evolutionary problems. The main problems of the theory of evolution

Geological and biological sciences in recent decades have accumulated huge new information about the evolution of the organic and inorganic worlds of the Earth, as well as about the physical-geographical, geological and biogeochemical prerequisites for the possible existence of any life forms in the past or present on other planets of the solar group. Evolution in many cases can now be represented by measure and number. Extensive information has been collected on numerous biological catastrophes (crises), primarily during the last billion years; about their correlation with abiotic crises, about the possible common causes of these phenomena.

At the same time, huge amounts of information have been accumulated on the structural organization and molecular genetic mechanisms of cell functioning - the basis of life, factors of genome variability, and the patterns of molecular evolution of cells and organisms. At the same time, despite extensive data on the molecular genetic mechanisms that determine the responses of genomes, cells, and organisms to environmental changes, we know little about the relationships between these mechanisms and the processes of biota evolution that took place on Earth at the moments of global geological changes. Despite the abundance of information on the regularities of the evolution of the organic and inorganic worlds obtained by the Earth sciences and biology, it still remains fragmented and requires systematic generalization.

Among the major achievements of recent decades is the deciphering by paleontologists and geologists of the Precambrian chronicle of the development of the organic world of the Earth, which expanded the geochronological range of our knowledge of the evolution of life from 550 million to almost 4 billion years. The classical concepts of the evolution of the organic world, based on the experience of studying its Phanerozoic history, when the taxonomic and ecosystem hierarchy of biological systems had already developed in basic terms, starting with Charles Darwin, developed within the framework of a gradualistic understanding of the phylogenetic process, the central link of which is the species. The study of the Precambrian forms of life and the conditions of its existence has put new problems on the agenda.

Thanks to the achievements of molecular biology (including molecular phylogeny), since the early 1980s, it has become clear that the paths of the biological evolution of life in the conditions of the initial oxygen-free (reducing) atmosphere and its gradual transition to an oxidizing one (an increase in the concentration of oxygen in the habitat) are associated with the life of three kingdoms (domains of organisms) of nuclear-free prokaryotes: 1) true eubacteria; 2) archeobacteria, the genome of which has some similarities with the genome of eukaryotes; 3) eukaryotes with a well-formed nucleus and carpathological cytoplasm with various types of organelles.

The most important link in the development of the biodiversity of the living shell of the Earth is the Vendian skeletal Metazoa (vendobionts) discovered in recent decades with mysterious metabolic features, the immediate predecessors of the main types of modern invertebrates, the main phylogenetic trunks (at the level of types and families) of which arose about 540 million years ago in beginning of the Cambrian period.

The study of microbial communities in modern extreme conditions and their experimental modeling made it possible to reveal the features of the interaction of autotrophic and heterotrophic forms of prokaryotic life as a special type of adaptation in a spatially inseparable two-in-one organism-ecosystem system. The development of microbial paleontology methods and the detection by these methods in meteorites, presumably brought to Earth from Mars, of structures resembling traces of bacterial life, gave a new impetus to the problem of "eternity of life".

In recent years, paleontology and geology have accumulated a lot of data on the correlation of global geological and biotic events in the history of the biosphere. Of particular interest recently was the “phenomenon” of the explosive biodiversification of the organic world in the Ordovician period (450 million years ago), when a huge number of new ecological specializations arose, as a result of which a global closed biogeochemical cycle was formed in marine ecosystems for the first time. This "environmental revolution" correlates well with the appearance of an ozone screen in the atmosphere at that time, which radically changed the spatial parameters of the life zone on Earth.

The accumulated data on the interrelations of the main trends and the periodicity of global processes in the evolution of the outer and inner shells of the Earth and the biosphere as an integral system have put on the agenda the problem of the control link in the co-evolution of the Earth and its biosphere. In accordance with the new ideas, consistent with the theory of the development of large systems, the evolution of the biosphere is determined by the higher hierarchical levels of the global ecosystem, and at lower levels (population, species) its more “fine” tuning is provided (“the system hierarchy paradox”). From these positions, the problem arises of combining the concept of speciation by Ch. Darwin and the biospheric concept of V.I. Vernadsky.

In connection with the discovery in the 1970s of the 20th century in the modern oceans of unique ecosystems (“black smokers”), traces of which are now found in sediments of an ancient age (at least 400 million years) that exist due to the endogenous energy of hydrothermal one problem: are solar energy and an oxygen atmosphere necessary for the evolution of life on planets, and what is the evolutionary potential of ecosystems of this type?

