
| as if as soon as as it were | always the same |
|
| L | Li (particle) | Always the same and separate. |
| N | against through not far away | Always the same |
| for | always the same |
|
| towards to the meeting | go towards(Where? nar.); go towards(to whom?) friend (p/p) go on(long awaited) meeting with a friend ( noun+n/a) |
|
| finally | finally he fell asleep adv. = after everything) postpone finally months ( noun+n/a, there is an explanatory word) |
|
| in advance on the front (rarely!) | I know everything in advance(How? adv., = in advance) fell on the front cars ( ) |
|
| like like | figure like ball ( p/p, =like) task ( for what?) like triangles ( noun+n/a, there is an explanatory word) |
|
| For example For example | Was, For example, (introductory word) such a case. note on(this) example (noun+n/a) |
|
| half by half | destroyed half (adv., =partially) claim ( for what?) by half Houses ( noun + n/a, there is an explanatory word) |
|
| about | to know about (p/p, =o) tickets put money on(bank) check(noun+n/a), don't take it personally (FE) |
|
| back on the back (rarely!) | turn around back (Where? nar.) look on(broken) ass car ( noun+n/a) |
|
| upstairs, upstairs to the top, to the top* | rise up(Where? nar.), upstairs (Where? nar.) it was cold rise to the top (what?) mountains ( noun+n/a, there is an explanatory word), on ( how?) on top of a building, on top of bliss (figurative) |
|
| by force | by force held (how? adv., = with great difficulty) hope on(my) strength (for what? noun+n/a) |
|
| how much for how long | How much It's right? ( adv., = to what extent?) How long will they increase their pension? (local+n/a) |
|
| so so much | so I'm so tired I fell asleep ( to what extent? nar.) What number so much is it less? ( = for the same number, places + n / a) |
|
| Maybe Maybe | Maybe, it will be raining. ( introductory word = probably) Maybe let's go! ( adj. + n / a, for what business? correct) |
|
| toDeath to death | fight to death(How? adv., = to death) They were sent on(true) death.(noun+n/a) |
|
| on the head on the head | enemies are defeated completely (How? adv., =finally) bandage on the head (for what? noun+n/a) |
|
| vying with each other for interruptions | started talking vying with each other (How? adv., = interrupting each other) complain on (permanent) interruptions water supply ( for what? noun+n/a, there is an explanatory word) |
|
| frankly for cleanliness | talk frankly (How? adv., = frankly) note for cleanliness in room ( for what? noun + n/a, there is an explanatory word) |
|
| on the face | data on the face (ext., = available) apply cream on(yours) face (for what? noun+n/a) |
|
| for a long time | leave for a long time(Nar., for how long?) look for a long time dancing girl ( dancing how? long, adv.+n/a) |
|
| forever forever | leave forever(Nar., for how long?) look on Always neat girl ( neat when? always, adv.+n/a) |
|
| despite despite | ran despite fatigue ( p/p, = in spite of) ran despite under your feet ( ger., = without looking) |
|
| regardless of regardless | Regardless of tired, we went to explore the city ( p/p, = in spite of) I tried to sit regardless of those around you and hiding your eyes ( ger., = without looking) |
|
| ABOUT | from there | always the same |
| from this | always separately |
|
| that's why | I didn't receive the summons that's why and didn't show up. ( adv. = for this reason) From that, who is not nice, and the gift is hateful. ( from whom? place + n/a, = from person) Pushed off from that shores ( from which one? local + n/a, = from adj..) |
|
| from what | From what You did not sleep? ( adv. = for what reason?) Because he worked. From what did you refuse? ( local+n/a) From work, from a task. |
|
| partly | Partly You are right. ( how much? adv., =partially) He refused from(more) parts income. ( from what? noun+n/a, there is an explanatory word) |
|
| P | behind simply because the little by little one by one | always together |
| because compared with) with the flow | always separately |
|
| and | The thing is beautiful and inexpensive. ( union, = besides, in addition) What does it have to do with will you stay? ( place + n/a, = with what?) What does it have to do with ( local+n/a) parents here, if it’s your fault? |
|
| besides | The thing is beautiful besides inexpensive. ( union, = besides, in addition) At volume The manual has an appendix. ( at what? local+n/a, =adj.) |
|
| That's why | He stayed That's why, that he wants to know the truth. ( Why? adv. = for that reason) go That's why shore ( on what? local+n/a, =adj.) guessed That's why what I saw ( local + n/a, = according to what he saw) |
|
| Why | Why are you silent? ( adv. = for what reason?) Because I don't want to talk. Why are you working out? ( place + n/a, = for what benefit?) Based on Rosenthal's textbook. Why what do you miss the most? In the summer, in the sun. |
|
| That's why | worked a lot, That's why tired ( Nar., why? for what reason?) study That's why textbook ( place + n/a, according to what? =adj.) |
