Geographic names with the ending “nezh” and personal names with the ending “neg. The main types of transformation of geographical names

^ SECTION II. CLASSIFICATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES

Various approaches to toponymic data on the part of various scholars have led to the existence of different classifications of toponyms. The first attempts at a scientific toponymic classification date back to the 19th century, when their belonging to different morphological groups and semantic types was shown.

In 1924 the scientist-geographer ^ V.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky classified names into 7 categories: from personal names and nicknames; from church holidays; from historical names; from a pagan cult; from ancient tribes; assigned in honor of various events and persons; from the objects that make up the typical geographical landscape of the area.

^ A. M. Selishchev (1939) divided Russian names into 7 categories: derived from the names of people and their nicknames; from the names of people by occupation; on social and property basis; related to the administration; reflecting the ethnic character of the population; reflecting the features of the landscape and the features of the development of populated areas; with an abstract meaning.

Onomastic classification developed by a Polish scientist ^ V. Tashitskyin the middle of the 20th century, differentiated place names into topographic, cultural, possessive and diminutive.

The so-called "linguistic" classification is known according to the correlation of toponyms to one or another language: names that are indigenous for a given language, the meaning of which is completely clear; names originating from the language of a given people, but changed and even rethought; titles; inherited from other languages \u200b\u200band transformed in accordance with the modern dominant language; foreign names for this territory. It is obvious that the assignment of a toponym to a particular type according to this classification is rather difficult.

Attempts have been made to divide place names by morphological characteristics to simple place names and complex place names. The latter, in turn, are divided into 6 subtypes: noun + noun; adjective + noun; numeral + noun; phrases; reduction; other education.

An interesting etymological classification of toponyms: toponyms of a completely clear semantic meaning (etymologically obvious); toponyms, the meaning of which is revealed as a result of etymological analysis (etymologically transparent); toponyms, the meaning of which cannot be deciphered (etymologically opaque). However, over time, place names can move from one group to another. Historical (stratigraphic) classification is based on the time referencing of geographical names and their division into toponymic layers by age.

American toponymist ^ J.R. Stewart in the 70s. XX century proposed the following classification of geographic names: descriptive; associative; incident-related; possessive; memorial; folk etymological; artificial; recommendatory; erroneous; transferred.

A classification was proposed by objects of toponymic nomination: oronyms; hydronyms; phytotonyms; oikonyms; urbanonyms.

The semantic classification is as follows: names reflecting natural conditions and processes (oronymic; hydronymic; phytotonyms; soil-ground toponyms; weather and climatic toponyms; zootonyms); anthropotoponyms; industrial place names; trade and transport; types of settlements; ethnotoponyms; memorial place names; religious - cult toponyms; toponyms-migrants; other place names (not amenable to explanation or assignment to any group). Currently, the semantic classification is most often used by specialists.

The controversy and inconsistency of many structural components of the above classifications is quite obvious. Each of these has soybean pros and cons. Questions of creating any scientific classification extremely difficult. Each scheme depends on the goals and objectives of the study. Linguists are closer to morphological and language classifications, for historians - stratigraphic (according to the age of place names), for geographers - semantic.

According to the professor V. A. Zhuchkevich, in ideal form, a unified classification should answer three key questions: what is called, what objects; how it is called, in what language and by what means of the language; why is it called, what is the meaning of the names. This reflects the integrality of toponymy as a science - the answer to the first question belongs to geography, to the second to linguistics, to the third to toponymy as such. However, we have to admit that the creation by scientists of a single universal classification scheme is a matter of the future.

^ 2.2. TOPONYMS REFLECTING NATURAL CONDITIONS

Natural landscapes and their components have been accurately detailed by the local population in geographical names as a result of centuries of observation of natural phenomena and processes. The layer of toponyms reflecting natural phenomena is one of the most widespread on Earth. Among this category of geographical names, the most significant are toponyms reflecting the relief (oronymic), weather and climate, waters (hydronymic), soils and grounds, vegetation (phytotonyms) and fauna (zootonyms).

Oronymic toponyms.

This group of geographical names reflects the specific features of the relief. Many famous names of mountain ranges, massifs and peaks ( Cordillera, Sierra Madre, Himalayas, Mont Blanc, Kilimanjaro and etc.)

Oronymic names are widely represented in the toponymy of the Caucasus. Armenian place names ^ Lernavan, Lernagyuh, Lernashen come from the word lehr- "mountain". Georgian terms mta - "mountain", kedi - "ridge", klde - "rock" underlie such oikonyms as Mtiskalta, Mtisdziri, Shuamta, Kvemo Kedi, Sakarikedi, Okroskedi, Kldistavi, Kldisubani... The Türkic names of Azerbaijan retained such relief terms as dash - "a rock", doug - "mountain", dere - "gorge", yal- "crest of a mountain", etc.

Many terms associated with various features of the earth's surface are reflected in toponymy. Among the Slavic terms, the following subgroups of terms can be noted: reflecting positive forms of relief ( squirrel, shaft, crown, char, hump, mane, stone, hill, ridge and etc.); reflecting negative landforms ( gully, depression, valley, hollow, failure, pit and etc.); having opposite meanings, i.e. reflecting both positive and negative landforms ( spindle, top, ridge, cliff, yarand etc.); neutral ( coast, plain).

Clarity of many terms, in particular such as char ("Treeless peak"), protein ("The peak white with snow") allowed them to enter the scientific one. In toponymy, these terms have been preserved only in limited areas - char and squirrel - in Eastern Siberia (for example, ridges Shiroky Loletsin the Khabarovsk Territory and Katunskiye Squirrels in Altai).

Interesting Turkic place names ^ Alatau ("Colorful mountains") and Karatau ("Black mountains") - the names of many ranges of Asia ( Zailiyskiy, Dzhungarskiy, Kuznetskiy Alatau; ridges Karatau on the Tien Shan, on the Mangyshlak peninsula in Kazakhstan, etc.) These names do not have a direct color designation. Just by the term alatau denoted mountains on the slopes of which alternated white patches of snow, black areas of stone placers and alpine meadows. A karatau- these are low mountain ranges with desert, semi-desert and steppe vegetation with a complete absence of snow cover.

The relief was reflected in the historical and geographical division of Lithuania into Samogitia and Aukstaitiyu... These names are derived from the Baltic words žemas - "base" and aukštas - "sublime".

Interesting origin of the toponym Fujiyama - a kind of symbol of Japan. Scientists explained this name in different ways, but at the base they always highlighted the word pit - in Japanese "mountain". There is a "steep mountain", and a "mountain of abundance", and a "mountain of immortality". Some toponymists word fuji explained from the language of the Ainu people in the meaning of "fire", that is. Fujiyama - "fiery mountain". However, the most likely version of the interpretation of this name was given by the authoritative Japanese scientist - toponymist Kagami Kandi. He dates the origin of the toponym in the 1st millennium AD. e. and gives a figurative explanation of its meaning - "the beauty of a long slope hanging in the sky."