Thus, we can formulate the following modern problems of the theory of evolution:

1. Did life arise on Earth during the natural evolution of the inorganic world (the theory of spontaneous generation of life from inorganic matter)? Or was it introduced from the Cosmos (the panspermia theory) and, thus, is much older than the Earth and is not directly connected in its genesis with the conditions of the primitive Earth at the time the first traces of life were recorded in the geological record?

In the theory of molecular evolution, a significant amount of knowledge has been accumulated, pointing to the possibility of self-origination of life (in the form of the simplest self-reproducing systems) from inorganic matter under the conditions of the primitive Earth.

At the same time, there are facts that testify in favor of the theory of panspermia: a) the oldest sedimentary rocks with an age of 3.8 billion years have preserved traces of the mass development of primitive life forms, and the isotopic composition of carbon C12 / C13 practically does not differ from that in modern living substance; b) features were found in meteorites that can be interpreted as traces of the vital activity of primitive life forms, although there are objections to this point of view.

At the same time, it should be noted that the question of the eternity of life in the Universe ultimately rests on the question of the eternity of the Universe itself. If life is brought to Earth from the Cosmos (the theory of panspermia), this does not remove the problem of the origin of life, but only transfers the moment of the origin of life to the depths of time and space. In particular, within the framework of the "big bang" theory, the time of the emergence and spread of life in the Universe cannot be more than 10 billion years. However, it should be borne in mind that this date applies only to our Universe, and not to the entire Cosmos.

2. What were the main trends in the evolution of primitive unicellular life forms on Earth during the first 3.5 billion years (or more) of the development of life? Was the main trend the complication of the internal organization of the cell in order to maximize the consumption of any resources of the poorly differentiated environment of the primitive Earth, or even then some organisms embarked on the path of adaptation to the predominant use of any one resource (specialization), which should have contributed to the differentiation of the global primitive biosphere into system of local biocenoses? In this regard, the question also arises of the ratio of exogenous (sun) and endogenous (hydrothermal) energy sources for the development of life at early and later stages.

It is now considered established that the simplest non-nuclear bacterial organisms gave rise to eukaryotes with a developed nucleus, compartmentalized cytoplasm, organelles, and a sexual form of reproduction. Eukaryotes at the turn of about 1.2-1.4 billion years ago significantly increased their biodiversity, which resulted in the intensive development of new ecological niches and the general flourishing of both nuclear and non-nuclear life forms. This explains, in particular, the mass formation of the most ancient biogenic oils 1.2-1.4 billion years ago, perhaps the largest-scale process of transformation of the Earth's biomass that existed at that time (10 times greater than modern biomass) into inert matter. It should be noted here that the existing methods for calculating the mass of living matter for past geological epochs by the amount of fossilized organic matter do not take into account the balance ratios of the autotrophic and heterotrophic tiers of the biosphere, which should also be attributed to one of the important problems in studying the global patterns of biosphere evolution. It is possible that the first noticeable increase in the biomass and biodiversity of eukaryotes occurred about 2 billion years ago. The question arises about the connection of this global evolutionary event with the appearance of free oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere.

3. What factors ensured the progressive complication of eukaryotic genomes and the peculiarities of the genomes of modern prokaryotes?

Were there conditions on the primitive Earth that favored the evolutionary complication of the structural and functional organization of the eukaryotic cell? If so, what is their nature, when did they originate, and do they continue to operate to this day?

What mechanisms ensured the coordination of ecosystem self-assembly “from below” (at the population and species levels) and “from above” (that is, at the level of interaction of the global ecosystem with global endogenous and exogenous geological processes)?

The question also arises about the evolutionary potential of different levels of biological organization (on the molecular, gene, cellular, multicellular, organismal, population) and the conditions for its implementation. In general terms, one can consider an obvious increase in the evolutionary potential at each new level of biological organization (i.e., the possibilities of morpho-functional differentiation of life at the organismal and ecosystem levels), however, the trigger mechanisms and limiting factors of autogenetic (intrinsic) and external (living environment) remain unclear. ) origin. In particular, the nature of aromorphoses (cardinal changes in the structure plans of organisms) and saltations (outbursts of biodiversification accompanied by the appearance of high-ranking taxa) remains mysterious. Aromorphoses and saltations coincide well with the epochs of global biotic rearrangements and fundamental geological changes in the environment (the balance of free oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and hydrosphere, the state of the ozone screen, the consolidation and breakup of supercontinents, and large-scale climate fluctuations). The emergence of new aromorphoses (for example, the appearance of skeletal, then skeletal marine Metazoa, vascular plants, terrestrial vertebrates, etc.) radically changed the functional and spatial characteristics of the biosphere, as well as evolutionary trends in specific taxonomic groups. This is in good agreement with the theoretical position of cybernetics about the guiding role in the evolutionary process of the higher links of hierarchical systems.