|
| truly truly | This truly a rare thing. ( adv. = actually) People are bored By(present) truth. (noun+n/a) |
|
| at first at the beginning | miss at first (adv. = first time) guess By(to himself) the beginning novel ( noun+n/a, there is an explanatory word) |
|
| WITH | with time | always separately |
| right away, right away | always the same |
|
| at first | at first think ( When? nar.) Shouldn't we start a fairy tale? With(himself) started? (why? noun+n/a) |
|
| at all | at all not enough sleep ( How? adv. = absolutely) left at all property ( with which? local+n/a) |
|
| shouldered | swung shouldered(How? adv. =immediately) take off With(his) shoulder parrot ( why? noun+n/a) |
|
| T | Yes | Can be written either with a hyphen or separately. Broke -yes, again -yes, directly -yes after verbs, adverbs, hyphenated particles Me after all got hired, I after all late - in all other cases separately |
| Immediately | appeared immediately (How? adv. =immediately) has arrived that hour (place + noun, what time is it? That) when I saw you again |
|
| Homonyms: there are conjunctions too, also I Same, like you, I learn foreign languages. ( conjunction, =and, SAME cannot be omitted). I have a cat and so do you Same.. I'm into music and Also I really like to read. ( conjunction, =and, SAME cannot be omitted). The cat loves to sleep, and Also hide in new packages. Homonyms: pronoun with particle same. It enhances the meaning, see SAME Meet me at Same time. ( local + frequent, what time exactly?) - at that time; same Brother advised Same, as you. ( local + frequent, advised what exactly?) - That; same You can omit it, replace it with a union and you can’t! You Also as young as ten years ago. (popular, how young?) - so; same can be omitted, replaced with a conjunction and cannot). |
||
| right | always separately |
|
| X | at least, at least | always separately |
Table 1 is based on materials from Russian language teacher M.A. Kryukova. (website “Up to your ears in the OGE and the Unified State Exam!”)
Adverbs formed with a hyphen are written:
| 1) from full adjectives or pronouns using a prefix By- and ending with -mu, -him, -tski, -ski, -i | act in a friendly way sing in Kazakh live in a new way do in your own way in a hare's way cowardly |
| 2) from ordinal numbers to -y, -them using the attachment in- (in-) | secondly thirdly fifthly |
| 3) by repeating the same word or root, complicated by prefixes and suffixes | barely, just like every day, more or less willy-nilly |
| 4) by connecting synonyms | unexpectedly, I'll say hello to you |
| 5) using an attachment some and suffixes -this, -either, -something | somewhere, sometime, somewhere, somewhere |
Semi- is always written together: crescent, half-year.
And would it be the same as it is today if we did not exist at all?
Imagine for a moment that the last 125 thousand years of Earth's history were recorded somewhere on film - a thin, old-fashioned tape tucked between two metal reels. Every second, a certain amount of film is unwound from one cassette and wound onto another. Now imagine that it is possible to stop the film, intervene in this process and change the direction of movement. Let's rewind.
Gradually, with each new turn of the reel, our current reality is removed. Every minute, an area of natural forests and wooded areas the size of 10 football fields is restored. Every year, an area slightly larger than Denmark becomes forested again. It only takes 150 years to rewind in order for everything that was lost to be restored. At the same time, clusters of cities recede like the ebb of a concrete mass. Mega-cities shrink to the size of regular cities, then shrink to the size of villages and villages, and then green swaths of untouched and uncultivated land reappear. Existing rivers are freed from dams. The ozone layer is being restored. The remains of the planet's estimated 108 billion people are being removed from the earth, and fossil fuels, gems and metals, and other mined minerals are being returned to their original place. Tons of planet-polluting debris, including sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide, are being sucked out of the atmosphere.
Finally, we find ourselves at a point that seems unimaginably far from us - 125 thousand years ago. In geological terms, it may feel like yesterday, but the length of time between then and now represents the entirety of human existence on the planet. By rewinding the film to this point, we have eliminated virtually all traces of human impact on the Earth. And what happened?
125 thousand years ago, the Earth was in the middle of the Eemian interglacial period, which lasted 15 thousand years and represented a temperature phase between longer and colder ice ages. Suddenly the whole world became warm and green. In the northern hemisphere, continental snow cover has retreated south almost to the level of Germany in Europe and Illinois in North America.