Karst processes and phenomena are also reflected in toponymy. In various regions of the Earth, where these natural phenomena are widespread, place names containing karst terms are widely represented. Such, in particular, are the names with the meaning "cave". Among them, one can recall the Armenian Ayr, Spanish Sotano (this is how deep vertical passages in the limestone caves of Central America are called), Georgian Quabi, Moldavian Grothe, Azerbaijani Delik and many others dr.

Volcanism and other endogenous processes are also reflected in the names of volcanoes. These are the place names: Popocatepetl (in the Aztec language "smoking mountain"), Vesuvius (from language ancient people oskov "smoke, steam"), Kilauea (from Polynesian "belching"), Cotopaxi (from the Quechua language "sparkling" or "smoking mountain"), Hekla(in Icelandic "hat, hood"), Etna (from the ancient Greek "flame"), Krakatoa (from Javanese "crackling"), Pichincha (from Quechua "seething summit"), Soufriere (in French "sulfurous"), etc.

Weather and climatic place names.

The presence of toponyms reflecting the meteorological and climatic conditions of a particular territory is optional. In toponymy, this group of names is one of the least common. Meteorological terminology has no noticeable toponymic activity. This is due to the dynamism of the natural processes themselves, which are expressed and determined by this vocabulary. Quite long-term, long-term and stable observations of the population or the presence of constant phenomena and processes are needed for them to be determined by toponyms.

The map has names like islands Windward and Leeward (off the northern coast of South America), city Windhoek(capital of Namibia, the name means "windy pass"), city Nouakchott (capital of Mauritania, "windy place"), steppe Boro-Dala (Mongolia, "windy valley"), Belarusian villages Calm and Buyavishche - from the word buoy - "open windy place".

The name of the state of Chile in the language of the indigenous people of the Araucan Indians means "cold", "winter". This is how the inhabitants of the Araucanian plains perceived the snow-capped peaks of the Andes. The extinct volcano Chimborazo depicted on the coat of arms of Ecuador also contains a weather and climatic component in its name: the word race (or race) in the language of the local Indians it means "snow" (the first part of the toponym is associated with the hydronym Chimbo with an unknown etymology).

The name of the highest point of the Guiana Highlands of the mountain ^ Neblina (Sulfur-Neblina) means "foggy", and the state Kelantan (Malaysia) in Malay means "lightning" - there are really a lot of thunderstorms with lightning during the rainy season. Volcano Waileleale ("Overflowing") in Hawaii is named for the enormous amount of rainfall that falls on its slopes. This is one of the wettest places on the planet. Common name for New Zealand in the indigenous Maori language Aotearoa - "long white cloud".

The metaphorical name can also be attributed to the subgroup of weather - climatic ^ Valley of Death, the hottest place in North America, in the language of the Shoshone Indians: Tomesha- "burning ground underfoot", which reflects the exceptional severity of the climate. City name Srinagar (India) means "sunny city".

The names of this subgroup are widespread in Australia. In the life of the aborigines, climatic conditions and processes were often decisive. Therefore, a whole layer of toponyms is associated with weather phenomena in the languages \u200b\u200bof various aboriginal tribes.

The weather and climatic features are associated with a kind of warning names that were given by navigators during the discovery of new unknown lands. In 1488 the Portuguese navigator Bartolomeu Dias reached the southern tip of Africa after a long journey. In memory of the dangers and difficulties he experienced along the way, as well as because of the difficulties of navigation, Diash gave the name to the first cape he encountered on the South African coast Cabo Tormentoso - "Cape Burny". Later, by the decision of King João II of Portugal, the cape was renamed into Cabo da Boã Esperanza - "Cape of Good Hope", meaning the hope of reaching a wealthy India.

Hydronymic names.

The names given for the characteristics of water bodies are extremely common in the place names of the planet. The waters of the Earth - flowing and non-flowing, lakes and springs, rivers and streams - are extremely diverse in their physical, geographical, chemical and other characteristics. The hydronymic toponyms reveal the peculiarities of the flow, color, taste, smell of water, the nature of the channel and floodplain.

In the desert regions of the planet, any source of water is of great importance. Therefore, peoples living in such harsh natural conditions clearly distinguish between different types of water sources. For example, in Turkmenistan, the terms and names of wells are narrowly specialized depending on the quality of the water: azhiguyy - "a well with bitter water", suzhuguyy - "a well with fresh water", shorguyy - "salt well", uzynguy - "deep well", etc. There is settlements Minbulak (thousand springs) Sarybulak (yellow source), Karabulak (black source), Taldybulak (talnik source), Sasykbulak (smelly source), etc.

As noted, the names of the largest water bodies known to mankind since ancient times often mean “big water, river, lake”. River name Indus comes from Sanskrit sindhu - "big river". The largest river in the North American continent, the Mississippi, translated from one of the Indian languages \u200b\u200bmeans "great river".

It is known that large rivers have different names in different parts of the course. This fact of the “multi-family name” of large rivers is not surprising and is explained by geographical reasons - a change in the direction and nature of the current or the settlement of a large number of peoples replacing each other along the entire length of the river. For example, the Nile is named Bahr el-Jebel ("River of mountains") when it literally breaks down into the flat East Sudan Basin from a high-mountain plateau. And the huge number of ethnic groups living on the banks of the great river led to the presence of many names in various languages: Arabic El Bahr, Coptic Earo, in the Buganda language - Cyprus, in Bari - Tkutsiri etc. For the most part, all these names have a close meaning - "great river" or "big water". Therefore, the Niger River (the name is derived from the Berber n'egiren - "river") has different names in different parts of the course in local languages: in the upper course Joliba ("Big river"), in the middle and lower reaches Kuara, Quara ("river"), Issa-Bari("Great river"), Mayo ("river").

The Yangtze River also has many names in different parts of the course. This is Tibetan Murui-Us (Where mustache- "river"), Chinese Jinshajiang ("River of golden sand"), Yangtzejiang... It was the latter form that served as the basis for the name in other countries. Hydronym means "river of the city of poplars". In China, the river is often called Changjiang- "long river", or simply Jiang- "river".

Spanish word rio ("River") is a component of a huge number of toponyms of the New World - Rio Grande ("Big river"), Rio colorado ("Red river"), Rio Solado ("Salt river"), etc. One of the largest rivers in South America Magdalena, discovered and named so by the Spaniard Rodrigo de Bastides in honor of Saint Equal-to-the-Apostles Mary Magdalene, among the Indians - the Caribbean was called Caripuana, which means "big water".

The hydronymic term is widely used in Malay place names kuala - "mouth". It is used in composite toponyms in combination with the name of rivers - Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Terengganu, Kuala Lipis and etc.