Has there been a global change in evolutionary strategies in the history of the Earth within the framework of stabilizing selection (constancy of environmental conditions), driving selection (pronounced unidirectional changes in critical environmental parameters) and destabilizing selection (catastrophic changes in environmental parameters affecting hierarchically high levels of organization of biosystems from molecular- genetic to biospheric)? There is an idea that in the early stages of the evolution of the biosphere, the evolutionary strategy was determined by the search for optimal options for adaptation to the physicochemical conditions of the environment (incoherent evolution). And as the abiotic environment stabilizes, evolution acquires a coherent character, and the development of trophic specializations under the pressure of competition for food resources becomes the leading factor in the evolutionary strategy in ecologically saturated ecosystems.

How frequent were such changes, and what role did global geological changes play in them? To what extent is this related to the appearance of eukaryotes in the geological record, as well as the general flourishing of both nuclear and non-nuclear life forms at the turn of 1.2-1.4 billion years ago?

What is the ratio of gradual and explosive modes of evolution at the species and ecosystem levels, and how did they change at different stages of the history of the biosphere?

Is it possible to reliably reconstruct the picture of the evolution of life on Earth, taking into account the fundamental incompleteness of the geological record and the complexity of real evolutionary processes?

What restrictions are imposed by the features of the structural and functional organization of ecosystems on the evolution of life forms prevailing in them?

4. What is the nature of trigger mechanisms that provide a radical change in the modes of evolution of life forms? Does it have an immanent essence, due to the internal features of the organization and evolution of biosystems, or due to external causes, for example, geological restructuring? How do these factors compare?

According to geological data, the mass development of highly organized life forms of Metazoa (with muscle tissues, alimentary tract, etc.) occurred in the Vendian about 600 million years ago, although they may have appeared earlier, as evidenced by paleontological finds of recent years. But these were non-skeletal soft-bodied Metazoa. They did not have a protective skeleton and, in the absence of an ozone layer, apparently had a limited ecological niche. At the turn of 540-550 Ma, there was a taxonomic explosion (massive, almost simultaneous appearance) of all the main types and classes of marine invertebrates, represented mainly by skeletal forms. However, the full development of life forms that occupied all the main biotopes on Earth occurred later, when the amount of free oxygen in the atmosphere and hydrosphere increased significantly and the ozone screen began to stabilize.

All these events, on the one hand, are correlated with the largest geological events, and on the other hand, the explosive nature of these events requires the formation of new approaches to the construction of evolution scenarios based on the synthesis of classical Darwinian ideas and the theory of the development of large systems, which is in good agreement with the teachings of V.I. .Vernadsky about the biosphere as a global biogeochemical system of the Earth and modern ecological and geochemical models of ecosystems of various types. All major biotic crises correlate with major geological changes, but are prepared by the self-development of biological systems and the accumulation of ecological imbalances.

5. To what extent are photosynthesis and oxygen exchange obligatory and necessary conditions for the development of life on Earth? The transition from predominant chemosynthesis to chlorophyll-based photosynthesis probably occurred about 2 billion years ago, which may have served as the "energetic" prerequisite for the subsequent explosive increase in biodiversity on the planet. But in the last third of the 20th century, the phenomenon of the rapid development of life near hydrogen sulfide smokers on the ocean floor in total darkness was discovered and studied on the basis of chemosynthesis.

The local (point) distribution of "black smokers" and their confinement to certain geodynamic settings of the lithosphere (mid-ocean ridges - zones of stretching of the earth's crust) are the most important limiting factors that prevent the formation on this basis of a spatial continuum of life on Earth in the form of a modern biosphere. The evolutionary potential of the endogenous sector of the biosphere is limited not only by spatial, but also by temporal limitations - the short-lived (on the scale of geological time) discrete nature of their existence, which is interrupted by the periodic damping of hydrotherms, and on a global scale by lithospheric rearrangements. Paleontological data show that in the geological past, the composition of the producers of these ecosystems (bacterial communities) remained practically unchanged, and the heterotrophic population was formed by emigrants from "normal" biotopes (facultative biocenoses). The ecosystem of "black smokers" can probably be considered as a good heuristic model for solving problems: 1) the early stages of the development of life on Earth in an oxygen-free atmosphere; 2) the possibilities of life on other planets; 3) the evolutionary potential of ecosystems that exist at the expense of endogenous and exogenous energy sources.