“It was a little warmer then than it is today, and sea levels were probably a little higher and at their highest,” said Ian Tattersall, curator of anthropology at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. American Museum of Natural History).
One of the beneficiaries of such warming was Homo sapiens- a reasonable person. Our species first appeared approximately 200 thousand years ago in eastern Africa; 125 thousand years ago the population of this species was probably somewhere between 10-100 thousand individuals. They obtained food for themselves, hunted and made their first raids, leaving the homes of their ancestors.
However, we were not alone. “There were at least three lineages of hominids at that time,” says Tattersall, an expert on early human evolution. — Homo sapiens existed in Africa ( Homo sapiens); Homo erectus settled in the eastern part of Asia ( Homo erectus), which subsequently became extinct; and Neanderthals lived in Europe.”
Other members of the human race, both unknown and partially known to us, struggled to survive in other parts of the planet. “Nobody knows what happened in Africa,” says Tattersall. “There were hominids in Africa that looked completely different from modern Homo sapiens.”
Large animals also existed in abundance in the world - whales in the ocean and giant herds of herbivores on land. “I think if it were possible to teleport to that world, you would immediately notice the megafauna,” says environmental historian Jed Kaplan of the interdisciplinary department of environmental studies at the University of Geneva in Switzerland. of Geneva "s Institute for Environmental Sciences). - You would find huge herds of animals moving around the world. There would be woolly mammoths that inhabited the Arctic. And you would undoubtedly be able to see bison. In Europe you would find large cats, and in America there would probably be many horses, and also a large number of bears, wolves, and also many herd animals.”
Going beyond nature
But then, without any warning, everything changed. Or, to be precise, first human beings changed, and then the same thing happened to the world around them. “Something terrible happened at the very moment when people began to behave in modern ways, and this began 100 thousand years ago,” Tattersall notes. “And it was at that time that human beings, in a certain sense, went beyond the boundaries of nature, found themselves in opposition to it and began to do all the stupid things that we are very familiar with today.”
Reading through the list of nonsense that Tattersall talks about is sobering. Just 2 thousand years before the birth of Christ, the world population was several tens of millions. In 1700 after the Birth of Christ, there were already 600 million people on the planet; and today their number slightly exceeds 7 billion and continues to increase, according to experts, by 220 thousand people per day. And these are just human beings. According to the FAO, the global cattle population is 1.4 billion, and in addition, at any given time there are approximately a billion more pigs and sheep, as well as 19 billion chickens, or almost three for every person.
According to the data we have, we are using more energy today than ever before. In the 20th century alone, its consumption increased 16 times. According to information published in 2009 in the International Journal of Oil, Gas and Coal Technology, approximately 944 billion barrels of oil - or 135 billion tons - have been extracted from the Earth's interior since 1870. In 2011 alone, the United States produced more than a billion tons of coal, and China produced 3 times that amount.
We also radically changed the landscape. Agriculture, coupled with the use of fire, has subjugated the environment almost everywhere and reshaped it. In many regions, cultivated land has replaced natural vegetation. Between 30% and 50% of the earth's surface is currently used in one way or another for human benefit, and we consume more than half of the available fresh water supplies.
Especially rice production has flattened all ecosystems. “People create small dams,” says Earl Ellis, an environmental scientist at the University of Maryland. “And that changes the whole movement of sediment in the river basins.” The goal is to create wetlands in many places suitable for rice cultivation. As a result, a large number of areas became flatter. It makes an impression."
There are very few places left in the modern world that look the way they would if there were no human intervention at all. “There are very few landscapes left untouched, especially in Europe,” Kaplan points out. “There are practically no forests left where you could see large dead trees just lying on the ground. This is incredibly rare."
Just from the moment when man began to oppose himself to the still preserved nature, people spread throughout the world, like seeds driven by gusts of wind, and as a result, about 125 thousand years ago they settled in the Middle East, 50 thousand years ago - in South Asia , 43 thousand years ago - in Europe, 40 thousand years ago - in Australia and in both Americas in the period from 30 thousand to 15 thousand years ago. The last intensively populated territory was New Zealand, and this happened about 700 years ago.
Wherever people went, they brought animals with them - some deliberately (dogs, cats, pigs), and others by accident (rats). Introducing alien species into a delicately balanced ecosystem can have serious and irreversible consequences, Ellis argues, especially for rats: “Their impact on the ecosystem is very large. All living creatures that create nests for themselves on the ground or in any other place accessible to rats are doomed.”