Wai ("Water, river") is a Polynesian geographic term for permanent surface water courses in Polynesia and New Zealand. The names of many rivers and other objects in this region are formed by this word ( Vivera, Waikiki etc.). Name of the longest river in New Zealand Waikato means "river flowing into the distance."

In Australia, the term scream (English creek - "stream, branch of the river") defines periodically dry watercourses of the mainland. Hence the hydronyms Coopers Creek, Diamantina Creek and others. Shouts - natural analogues of North African wadi (ueddov). Place names with these hydronymic terms are widely represented in the names of this region of the planet. By the way, the term wadi in a slightly modified meaning "river" was moved by the Arabs to Spain. Therefore, the names of the rivers of the Iberian Peninsula are associated with this term, such as Guadalquivir(from Arabic Wadi Al Kebir - river valley "), Guadalajara (from Arabic Wadi al-Harrah - "rocky river"), etc.

Many of the largest bodies of water on the planet have the term in their name lake (big water): Nyasa, Chad, Michigan etc. Finland has a huge number of lakes. Many of them have names with the word jarvi - "lake" ( Inarijärvi, Oulujärvi, Kemijärvi). This is typical for Turkic place names with the terms sack, col, gel - "lake". They are widely represented in the toponymy of Eurasia: Issyk-Kul ("Hot lake", according to another version "sacred lake"), Alakol ("Motley lake"), Astrakhan ("Black lake"), Gek-Gel ("Blue lake"), etc.

The name of the most significant lake in the Caucasus ^ Sevan received an explanation when in the tract Ozabert a cuneiform stone was found on the banks of this reservoir. The Urartian word was mentioned on it sunia - “lake” that gave the name to Sevan.

At the same time, many large lakes, due to their size, were associated with the seas by some peoples. So, Lake Baikal was called by the Evenks Lamu - "Sea", the largest lake in Mongolia Khubsugul sometimes called Dalai - "sea ocean". People also call large reservoirs in everyday life the seas (for example, the well-known Minsk sea).

Soil-ground titles.

These names are widely used in the toponymy of many regions of the Earth. City name ^ Maseru, the capital of the African state of Lesotho means "place of red sandstones." The Kalahari semi-desert is named in the Hottentot language - from the word karaha - "rocky and sandy area".

Weld(from Afrikaans veld - field) is an arid plateau in South Africa. The term is used with definitions depending on the specifics of the landscape components: relief (High, Medium and Low Veld, mountain veld, bankeveld – weld with parallel ridges of steep hills), soil cover ( hardeveld- solid weld, sandeveld - sandy weld, surveld - sour weld, weld with calcareous soil deficiency), such as vegetation ( bushveld - shrub veld, grassveld - herbaceous veld).

Aboriginal term is common in Australia gilgai (gilgai - failure, drawdown). This is the name for a flat surface with scattered pillow-like hillocks. It is formed as a result of the penetration of soil particles from the upper horizon into the lower one through cracks. When saturated with moisture, particles are pushed to the surface, creating a hilly landscape that is constantly subject to erosion processes. Gilgay typical of New South Wales. The term is found in aboriginal place names.

The features of the soils of a particular locality became the basis for such place names as ^ Clay, Clay, Clay, Sands, Sandy, Mud, Kamenka, Cretaceous ... The names associated with swamp ores are widespread in hydronymy - Ore, Ore, Rust, Iron.

Popular geographic terms reflecting soils and grounds are also widely represented in geographic names. River Guardsman may contain in its sediments gverstu- coarse sand, bed Stonerivers - rocky (or it starts from a source - "stone"), in the river valley Opochinka exits should be expected flasks - chalk limestone.

Phytotonyms.

Toponymic data in many cases give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe distribution of various plant formations and types of flora. Acting as an important natural landmark, as well as being one of the key sources of livelihood for the population, vegetation is reflected in the toponymy of many regions of the Earth.

Slavic river names such as ^ Olshanka, Berezina, Dubenka, Krapivna, Lipna, Nut determine the composition of the dominant species of vegetation. In the same row, such names as Karaganda (karagana - black acacia), Almaty(apple), Liepaja (lime), Brest (elm), Bangkok (wild plum place), Dakar(tamarisk), plateau Mato Grosso (large thickets of bushes), r. Marañon(thicket), r. and Madeira Islands(forest), about. Java (millet) and many others in different parts of the world.

The emergence of a toponym Brazil due to the fact that during the period of Portuguese colonization, one of the most important items of export from this country was red sandalwood - a tree with very valuable redwood. This tree is also known as pernambuco (fernambuco) by name Pernambuco, which in the language of the Tupi-Guarani Indians means "long river" (now a state in Brazil). The scientific name of the tree is brazilwood... It was also used in dyeing, because gave a bright red paint. This paint was called in Portuguese braza (from the word brassa - "heat, coals"). Hence the tree began to be called brazil, and subsequently the whole country - Brazil (in Russian - Brazil).

Many settlements of Georgia have in their names the names of plant species: ^ Vaziani, Vasizubani (vazi - vine), Vashlevi, Vashliani (your- cherry), Tsablana, Tsablini (tsars - chestnut), Mukhrani, Mukhnari (fly - oak), Telavi(body - elm), etc.

Name national park Manyara (East Africa) is the name of a tree, variety europhobia, from the thorns and branches of which the Masai make cattle fences. Name of the capital city of Sri Lanka Colombo according to one version, it means "mango leaves".

In Eastern Europe, vegetation is well reflected in hydronyms. The physical and geographical conditions of certain territories dictate the distribution of certain toponymic bases. Among Poles, Czechs, Belarusians, Ukrainians and Russians, preference in phytotoponyms is given to such species as birch, alder, linden, viburnum, oak, willow. Toponymic evidence of the past landscapes of the East European Plain indicates that broad-leaved species are much larger in area than those observed in our time.

The dominance of phytotonyms among the physical-geographical category of names is typical for Belarus, and most of all names associated with the name of tree species. The wide distribution of names of local flora in toponymy is illustrated by a rich list of toponym-forming bases. : forest, pine forest, oak, linden, alder, aspen, birch, birch bark, elm, willow, ash, sycamore, vine, rakita, pine, needles, spruce, pear, cherry, shoots, buckthorn, oles, Pushcha, chakhets, kokora, bez, walnut, rump, reedand etc.

Zootonyms.

Toponymic information reflects the distribution of various animal species in the past. There are fewer such names than phytotonyms, but they are also quite widespread.

In North American toponymy, many river names are reminiscent of the animal kingdom: Deer - deer, Buffalo - bison, Elk - Elk, Grizzly - Grizzly bear, Racoon - raccoon and other river Alligators in the state of North Carolina is located on the extreme northern border of the distribution of these reptiles. The names of many water bodies reflect the ichthyofauna - fish wealth. There are rivers and lakes in Belarus Okunets, Okunevo, Okunevets, Karasevo, Karasinka, Karasevki, Shuchye, Shchuchino, Shchuchinka, Link, Linets and etc.