The list of problems of the origin and evolution of life that first arose or received new coverage in the light of the latest data from biology, geology, paleontology, oceanology and other branches of natural science can be continued. However, the above problems convincingly indicate that at the present stage of the development of our knowledge, the problem of interdisciplinary, systemic synthesis of this knowledge within the framework of a new paradigm, which academician N.N. Moiseev called "universal evolutionism", comes to the fore.

6. The regular and directed nature of macroevolution allows us to raise the question of the possibility of predicting evolution. The solution of this question is connected with the analysis of the ratios of necessary and random phenomena in the evolution of organisms. As is known, in philosophy the categories need And chance denote different types of connections between phenomena. The necessary connections are determined by the internal structure of the interacting phenomena, their essence, and fundamental features. On the contrary, random connections are external in relation to this phenomenon, being due to side factors that are not related to the essence of this phenomenon. At the same time, the accidental, of course, is not without cause, but its causes lie outside the cause-and-effect series that determines the essence of this phenomenon. Randomness and necessity are relative: what is random for one causal series is necessary for another, and when conditions change, random connections can turn into necessary ones, and vice versa. Statistical regularity is the identification of necessary, i.e., internal, essential connections among numerous external random interactions.

7. Among the central problems of the modern theory of evolution, one should name the co-evolution of different species in natural communities and the evolution of biological macrosystems themselves - biogeocenoses and the biosphere as a whole. Lively discussions continue about the role of neutral mutations and genetic drift in evolution, about the ratios of adaptive and non-adaptive evolutionary changes, about the essence and causes of typogenesis and typostasis in macroevolution, its uneven pace, morphophysiological progress, etc. Much remains to be done even in the most developed areas of evolutionary science - such as the theory of selection, the theory of biological species and speciation.

8. An urgent task of evolutionary science is to rethink and integrate the latest data and conclusions obtained in recent years in the field of molecular biology, ontogenetics and macroevolution. Some biologists speak of the need for a "new synthesis", emphasizing the obsoleteness of the classical ideas of the synthetic theory of evolution, which is, in essence, mainly the theory of microevolution, and the need to overcome the narrow reductionist approach characteristic of it.

Lecture #11

Topic. The main stages of chemical and biological evolution.

1. The emergence of life (biogenesis). Modern hypotheses of the origin of life.

2. Formation of cellular organization, development of metabolism and reproduction of protobionts. The problem of the origin of the genetic code.

The manifestations of life on Earth are extremely diverse. Life on Earth is represented by nuclear and pre-nuclear, unicellular and multicellular beings; multicellular, in turn, are represented by fungi, plants and animals. Any of these kingdoms combines various types, classes, orders, families, genera, species, populations and individuals.

In all the seemingly endless variety of living things, several different levels of organization of living things can be distinguished: molecular, cellular, tissue, organ, ontogenetic, population, species, biogeocenotic, biospheric. The listed levels are highlighted for ease of study. If we try to identify the main levels, reflecting not so much the levels of study as the levels of organization of life on Earth, then the main criteria for such a selection should be recognized

the presence of specific elementary, discrete structures and elementary phenomena. With this approach, it turns out to be necessary and sufficient to single out the molecular-genetic, ontogenetic, population-species and biogeocenotic levels (N.V. Timofeev-Resovsky and others).

Molecular genetic level. In the study of this level, apparently, the greatest clarity has been achieved in the definition of basic concepts, as well as in the identification of elementary structures and phenomena. The development of the chromosomal theory of heredity, the analysis of the mutation process, and the study of the structure of chromosomes, phages, and viruses revealed the main features of the organization of elementary genetic structures and the phenomena associated with them. It is known that the main structures at this level (codes of hereditary information transmitted from generation to generation) are DNA, differentiated in length into code elements - triplets of nitrogenous bases that form genes.

Genes at this level of life organization represent elementary units. The main elementary phenomena associated with genes can be considered their local structural changes (mutations) and the transfer of information stored in them to intracellular control systems.