Of course, we ourselves are effective killers. As you know, many species of animals have been exterminated by hunting or persecution, and the most famous example in this regard is the dodo (their last confirmed sighting was recorded in 1662). Also extinct: Steller's sea cow (1768), nilgai (ca. 1800), Mauritian blue pigeon (1826), great auk (1852), sea mink (ca. 1860), Falkland wolf (1876), passenger pigeon (1914), and also Caribbean monk seal (1952). Many other species have also disappeared within our memory. Human beings march across the planet, and behind them, one after another, waves roll in, destroying the megafauna. The reasons for this are still debated, but many point the finger at us. “I actually believe that human beings have contributed to the extinction of numerous megafaunal species,” Kaplan notes.
For example, 15 thousand years ago, human beings penetrated through Siberia to North America. “This is an unprecedented period of extermination,” said Bill Ruddiman, a climate scientist at the University of Virginia. “This required the emergence of something completely new, and this new thing turned out to be human beings.”
“The American West, the plains there, had a diversity that was much richer than what is today Serengeti National Park,” Ruddiman notes. — It was an amazing place. In addition to mammoths and mastodons, there were saber-toothed tigers, horses, camels, and giant ground sloths - all of these species became extinct within a fairly short period of time. The most reliable evidence suggests that this happened approximately 15 thousand years ago.”
Today, the wide—and mostly empty—spaces of the American West have changed dramatically from what they looked like 125,000 years ago.
The destruction of large animals by humans has had an impact on the landscape, which is noticeable almost everywhere. “Vast spaces used to remain semi-open, they became so as a result of the presence of large numbers of grazing animals, feeding on grass and branches, as well as predators,” Kaplan notes. — It is important to remember that landscapes are also shaped by animals. Huge herds of bison trampled small trees and thus left the space open - of course, not to the same extent as man who used fire, but this influence was undoubtedly noticeable.
water world
In addition, we have devastated the oceans. According to a study published in 2010, the UK fishing fleet must work 17 times harder today than in the 1880s to catch the same amount of fish. FAO estimates that more than half of the world's coastal fisheries are overfished.
Whale hunting has also changed the oceans beyond recognition. During the 20th century, some whale species were on the verge of extinction, and their populations have not yet been restored. A controversial study published in the journal Science claims that the whale population was significantly larger before the hunt began than previously thought. According to this study, there were once 1.5 million humpback whales in the world, not 100 thousand, as experts from the International Whaling Commission believe. The same can be said about minke whales, polar whales and sperm whales.
We have also changed the climate. In May of this year, the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere exceeded 400 ppm for the first time in millions of years; 125 thousand years ago its content was 275 ppm. This increase is partly due to the use of fossil fuels, but also to the decline of forests, which for millions of years acted as a virtually bottomless carbon sink.
This impact left a noticeable imprint on the ice on our planet. All over the world, glaciers began to shrink, and in some places they disappeared altogether. The US National Snow and Ice Data Center, organized at the University of Colorado in Boulder, monitors approximately 130 thousand glaciers around the world. Some of them are increasing, but many more are decreasing. In general, we can say that for every glacier increasing in size, there are at least 10 shrinking ones. When it was created in 1910, Glacier National Park in Montana contained 150 glaciers. Today their number does not exceed 30, and all of them have shrunk in size. In 2009, the Chacaltaya glacier in Bolivia disappeared, and at one time it was the highest place in the world with ski lifts. The ice cover in the polar latitudes is destroyed, and ice floes the size of cities break off from it. In July this year, a 30-kilometer crack in the Pine Island glacier in Antarctica resulted in the formation of an iceberg the size of New York City.
As a result of rewinding the time tape, all traces of human influence on planet Earth disappear. Now, just for fun, let's play another game - remove Homo sapiens altogether. Imagine if, 125,000 years ago, a small number of our ancestors in eastern Africa were wiped out by some catastrophe—a deadly virus or perhaps a natural disaster. And now let's fast forward the tape. What would our planet look like today if there were no modern human beings on it?
In some ways, the answer seems obvious: it would have looked much the same as it did 125,000 years ago. “We would have a continuously existing biosphere, and it would be something that is even difficult for us to imagine. That is, there would be forests, savannas and the like - and so on across the entire surface of the planet, says Jan Zalasiewicz, a geologist at the University of Leicester in the United Kingdom. - No roads, no fields. No cities. Nothing like that." Large animals would exist in abundance on Earth, and there would be many whales and fish in the seas.