Many islands in the oceans were named after the representatives of the animal world - Azores ("Hawkish"), Cayman(caiman is a kind of crocodile), Galapagos ("Turtle"), Samoa ("The place of the moa bird"). Name of city and emirate Dubai in the UAE it means locust. Peninsula Yucatanthe indigenous people of the Maya called Ulumit-Kus-el-Ethel-Zet - "country of roosters and deer", and the name Alaska means "place of whales". Isthmus Tehuantepec between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans in Mexico (the conditional northern border of Central America) got its name from the Aztec language, where teuan - "wild beast" (sometimes this word was called a jaguar), and tepec - mountain.

Name of the West African state ^ Mali in Mandingo language means "hippopotamus", but this version does not always find scientific confirmation. The name of this country's capital city Bamako in the Malinke language means "crocodile river". Capital of Uganda Kampala according to the main version in its name reflects one of the species of antelope - impala.

Armenia has ^ Gayladzor gorge (gyle - wolf), sat down Archut (arch - bear), Artsvanik (arts - eagle), Ukhtasar (ukht - camel). The names of many Lithuanian rivers and lakes reflect the animal world: Babrinis, Babrukas, Babrune (babras - beaver), Gerve, Gervel, Gervinas (gerve - crane), Fork, Vilkauya, Vilkas (vilkas - wolf), Bit, n.p. Bitenay (bite - bee). According to one version, the name of the Estonian city Tartu comes from the word tarvas - bison.

In documents from the 15th century. for the East Slavic territory, beaver rutters are mentioned - beaver hunting places. Place names with the root "beaver" are very widely represented within this region. Only in the Oka river basin is a Russian toponymist G. P. Smolitskaya counted more than 70 titles. The distribution of beavers in Georgia is also marked by toponyms. Georgian scientist G. I. Khornauli provides toponymic evidence of past beavers, such as a lake Sathave ("Beaver place") in South Georgia. Now in this state, these animals are not found.

According to toponymy, E. L. Lyubimova established the former habitats of the following animals and birds on the Russian Plain: tur, bison, wild boar, beaver, sable, wolverine, bear, wolf, fox, hare, badger, bear, elk, various bird species.

Azerbaijani scientists have reconstructed the former habitats of gazelle antelopes, which are now preserved only in the reserves of this state (toponyms Jeyran-bulags - "source of gazelle", Jeyranbatangel - "the lake where the gazelle drowned", etc.) Toponyms also allow studying the modern zoogeography of different regions of the Earth.

Anyone who owns slavic languages, will easily determine the meaning of names such as ^ Wolf River, Bear mountains, Losiny Bor, Pike lake etc. However, it should be borne in mind that names like Zaitsevo, Shchukino, Sorokino, Volkovo, Medvedino do not belong to zootonyms. In the Old Russian language, nicknames were common Hare, Pike, Magpie, Wolf, Bear etc. In the XIV - XVIII centuries. from these nicknames, numerous surnames arose with the endings "-ov, -ev, -in, -yn". In turn, geographical names originated from these anthroponyms. Ignorance of this pattern often leads to incorrect interpretation of toponyms and gross errors in etymologization.

^ 2. 3. ANTHROPOTOPONYMS

The names of places and the names of people are closely related. Countless geographic features are named after individuals. Basically, this category of names is common in oikonymy. Two stands out e main subcategories of anthropotoponyms arepatronomical and memorial toponyms.

Patronymic place names.

These toponyms arose on the basis of the names, surnames and nicknames of the pioneers, landowners and other categories of people ( patronymic from the Greek πατρωνυμος - "bearing the name of the father"). Already before our era, the names of the ancient Greek colonial cities began to appear, assigned by the names of their founders - Hermonassa, Phanagoria, Amastria and etc.

There are thousands of place names such as Ivanovo, Petrovo, Nikolaevka, Nikitinoand the like. This is due to the spread among Russians of such names as Ivan, Vasily, Alexei, Peter, Andrey, Grigory, Fedor, etc.

Patronymic names also include ^ Bessonovo, Baranovka, Bykovo, Bulanovo, Gusevo etc. Academician S. B. Veselovsky he was interested in his own names, which, in his opinion, represent the most valuable historical material. According to his calculations, only in the interfluve of the Oka and Volga rivers, up to 60% of villages originate from the names and nicknames of the owners. The ancient Russian names collected by the scientist make it possible to see the patronymic where, at first glance, it does not exist. So, in the past, the Slavs had such nicknames as Money, Erzik, Brain, Reckless, Chill, Chowder, Boil... Some of them have survived only in surnames and place names. Academician S. B. Veselovsky said that geographical names are inherently akin to archaeological materials. Often residents of one village have a surname similar to the oikonym ( Ivanovs of Ivanovka, Petrovs of Petrovka etc.)

At the beginning, the prince of the XI century. Yaroslav founded a city on the Upper Volga, which was named after him - Yaroslavl. The Old Russian form of the possessive adjective with the "-l" format is often found in East Slavic place names (Zaslavl, Mstislavl in Belarus, Likhoslavl in the Tver region, etc.)

In all countries of the world there are patronymic place names. This pattern is toponymically universal. Examples of patronymic names in Europe are extremely numerous - Vittorio (Italy), Hermansdorf (Germany), Wilhelmsburg (Austria) and others. In North America, the geographical map is replete with place names such as Morgan, Simon, Jackson, Joshuaetc.

But in other regions of the Earth, this pattern is clearly traced. In Manchuria, one of the most common categories of place names is patronymic. The main element in them is the family name of the pioneers of the village. Given the very wide distribution of the surnames Wang, Zhang, Li, Zhao, there are quite a few place names like Wangzhuang ("Van village"), Lizhuang etc.

Memorial place names.

This group of geographical names is derived from the personal names and surnames of individuals known in various spheres of human activity. These toponyms perpetuate the names of prominent or simply famous people - discoverers, travelers, scientists, politicians... The tradition of giving such names goes back to ancient times... In honor of the conqueror of the East, the Macedonian king Alexander, about 30 cities were named: Alexandria Egyptian (now the city Alexandria in Egypt, local Arabic name Al - Iskandaria), Alexandria Margiana, Alexandria Oksiana, Alexandria Eskhata and etc.

The names of the Roman emperors are reflected in place names such as Caesarea-Augusta (now Zaragoza, Spain), Julia-Feliz (now Sinop, Turkey), Augusta-Emerita (now Merida, Spain), Prima-Justinian (now Skopje - the capital of Macedonia), Diocletian-Palatium (now Split, Croatia), Gratianopolis (now Grenoble, France) and many others.

Memorial toponymy was most widespread in the era of the great geographical discoveries. Names commemorating famous travelers and explorers of the planet include: country Columbia, British Columbia, archipelago Colon, cities Colon (more than 10 in various countries of Latin America) - in honor of H. Columbus; Strait of Magellan; islands, strait, mountain Cook; waterfalls Livingstone; Beringov strait and sea; sea Amundsen; island, river, ridge and reefs Flinders; peninsula, lake, river Eyre and many others. In the Arctic, there are the names of researchers and pioneers Seeds Dezhnev, Laptev, admiral Makarova and etc.

The names of the natives of Belarus are also immortalized: the city and the ridge Domeyko (Chile) ridge Chersky, strait Vilkitsky etc. In honor of T. Kostsyushko named the highest point of Australia, an island off the northwestern coast of North America and a settlement in the state of Mississippi (USA).

Names ^ Carolina, Victoria, Louisiana given in honor of titled persons. Names such as Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Darling, Durban, Wellington, Orange, Seychelles etc. were given to honor ministers, governors and other statesmen.

In Russia, in honor of the crowned heads, such names were given as St. Petersburg (in honor of saint Peter - patron saint of the first Russian emperor), Petrozavodsk, Ekaterinburg, Nikolaevsk-on-Amur and others. There are a lot of such place names in Antarctica: Alexander landI, Queen Maud Land, Isle PetraI. This continent has the most memorial place names on the planet. In the Scandinavian countries, names are associated with the names of various kings who bore the same name Karlskrona, Karlsborg, Karlstad, Karlshamn, Kristianstad (all - Sweden), Kristiansundand Kristiansan (Norway), etc. This should also include the out-of-use name of the Norwegian capital Oslo - Christiania.

In the states of Latin America, there are a lot of toponyms given in honor of the fighters for the independence of these countries, as well as presidents, generals, officers. In particular, in honor of Simon Bolivar named cities in Venezuela, Argentina, Uruguay, mountain, Venezuela state and country Bolivia... In addition, the toponym is found in the names of US cities (states Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee). In honor of the Latin American generals, there is a whole list of more than 20 place names: General - Cabrera, General - Conesa, General - Pinedo, General - Juan - Madariaga, General - Lorenzo - Winter and etc.

In the Soviet Union and some other countries of the socialist camp, there were a huge number of memorial ideological toponyms. They were assigned by the names of party leaders, participants in the revolution, civil war etc. So endless appeared on the map Leninsky, Dzerzhinsky, Kuibyshevs, Kalinins etc. Place names appeared in the socialist countries of Eastern Europe Dimitrovgrad, Blagoevgrad (Bulgaria), Karl-Marx-Stadt and Wilhelm Peak-Stadt-Huben (in the GDR), Gottwalds (Czechoslovakia), Leninvaros(Hungary) etc. Currently, similar names in many countries have been renamed, and the original versions of the names have been returned to the settlements.

The island belongs to the same category. ^ Beaglein the Indian Ocean in honor of the ship of the round-the-world expedition, in which he participated Charles Darwin; Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky by the names of the two ships of the expedition V. Bering - "St. Peter" and "St. Paul"... Due to the presence of memorial toponyms not associated with the names of people (names of ships, events, etc.), this category of names is often considered as an independent one.

Afghanistan - possibly from "Upa-Ghana-Stan" (in Sanskrit "land of united tribes").
Albania - the land of the highlanders. The root "Alb" means "white" or "mountain". The hill tribes from present-day Kosovo are believed to have brought their mountain ethnonym to the narrow coastal plain. The name Shqiperia used domestically means "land of the eagle". Perhaps the eagle was the tribe's totem.
Algeria - from the name of the capital Algeria (Algiers), which in French is Alger, in Arabic - Al Jazair (island).
Andorra - the origin is unknown. Possibly Iberian or Basque.
Angola - from ngola, a title used by the monarch in the pre-colonial kingdom of Ndongo.
Argentina - from the Latin "Argentum" (silver). Merchants used the Argentine Rio de la Plata (Silver River) to transport silver and other treasures from Peru. The land was downstream and became known as Argentina (Land of Silver).

Australia - from "unknown southern land" (lat. terra australis incognita). The area was named by early European explorers, who believed that the Australian mainland was much larger than they had so far discovered. The traveler Matthew Flinders (1774-1814), who first explored and mapped the Australian coast, used the term "Australia" in his work.
Austria - "Kingdom of the East", for example, compare with modern German: Osterreich. In the 9th century, Austria was the extreme eastern territory of Frankish Empire, as well as the border zone of German settlements with the Slavic land. Charlemagne named the country Ostmark ("Eastern Border Territory"). In the 11th century, the term Ostarrichi first appeared.
Azerbaijan - "land of fire" (from fires on the surface of ancient oil pools) The ancient name Atropatene in Arabic began to be pronounced as Azerbaijan.

Bahamas - from the Spanish "Baja Mar" ("shallow sea"). The Spanish conquistadors named the islands in this way according to the characteristics of the water that surrounds them.
Bahrain - from the Arabic "two seas". Only about which seas it speaks is still under discussion. Bahrain is located in a bay surrounded by Arab land and the Qatari Peninsula, and some people believe that the "two seas" are the waters of the bay on both sides of the island. Others believe that in this case there is a reference to the position of the island of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf, separated by "two seas" from the Arab coast in the south and Iran in the north.
Bangladesh - from Sanskrit / Bengali. Bangla means Bengali speaking people and Desh means "country" thus Bangladesh means "Bengali speaking country (Bengalis)". The country was formerly part of India and Bengali culture covers a vast area of \u200b\u200bIndia and Bangladesh.
Barbados - was named by the Portuguese explorer Pedro a Campos "Los Barbados", which means "bearded". This was said about the appearance of the island's fig trees.
Belarus - "White Russia", in the past Belarus," white Russia". The name was changed after the collapse of the USSR to emphasize that Belarus and Russia were and remain separate countries. It is assumed that the new name has an independent root rus from Ruthenia (to be honest, I could not find an analogue of this name in books on Russian history, if who will comment, I will only be glad). Although in fact Ruthenia and Russia descended from the same root "rus", which came to us from the Vikings. Thus, the Ukrainian region of Ruthenia can be found in old sources as "Red Russia" (perhaps here meaning Kievan Rus), where the term does not apply to all of Ukraine or the USSR.
Belgium - from the name of the Celtic tribe, Belgae. Perhaps later the name came from "Bolg" (Proto-Indo-European language group), meaning a bag or a womb.
Belize - from the distorted Spanish pronunciation of "Peter Wallis" - the pirate who established the first settlement in Belize in 1638.
Benin - named after the old African empire of the same name, on whose territory modern Benin is located. The state of Benin was previously called Dahomey from the largest ethnic group.
Butane - the land of Bhotia. The people of Tibet or Bhotia migrated from Tibet to Bhutan in the 10th century. The common root is "bod", the ancient name for Tibet. The second unofficial name is Druk-Yul, which means "land of the thunder dragon", "land of thunder" or "land of the dragon".
Brazil - from the tree of the same name, which, in turn, was named because of the reddish color of the wood, reminiscent of the color of hot coals (brasil in Portuguese).
Britannia - "painted", a reference to the original settlers of the islands who used paint and tattoos to decorate their bodies; may also be derived from the Celtic goddess Brigid.
Bolivia - in honor of Simon Bolivar (1783-1830), a military leader who fought against the Spaniards, and the first president of the republic (after the recognition of independence in 1824).
Bosnia and Herzegovina - earlier the country consisted of two separate territories: the large northern part was named after the Bosna River, the smaller southern one took its name from the German noble title "duke". This title was awarded to the supreme commander of the territory, Stefan Vikcic (if not so pronounced, sorry) by Emperor Frederick 4 in 1448.
Botswana - named after the country's predominant ethnic group, Tswana. The past name - Bechuanaland - comes from Bechuan, another spelling "Botswana".
Bulgaria - "the country of a tribe formed from many tribes". "Bulg" comes from the Turkish root meaning "mixed".
Burkina Faso - "the land of honest people". Previously, the country was called "Upper Volta" from the names of the two main rivers - White and Black Volt - originating in Burkina Faso.
Burundi - the land of the Rundi speakers.