However, this could not continue for long, says Ruddiman. If human beings had gone extinct 125,000 years ago, we would be entering a new ice age today. Glaciers would increase in size and move forward. This in itself is a controversial idea, and one for which Ruddiman has been criticized. Today, however, ten years after he first expressed it, many climate scientists agree with him.
“If you take away human influence, there will be significantly more ice in the seas, and the tundra in the Arctic Circle will also increase in area,” he notes. “The boreal forests would recede and, most importantly, ice cover would increase in many northern regions—the northern Rocky Mountains, the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, parts of northern Siberia.” These are the earliest stages of the onset of the Ice Age. And that’s the single most significant change.”
Or maybe everything would have turned out differently. It is possible that our place could be taken by another human species, for example, Neanderthals, Homo erectus, or some hitherto unknown species, and it would begin to determine everything that happens on the planet instead of us.
Tattersall has doubts. “Having established themselves on Earth, would they follow our example? he asks. “Would they be a substitute for Homo sapiens, which would suggest that there is a certain kind of inevitability about what happened to us?” I think it’s unlikely.”
However, there is a great counter-argument to this.
“There's also this concept called convergent evolution, which is that if we hadn't come along and done it, someone else would have,” says David Grinspoon, the museum's curator of astrobiology. of Nature and Science in Denver, Colorado. “In that case, there would be selective pressure on other species, which would push them towards the same development path that we have taken, where there is feedback between a large brain, language and abstract thinking, as well as the development of agriculture.” If the scenario was literally that Homo sapiens goes extinct and the overall landscape remains, then perhaps something similar would happen. It wouldn't be exactly the same because there's a lot of randomness, and it would probably take longer."
In short, all this would have happened anyway. Perhaps the formation of the modern version of the Earth and our place on it was inevitable. Remove Homo sapiens from this equation, restore forests and megafauna, and then, maybe in 100 thousand years, we will again get the same result - our greatest works, our achievements and our mistakes. Or at least something similar.
“I would love to have a magic crystal or some version of an alternate world viewfinder,” Grinspoon admits. “It would be great to know.”
A well-known Russian expert claims that before the appearance of people on earth, there were four more civilizations.
The famous Russian specialist Ernst Muldashev, an ophthalmologist by profession and a researcher by vocation, is searching for traces of disappearing civilizations. According to Muldashev, there were four civilizations on earth that disappeared by the time humanity appeared, but left their traces.
Asuras
The Asuras, or self-born, were the first race on earth, appearing 10 million years ago. They were incredibly tall, almost 50 meters, had an ethereal body, lived for ten thousand years, and used telepathy to communicate with each other. They had to move to Earth as a result of the death of the planet Phaeton.
Atlanta
Gradually the asuras changed, their bodies became more dense. Thus, a new race of Atlanteans was gradually formed, “born after.” They were slightly smaller in size, they still had no bones, but they had a third eye located between the eyebrows.
Lemurians
After the Atlanteans, the Lemurians appeared on earth. They were much more like modern people, they had a skeletal skeleton, gender division appeared, they still had a third eye, but not as well developed as the Atlanteans. The Lemurians were about 7-8 meters tall, and they lived for about a thousand years. According to Muldashev, it was they who built the Sphinx, Stonehenge and other amazing monuments.
Boreas
This race formed later, its representatives were much lower, no more than 3-4 meters, the third eye was well hidden, and the rest of the organs were very similar to human ones.
As Muldashev believes, approximately 25-30 thousand years ago a nuclear disaster occurred on our planet as a result of the conflict between the Lemurians and the Boreans. Some of the Lemurians hid in caves, where they fell into a state similar to samadhi hibernation, while the other part flew away in spaceships.
The Boreas, or late Atlanteans, reached unprecedented heights of development, but also could not preserve their civilization and died about 12 thousand years ago.
Arias
Muldashev calls our race, the fifth in a row, Aryan. The birth of the fifth civilization occurred approximately 12 thousand years ago, shortly before the destruction of Atlantis. The ancestors of modern people already lacked a third eye, which is why our civilization is developing so slowly.
The existence of more ancient civilizations is confirmed by archaeological finds, rock paintings, and mentions of aircraft in legends and traditions.
The history of our planet still holds many mysteries. Scientists from various fields of natural science have contributed to the study of the development of life on Earth.
Our planet is believed to be about 4.54 billion years old. This entire time period is usually divided into two main stages: Phanerozoic and Precambrian. These stages are called eons or eonothema. Eons, in turn, are divided into several periods, each of which is distinguished by a set of changes that occurred in the geological, biological, and atmospheric state of the planet.