Vanuatu- from "forever in our land" in the Bislama language. The country was formerly known as the New Hebrides Islands after the islands in Scotland.
Vatican - from lat. vaticinari "to prophesy", from the name of the hill "Mons Vaticanus", on which the Vatican is located. The street at the foot of this hill was used by fortune tellers and fortune tellers in Roman times.
Hungary - "people of ten copies". In other words, "the union of the ten tribes".
Venezuela - "little Venice", from the diminutive form "Venice". European explorers were struck by the stilt houses built by the aborigines on Lake Maracaibo and decided to name the country after Venice.
Vietnam - "southern land". The original layer of Vietnamese civilization was actually much north of modern Vietnam.

Gabon - from the Portuguese name for the Mbé river: "Gabao" (coat with a hood) from the specific shape of the river mouth.
Haiti -in the language Indians Taino means "high mountain", Columbus gave the name "Hispaniola" ("little Spain"), but before him the region was called Haiti.
Guyana - perhaps from the local "Guainazes" - "people worthy of respect."
Ghana - in honor of the eponymous ancient West African kingdom. However, the modern territory of Ghana has never been part of it.
Germany - "land of spearmen" from the Germanic "gar" ("spear") and the Latin and Germanic "man" - man. In Latin, "Germany" means: Allemagne - "land of all people", i.e. "our many peoples"; Deutschland - "land of people"; Nemetsy (Polish: Niemcy; Romanian: Nemti; Czech: Nemecko; Hungarian: Nemet (orszag)) - "land of the dumb", where "dumb" is a metaphor for "those who do not speak our language." The Hungarian name is borrowed from the Slavic languages.
Honduras - from the Spanish for "depth", refers to the deep waters off the northern coast.
Grenada - from the southern Spanish city (province) of the same name.
Greece - from lat. Grecus (Greeks), Aristotle assumed that this name referred to the indigenous peoples of Epirus (a mountainous coastal region surrounded by Macedonia and Thessaly); Hellas is the "land of light" (a dubious assumption, since there are no words in Greek like "light" and "earth" in Hellas).

Denmark - dhen (Proto-Indo-European language group) means "low" or "flat" and in Germanic "mark" means "borderland" and / or "border forest". The name was used by the ancient Goths to describe the forest that separated Gothland (I'm afraid to translate it wrongly) from Scania.
Djibouti - named after the lowest point of the Gulf of Aden in the Indian Ocean. Perhaps it comes from the word "gabouti" (in Afar) - a rug under the door made of palm fiber. Dominican Republic - from lat. "Dies Dominica" (Sunday), the day of the week that Christopher Columbus first landed on the island.

- "temple of the soul of the god Ptah".

Zambia- from the Zambezi river.
Zimbabwe - "stone houses" in Shona, referring to the stone-built capital of the ancient trading empire of Great Zimbabwe.

Israel - an alternative name for the biblical hero Jacob, literally "fighting with God."
India - in honor of the Indus River (in Hindi). It is often believed that "Bharat", the proper name of the inhabitants for India, came from the name of the ancient king "Jada Bharatha", but this name could also have come from another king Bharata, the son of the legendary king Dushyanta (sorry, I am not familiar with the history of India. How , however, with the history of many other countries ...).
Indonesia - "Indian Islands". From the Greek word nesos, "island", added to the name of the country India.
Iraq - from the Hebrew "Uruk" ("between the rivers"), which is a reference to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
Iran - "land of the Aryans" or "land of the free". The term "Arya" comes from the Proto-Indo-European group of languages \u200b\u200band usually means "noble" or "free", akin to the Greek word for "aristocrat". Persia (past name of Iran): from lat. "Persais", from the ancient Persian "Paarsa", the central region in the country, modern Fars. Persia is often associated with Greek mythology - "the land of Perseus".
Ireland - from Eire from pre-Celtic Iweriu - "fertile place" or "place of Eire", the Celtic goddess of fertility. It is very often mistakenly believed that it came from the "land of iron" (in English. "Land of iron").
Iceland - "land of ice" (Island in Icelandic). Named to dissuade foreigners from trying to settle in what was actually fertile land.
Italy - "son of the bull-god" or "calf-god", the name usually refers only to a small area on the southern tip of modern Italy.

Yemen - the origin of the name is being debated. Some sources claim that it came from the Arabic yamin, meaning "by right hand"(a reference to Yemen's position from the point of view of an observer looking from Mecca), others suggest that the name comes from yumn meaning" happiness "," blessing. "The name (for the classical world -" Arabia Felix "(again lack of knowledge of history) ) usually referred to the entire southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula.

Cape Verde - from the Portuguese Cabo Verde ("green cape"), named by Portuguese sailors who traveled along the Sahara desert before seeing the relatively green islands.
Cameroon - from the Portuguese Rio de Camaroes ("shrimp river"), the name given to the Vuri river by Portuguese travelers in the 15th century.
Canada - "small settlement" or "village" in Algonquian (one of the languages \u200b\u200bof the indigenous people of North America). This name referred to Stacadone, a settlement near present-day Quebec.
Kenya - in honor of Mount Kenya, in the Kikuyu language the mountain is called Kere-Nyaga ("mountain of whiteness").
Cyprus - named after the copper mines located on its territory.
Kiribati - a distorted "Gilbert", from the European name for Gilbert Island. By the way, they are called that in Russian.
China (pronounced "Chyna" in English) - named after the Chin dynasty in Sanskrit.
Colombia - in honor of Christopher Columbus.
Comoros - in Arabic "Djazair al Kamar" ("island of the moon").
Korea - in honor of the Goryeo Dynasty (again, I'm afraid to be mistaken), the first Korean dynasty, in which people from the west visited the country. The internal name Hangeuk in ancient Joseon means "the land of morning calm".
Costa Rica - "rich coast" in Spanish.
Cuba - "Cubanacan" ("centerpiece") in the Taino Indian language.
Kuwait - from the Arabic "Kut" meaning "fortress".