- Precambrian, or cryptozoic is an eon (time period in the development of the Earth), covering about 3.8 billion years. That is, the Precambrian is the development of the planet from the moment of formation, the formation of the earth’s crust, the proto-ocean and the emergence of life on Earth. By the end of the Precambrian, highly organized organisms with a developed skeleton were already widespread on the planet.
The eon includes two more eonothems - catarchaean and archaean. The latter, in turn, includes 4 eras.
1. Katarhey- this is the time of the formation of the Earth, but there was no core or crust yet. The planet was still a cold cosmic body. Scientists suggest that during this period there was already water on Earth. The Catarchaean lasted about 600 million years.
2. Archaea covers a period of 1.5 billion years. During this period, there was no oxygen on Earth yet, and deposits of sulfur, iron, graphite, and nickel were being formed. The hydrosphere and atmosphere were a single vapor-gas shell that enveloped the globe in a dense cloud. The sun's rays practically did not penetrate through this curtain, so darkness reigned on the planet. 2.1 2.1. Eoarchaean- This is the first geological era, which lasted about 400 million years. The most important event of the Eoarchean was the formation of the hydrosphere. But there was still little water, the reservoirs existed separately from each other and did not yet merge into the world ocean. At the same time, the earth's crust becomes solid, although asteroids are still bombarding the earth. At the end of the Eoarchean, the first supercontinent in the history of the planet, Vaalbara, formed.
2.2 Paleoarchean- the next era, which also lasted approximately 400 million years. During this period, the Earth's core is formed and the magnetic field strength increases. A day on the planet lasted only 15 hours. But the oxygen content in the atmosphere increases due to the activity of emerging bacteria. Remains of these first forms of Paleoarchean life have been found in Western Australia.
2.3 Mesoarchean also lasted about 400 million years. During the Mesoarchean era, our planet was covered by a shallow ocean. The land areas were small volcanic islands. But already during this period the formation of the lithosphere begins and the mechanism of plate tectonics begins. At the end of the Mesoarchean, the first ice age occurs, during which snow and ice first formed on Earth. Biological species are still represented by bacteria and microbial life forms.
2.4 Neoarchaean- the final era of the Archean eon, the duration of which is about 300 million years. Colonies of bacteria at this time form the first stromatolites (limestone deposits) on Earth. The most important event of the Neoarchean was the formation of oxygen photosynthesis.
II. Proterozoic- one of the longest time periods in the history of the Earth, which is usually divided into three eras. During the Proterozoic, the ozone layer appears for the first time, and the world ocean reaches almost its modern volume. And after the long Huronian glaciation, the first multicellular life forms appeared on Earth - mushrooms and sponges. The Proterozoic is usually divided into three eras, each of which contained several periods.
3.1 Paleo-Proterozoic- the first era of the Proterozoic, which began 2.5 billion years ago. At this time, the lithosphere is fully formed. But the previous forms of life practically died out due to an increase in oxygen content. This period was called the oxygen catastrophe. By the end of the era, the first eukaryotes appear on Earth.
3.2 Meso-Proterozoic lasted approximately 600 million years. The most important events of this era: the formation of continental masses, the formation of the supercontinent Rodinia and the evolution of sexual reproduction.
3.3 Neo-Proterozoic. During this era, Rodinia breaks up into approximately 8 parts, the superocean of Mirovia ceases to exist, and at the end of the era, the Earth is covered with ice almost to the equator. In the Neoproterozoic era, living organisms for the first time begin to acquire a hard shell, which will later serve as the basis of the skeleton.
III. Paleozoic- the first era of the Phanerozoic eon, which began approximately 541 million years ago and lasted about 289 million years. This is the era of the emergence of ancient life. The supercontinent Gondwana unites the southern continents, a little later the rest of the land joins it and Pangea appears. Climatic zones begin to form, and the flora and fauna are represented mainly by marine species. Only towards the end of the Paleozoic did land development begin and the first vertebrates appeared.
The Paleozoic era is conventionally divided into 6 periods.
1. Cambrian period lasted 56 million years. During this period, the main rocks are formed, and a mineral skeleton appears in living organisms. And the most important event of the Cambrian is the emergence of the first arthropods.
2. Ordovician period- the second period of the Paleozoic, which lasted 42 million years. This is the era of the formation of sedimentary rocks, phosphorites and oil shale. The organic world of the Ordovician is represented by marine invertebrates and blue-green algae.
3. Silurian period covers the next 24 million years. At this time, almost 60% of living organisms that existed before die out. But the first cartilaginous and bony fishes in the history of the planet appear. On land, the Silurian is marked by the appearance of vascular plants. Supercontinents are moving closer together and forming Laurasia. By the end of the period, ice melted, sea levels rose, and the climate became milder.
4. Devonian period is characterized by the rapid development of diverse life forms and the development of new ecological niches. The Devonian covers a time period of 60 million years. The first terrestrial vertebrates, spiders, and insects appear. Sushi animals develop lungs. Although, fish still predominate. The flora kingdom of this period is represented by propferns, horsetails, mosses and gosperms.
5. Carboniferous period often called carbon. At this time, Laurasia collides with Gondwana and a new supercontinent Pangea appears. A new ocean is also formed - Tethys. This is the time of the appearance of the first amphibians and reptiles.
6. Permian period- the last period of the Paleozoic, ending 252 million years ago. It is believed that at this time a large asteroid fell on Earth, which led to significant climate change and the extinction of almost 90% of all living organisms. Most of the land is covered with sand, and the most extensive deserts appear that have ever existed in the entire history of the development of the Earth.
IV. Mesozoic- the second era of the Phanerozoic eon, which lasted almost 186 million years. At this time, the continents acquired almost modern outlines. A warm climate contributes to the rapid development of life on Earth. Giant ferns disappear and are replaced by angiosperms. The Mesozoic is the era of dinosaurs and the appearance of the first mammals.
The Mesozoic era is divided into three periods: Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous.
1. Triassic period lasted just over 50 million years. At this time, Pangea begins to break apart, and the internal seas gradually become smaller and dry out. The climate is mild, the zones are not clearly defined. Almost half of the land's plants are disappearing as deserts spread. And in the kingdom of fauna the first warm-blooded and land reptiles appeared, which became the ancestors of dinosaurs and birds.
2. Jurassic covers a span of 56 million years. The Earth had a humid and warm climate. The land is covered with thickets of ferns, pines, palms, and cypresses. Dinosaurs reign on the planet, and numerous mammals were still distinguished by their small stature and thick hair.
3. Cretaceous period- the longest period of the Mesozoic, lasting almost 79 million years. The separation of the continents is almost ending, the Atlantic Ocean is significantly increasing in volume, and ice sheets are forming at the poles. An increase in the water mass of the oceans leads to the formation of a greenhouse effect. At the end of the Cretaceous period, a catastrophe occurs, the causes of which are still not clear. As a result, all dinosaurs and most species of reptiles and gymnosperms became extinct.
V. Cenozoic- this is the era of animals and homo sapiens, which began 66 million years ago. At this time, the continents acquired their modern shape, Antarctica occupied the south pole of the Earth, and the oceans continued to expand. Plants and animals that survived the disaster of the Cretaceous period found themselves in a completely new world. Unique communities of life forms began to form on each continent.
The Cenozoic era is divided into three periods: Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary.
1. Paleogene period ended approximately 23 million years ago. At this time, a tropical climate reigned on Earth, Europe was hidden under evergreen tropical forests, only deciduous trees grew in the north of the continents. It was during the Paleogene period that mammals developed rapidly.
2. Neogene period covers the next 20 million years of the planet's development. Whales and bats appear. And, although saber-toothed tigers and mastodons still roam the earth, the fauna is increasingly acquiring modern features.
3. Quaternary period began more than 2.5 million years ago and continues to this day. Two major events characterize this time period: the Ice Age and the emergence of man. The Ice Age completely completed the formation of the climate, flora and fauna of the continents. And the appearance of man marked the beginning of civilization.
Many of us watched Jurassic Park and admired the gigantic monsters recreated by technology. However, our knowledge of dinosaurs is often limited to what is presented in this nostalgic film. We publish 13 facts that will surprise you.
Walt Disney insisted on an anatomically incorrect depiction of the T-Rex
In the 1940 cartoon Fantasia, the Tyrannosaurus rex is depicted with three toes on its forelimbs. In fact, tyrannosaurs only have two fingers. The famous cartoonist added one more, as it looks scarier and more familiar to the human eye.
Dinosaurs ruled the Earth for 160 million years
Reptiles have lived on Earth since before the advent of dinosaurs. About 300 million years ago, global warming occurred, which caused an evolutionary explosion among reptiles. The first dinosaurs appeared on Earth during the Mesozoic era about 230 million years ago, and the mass extinction of these giant reptiles occurred 65 million years ago. For comparison, the oldest remains of Homo sapiens are only 200 thousand years old.