Lebanon (Lebanon) - from the Jewish "white mountains".
Lesotho - in honor of the people of Sotho.
Liberia - from lat. liber, "free". Named because the nation was created as a homeland for freed American slaves.
Liechtenstein - "light stone". The country was named after the Liechtenstein dynasty, which bought and united the territories of Schellenburg and Vaduz. The Roman Emperor will allow the family to rename their new property.
Luxembourg - (Celtic "Lucilem" - "small", Germanic "burg" - "castle") "small castle".

Mauritius - named after the Dutch ruler Prince Mauritius (Maurice) of Orange.
Malawi - from the local "flaming water", possibly referring to Lake Malawi.
Malaysia - the land of the people of Malay.
Maldives - in Sanskrit mahal ("palace"), diva ("island"). On the main island was the palace of the local sultan.
Malta - from the Phoenician "refuge". The name is most likely preserved in circulation due to the existence of the Greek and Latin word melitta ("honey"), the name of the island in ancient times, and also the main export product at that time.
Morocco - from the city of Marrakesh. The local name "Al Maghreb al Aqsa" means "the far West".
Marshall Islands - named after British Captain John Marshall, who first documented the island's existence in 1788.
Mexico - in honor of the branch of the same name of the Aztecs.
Micronesia - from the Greek. "small islands".
Moldova - from the Moldova River in Romania. The river was named so because of the quarrying of minerals, for which its waters were used. Molde is the German term for this type of mining.
Monaco - "alone and by itself", a reference to the Greek hero Hercules.

Namibia - from the Namib Desert. "Namib" means "a place where there is nothing" in the Nama language.
Nepal - "wool market".
Nigeria - from the local African language "Ni Gir", "Gir River" (Niger).
Netherlands - Germanic "low lands". Holland (part of the Netherlands; the name is often used in relation to the country as a whole) - Germanic "holt land", i.e. wooded land (very often mistakenly assumed to mean "hollow land"). Batavia - "arable land" (derived from Betuwe, contrasting the local name "Veluwe" - "uncultivated land").
New Zealand - from the province of Zeeland in the Netherlands.
Norway - from Old Norse northr and veg ("northern route"). The Norwegian name Norge comes from the roots northr and rike (kingdom of the north).

Oman - controversial origin. In some sources, the name comes from the Arabic term "sedentary" (as opposed to nomads), or from others arabic wordsmeaning "peace" and "trust". Others claim that the country was named after historical personalitypossibly Oman bin Ibrahim al-Khalil, Oman bin Siba "bin Yaghthan bin Ibrahim, Oman bin Qahtan or Oman bin Loot (the Arabic name for the biblical character Lot). The name existed for some time and was mentioned by the geographer Ptolemy (85-165 AD). BC)

Pakistan - acronym (provinces: Punjab, Afghanistan, Kashmir, Iran, Sindh, Tokharistan). It also means "the land of the pure, flawless", because "pak" means pure.
Palestine - from the Roman name of the country, literally "land of invaders" ("Philistines" from the Hebrew root meaning "invader").
Panama - in honor of a previously existing village near the modern capital. In the language of the Indians, Cueva means "a place where there is a lot of fish", possibly from the Caribbean "abundance of butterflies" or from another local name referring to the tree of the same name.
Papua - "Papua" means "land of people with curly hair." Named so by neighboring Malays, whose hair is mostly straight.
Peru - possibly from the Biru River in present-day Ecuador.
Poland - from the Germanic polen, "field".
Portugal - from lat. portus, "port" and the name of the Roman port of Gaya, which later became known as Calais. A derivative name belonged to the small town of Portucale, now Porto.

Russia - from the ancient group of Vikings, known as Russia, and from the kingdom they created on the territory of modern Ukraine.
Romania - "the country of the Romans", because the local "romanized" population called themselves Rumani or Romani.

Salvador - "salvation" in Spanish, named after Jesus Christ.
Samoa - "Sanctuary of the Sacred Moa", from the moa, a local chicken-like poultry. According to legend, the site for the sacred chicken "Sa-moa" was fenced off by order of King Lu. After battles to defend this area, he named his son Samoa. Later, Samoa became the progenitor of the Moa clan, which stood at the head of the island of Manua and then all the islands of Samoa.
San Marino - in honor of Saint Marino, who, according to legend, founded San Marino in 301
Sao Tome and Principe - Portuguese: Saint Thomas and Prince Islands.
Seychelles - named after Jean Moreau de Sechelles, Minister of Finance of King Louis XV of France.
Serbia and Montenegro. Serbia - unknown, possibly Sarmatian in origin; The "mountain ash" (Sorbs) in modern Germany has the same origin, the Serbs migrated to the Balkans from the region in Germany known as Lusatia, where mountain ash is still found today.
Montenegro - Called montenegro by the Venetian conquerors, "Black Mountain" because of the appearance of Mount Lovcen or, more likely, because of its dark coniferous forests. Crna Gora, the modern local name for the country, is a literal translation of Montenegro. (approx. "mountain" in Serbian means "forest on the mountains", so the name of the country rather means "black forest"). Formerly the country was known as Zeta, Dioclea, in Serbo-Croatian Duklia and Doclea. Doclea - the name of the area in the early period of the Roman Empire, was given to an ancient tribe. In the following centuries, the Romans transported Doclea to Dioclea, mistakenly believing that I was lost due to the peculiarities of speech. The early Slavic name Zeta comes from the name of a river in Montenegro, which in turn comes from a root meaning "harvest" or "grain". (Contrary to popular belief: Montenegro - did not come from Italian, because "black mountain" in Italian is monte nero without g.)
Singapore - the city was founded by Sir Stamford Raffles in 1819 and he borrowed the name Singapore from the Malay language. Sinhapura was also an early name for the island. Sinhapura, in turn, comes from Sanskrit (Simhapura), which means "city of lions".
Slovakia - from the Slavic "glory" or "word".
Slovenia - similar to Slovakia.
USA - in honor of the explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci, who wrote his name on the maps of the New World. Buyers mistakenly believed that the name did not belong to the cartographer, but to the new land.
Sudan - from the Arabic Bilad as-Sudan, "the land of the blacks".
Suriname - in honor of the Surinen people, local American settlers.
Sierra Leone - adapted from either the Spanish version of Sierra Leon, or the Portuguese Serra-Leoa ("lion's mountains").