Dinosaur extinction was not instantaneous
Experts believe that dinosaurs were already on the verge of extinction when the asteroid hit Earth. According to the biosphere hypothesis, the extinction of dinosaurs predetermined the emergence of flowering plants, which significantly changed food chains in ecosystems and gradual climate change caused by continental drift.
41% of Americans believe dinosaurs and humans existed in the same era
41% of American adults believe that dinosaurs and humans lived side by side. Of course this is not true. But next to humans on Earth live birds, which are direct descendants of dinosaurs. Most researchers are inclined to believe that birds descended from theropod dinosaurs from the group of maniraptors.
The word "dinosaur" appeared in the 19th century
In 1824, the president of the Royal Geological Society, William Buckland, gave a report on the discovery made in 1815 in Great Britain. They were some giant bones. Buckland classified the find as the remains of a giant predatory lizard and called it a megalosaurus - "a huge lizard." In the two decades following Buckland's report, biologists found other remains of colossal size. In 1842, the English biologist Richard Owen noted the similarities between the described new species of lizards and their differences from modern reptiles. He identified these in a special suborder, calling it Dinosauria (Latin for "terrible lizard").
Velociraptors in Jurassic Park are wrong
Velociraptors in the film “Jurassic Park” are huge bloodthirsty lizards that hunted in packs and most often attacked people. In fact, velociraptors were only 50 -80 cm tall and never hunted in packs. But the closest relatives of these dinosaurs, Deinonychus, were twice the size of velociraptors and often gathered in groups to hunt. The film's scriptwriter, Michael Crichton, based his writing on the reconstruction of Deinonychus.
Dilophosaurus didn't spit venom
Another mistake in Jurassic Park: screenwriter Michael Crichton explained the weakness of the Dilophosaurus's jaws by saying that it hunted by hitting its prey with poisonous saliva sprayed over a long distance. This was done solely for dramatic effect: the Dilophosaurus was not at all poisonous.
T-Rex was a scavenger
Many people are accustomed to thinking that Tyrannosaurus is the most bloodthirsty hunter of the Jurassic period. However, scientists have long debated its diet. Some paleontologists have defended the idea that the royal T-Rex was actually a scavenger, since, in their opinion, its teeth were not adapted for hunting. However, scientists have now concluded that tyrannosaurs could feed on both fresh meat and carrion at the same time. Younger dinosaurs had to hunt for food, and older dinosaurs took prey from the young.
Some lizards weighed 60 tons
The largest dinosaur is considered to be Dreadnoughtus from the genus of titanosaurs. Its length was about 26 meters and its weight was 59.3 tons. This is equivalent to the weight of a dozen African elephants or seven T-Rexes. The giant lizard was named after the largest warships of the early twentieth century. This dinosaur was discovered in 2014. It is assumed that the discovered Dreadnoughtus died when an ancient river flooded: under the weight of the animal, the soil turned into a kind of quicksand and absorbed the colossal reptile.
The brain of a stegosaurus is very light
It is widely believed that the brain of Stegosaurus was the size of a walnut. Indeed, in 2013, paleontologist Lawrence Witmer said in a Facebook post that he and his colleagues had come up with a new unit for measuring dinosaur brains—the walnut—and it was misunderstood in the press. What the scientist actually meant was that the brain of a stegosaurus (which is actually the size of a dog) looks like a walnut on the scale of these animals. Indeed, it is very light: 70 grams per 2 tons of live weight. However, in the spinal canal of the stegosaurus there is an expansion filled with nervous tissue. Scientists called it the dinosaur's "second brain." It is now believed that this expansion is responsible for supplying the nervous system with glycogen.
Sauropods swallowed rocks
It is known that sauropods (herbivorous dinosaurs, including brachiosaurs and diplodocus) swallowed small pebbles to improve digestion. Birds and crocodiles inherited this tradition from their distant ancestors.
Dinosaur eggs aren't always white
Dinosaur eggs are usually white. However, in 2015, scientists discovered pigments that colored the shell blue and green. The pigments biliverdin and protoporphyrin are found in the eggs of some ancient orders of birds. The eggs of the dinosaur species Heyuannia huangi had a camouflage color similar to the color of the eggs of modern emu ostriches.
Soft tissue can last for millions of years
In 1981, amateur paleontologists discovered the remains of a dinosaur that was later named Scipionyx samniticus (Scipio's claw). The find became famous because of the unique preservation of the fossilized soft tissue and internal organs such as muscle and intestine, as well as the internal structure of some muscle and bone cells.