Tajikistan - from the Türkic root tasi, meaning "Muslim".
Thailand - from the Thai "land of the free". The country was previously known as Siam. Siam - the name was given to the ancient Thais by their neighbors and possibly comes from the Pali toponym "Suvarnabhuma" ("Land of Gold"), another root "sama" means different shades of colors, mostly brown or yellow, but sometimes green or black (approx. in Sanskrit Siam means "beautiful").
Taiwan - "bay with terraces" in Chinese. Rice fields make up the typical landscape of Taiwan.
Tanzania - a combination of the names of two states that make up this country - Tanganyika and Zanzibar.
Timor - from the Malay word timur, meaning "east". In its official Tetun language, East Timor is known as Timor Lorosae. In neighboring Indonesia, it is known as Timor Timur, "east east".
Togo - from the settlement of Togo. In the language of the local people, Ewe "to" - "water" and "go" - shore.
Tonga - from the local "south", "southern". The islands are named so by James Cook. In the 19th century they were known as the "Islands of Friendship".
Trinidad and Tobago - "Trinidad" in honor of three protruding mountain peaks and the Christian trinity (trinidad is a trinity or trio in Spanish). "Tobago" - in honor of the tobacco smoked by the locals.
Tuvalu - from the local "eight islands" or "eight standing together". The early name Niulakita, which was banned, was the name of the first atoll.

Uganda - from the early "Buganda", "land of people", the ethnonym of the people dominating in this area.
Ukraine - from the Slavic "border area".

Fiji - from the Tonganese name of the islands "Viti".
Philippines - "land of King Philip" (Spanish monarch in the 16th century).
Finland - from the Germanic Fennland, possibly from the root meaning "wanderers". Suomi, the name used by the indigenous people, may come from the Baltic word for "land".
France - "land of the Franks", literally "land of free people". The country was formerly known as Gaul from a Celtic tribe.

Croatia- it is not known, it is usually believed that it came from the Sarmatian language.

Chile - unknown. Possibly from the Aracaunian (settlers' language) name for "depth", which is a reference to the fact that the Andes looms over a narrow coastal plain. Also, the possible origin of "Chile" could be "end of the world" ("end of the world") in the language of the Qechua people.

Switzerland- from the canton of Schwyz, perhaps earlier this name came from the German "Schweitz", "swamp".
Sweden - "people of Svea". The exact development of the ethnonym is unknown, but at least it is known that it originated from the Old Norse "Svithjoth", the origin of "Svi", "thjoth" from the Germanic "people" ("people") is unknown. The term Svithjoth was originally used to refer to various localities found in Scandinavian mythology, including areas in Scandinavia and / or modern Russia. The obscure manner of use of this place name suggests that it was used for areas generally unknown, but exactly on the other side to the north or west of what the Goths, the most frequent users of the term, considered a zone of civilization. The derivative name "Svear rike" ("Kingdom of the Swee") seems to have come about after the northern Heruli people were driven out of the Gothic kingdom into southern Scandinavia. It would be logical to believe that the Heruli, driven out of the northern borders of the Gothic kingdom, could have taken the traditional name "Swee". In the end, they captured the Goths, and from that moment on, modern scientists can talk about the existence of Sweden, and not one of its constituent territories.
Sri Lanka - "shining island" in Sanskrit. Serendip is an ancient name derived from Sinhala-dweepa in Sanskrit meaning either "land of the lions" or "land of the Sinhala people", sinha means "lion" in Sanskrit, Sinhala - the early settlers of this area.
Ceylon (Ceylon - English, Cilan - Portuguese, Seilan) - the previous names of the country, also meaning "land of the lions".

Ecuador - "equator" in Spanish.
Equatorial Guinea - "equatorial" - from the geographical position, "Guinea", - perhaps from the word "aguinaoui" in the Berber language, which means "black".
Eritrea - named by the Italian colonialists, from the ancient Greek name for the Red Sea "Erythrea Thalassa".
Estonia - from the Germanic "eastern route". It is usually mistakenly believed that the name originated from Aestia in ancient Greek sources, but in fact Aestia is modern Masuria in Poland and the name may have come from a Baltic root meaning "variegated" as this land is dotted with lakes.
Ethiopia - from lat. "Aethiopia" meaning "land of the blacks." The root word in Greek comes from aithein "to burn" and ops "face". The old name of Abyssinia comes from the Arabic "mixed", a reflection of the many peoples inhabiting the country.

Jamaica - in the language of the Indians "Hamaica" means the land of wood and water, or possibly the land of springs.
Japan - "ribenguo" in Chinese or "land of the rising sun", which marks the fact that Japan lies east of China (where the sun rises). Japanese scholars have borrowed the term, simplifying Nippon-gu to Nihon-gu to simply Nihon or Nippon ("origin of the sun").

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Toponymy (from other Greek.frpt (topos) - place and? Npmb (onoma) - name, name) is a science that studies geographical names, identifying their originality, the history of occurrence and analysis of the original meaning of words from which they are educated. The totality of place names is denoted by the word toponomy, and a person who studies geographical names is called a toponomist.

Is toponymy a branch of onomastics? section of linguistics studying proper names. Accordingly, any toponym is at the same time an onym.

In the West, such linguists as William Bright, Robert Ramsay and George Stewart were engaged in the problems of toponymy. Among Russian toponyms, the most famous are Alexandra Vasilievna Superanskaya and Vladimir Andreyevich Nikonov.

Toponymy is also closely related to history and geography. Scientists still do not agree on the question of how important each of these three sciences plays in toponymy. For example, A.V. Superanskaya believes that "Only linguists can and should analyze all types of geographical names in their connection with each other, with other proper names and with the entire system of the language in which they are created and used." Her colleague V.A. Nikonov, on the contrary, says that history, geography, and linguistics play their definite, albeit different in magnitude, role in toponymy: “A toponym does not exist without a named object, and geography studies objects. The need for place names, their content, their changes are dictated by history, but only through language. A name is a word, a fact of a sign, not of geography or history itself. "

However, our research is devoted directly to the linguistic aspect of toponymy, namely the ways of word formation of toponyms. But before turning to them, you should get acquainted with several more terms used in the framework of toponymy.

Topographic bases and topoformants

Any word consists of a certain number of elements, called morphemes in linguistics. Naturally, this statement is also true for toponyms, however, when considering the composition of geographical names and their etymology, in the opinion of toponymists, it is more correct to speak about such elements as toponyms and topoformants.

The topological basis, or the basis of a toponym, is the semantic component of a geographical name (even if the meaning in a given language, that is, the connection with a common noun or another proper name, is not entirely obvious).

Topoformants, or toponymic formants, are service elements that are involved in the construction of toponyms.

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