Covariant reduplication occurs according to the matrix principle by breaking the hydrogen bonds of the DNA double helix with the participation of the enzyme DNA polymerase (Fig. 4.2). Then each of the threads builds a corresponding thread for itself, after which the new threads are complementaryly connected to each other. The pyrimidine and purine bases of the complementary strands are hydrogen-bonded to each other by DNA polymerase. This process is very fast. Thus, only 100 s are required for self-assembly of Escherichia coli (Escherichia coli) DNA, which consists of approximately 40 thousand base pairs. Genetic information is transferred from the nucleus by mRNA molecules to the cytoplasm to the ribosomes and is involved in protein synthesis there. A protein containing thousands of amino acids is synthesized in a living cell in 5-6 minutes, while in bacteria it is faster.

factors.

At the ontogenetic level, the unit of life is an individual from the moment of its occurrence until death. Essentially, ontogeny is the process of unfolding, realizing hereditary information encoded in the control structures of the germ cell. At the ontogenetic level, not only the implementation of hereditary information takes place, but also its approbation by checking the consistency in the implementation of hereditary traits and the operation of control systems in time and space within the individual. Through the assessment of the individual in the process of natural selection, the viability of a given genotype is tested.

Ontogeny arose after the addition of convariant reduplication by new stages of development. In the course of evolution, the path from genotype to phenotype, from gene to trait, arises and gradually becomes more complicated. As will be shown below, the emergence of ontogenetic differentiation underlies the emergence of all evolutionary neoplasms in the development of any group of organisms. In a number of experimental embryological studies, significant particular patterns of ontogeny have been established (see Chap. 14). But a general theory of ontogeny has not yet been created. We still do not know why strictly defined processes in ontogeny occur at the right time and in the right place. So far, it can be assumed that cells serve as elementary structures at the ontogenetic level of life organization, and some processes associated with differentiation serve as elementary phenomena. In general terms, it is also clear that ontogeny occurs as a result of the work of a self-regulating hierarchical system that determines the coordinated realization of hereditary properties and the work of control systems within the individual. Individuals in nature are not absolutely isolated from each other, but are united by a higher rank of biological organization at the population-species level.

Population-species level. The combination of individuals into a population, and populations into species according to the degree of genetic and ecological unity, leads to the emergence of new properties and features in living nature, different from the properties of the molecular genetic and ontogenetic levels.

Literature

Pravdin F.N. Darwinism. M., 1973. S. 269-278

Konstantinov A.V. Fundamentals of evolutionary theory M., 1979. p.106

Yablokov A.V., Yusufov A.G. Evolutionary doctrine M., 1998. S.41-50

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ESSAY

Problems of evolution

Doing

evolution lamarck darwin

Evolution is a gradual change in complex systems over time. Biological evolution is a hereditary change in the properties and characteristics of living organisms over a number of generations. In the course of biological evolution, an agreement is achieved and constantly maintained between the properties of living organisms and the conditions of the environment in which they live. Since conditions are constantly changing, including as a result of the vital activity of the organisms themselves, and only those individuals that are best adapted to life in changed environmental conditions survive and reproduce, the properties and signs of living beings are constantly changing. The conditions of life on Earth are infinitely diverse, so the adaptation of organisms to life in these different conditions has given rise in the course of evolution to a fantastic variety of life forms.

The theory of evolution occupies a central position in modern natural science and biology, uniting all its areas and being their common

theoretical basis. An indicator of the scientific maturity of specific biological sciences is: 1) contribution to the theory of evolution; 2) the degree to which the conclusions of the latter are used in their scientific practice (for setting problems, analyzing the data obtained and constructing private theories). Also, the theory of evolution has the most important general philosophical significance: a certain attitude to the problems of the evolution of the organic world characterizes various general philosophical concepts (both materialistic and idealistic).

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Charles Darwin are considered the founders of evolutionary biology as a separate independent science, who were the first to address the issues of the theory of evolution.

1 . Etcaboutproblems of the evolution of living organisms

The problems of the evolution of living organisms lie in the theories of evolution themselves, that is, in the errors of reasoning.

According to Lamarck's theory, plants and lower animals are directly exposed to the environment and are transformed. The environment acts indirectly on higher animals: a change in external conditions - a change in opportunities - a change in habit - the active functioning of some organs and their development - the loss of activity of other organs and their death.

But Lamarck's reasoning contained an error, which consisted in a simple fact: acquired characteristics are not inherited. At the end of the XIX century. German biologist August Weismann set up a famous experiment - for 22 generations he cut off the tails of experimental mice. And still, newborn mice had tails no shorter than their ancestors.

In general, Lamarck's theory was ahead of its time and was rejected by the scientific community. But then he got a lot of followers. Neo-Lamarckists of various directions were the shock fist of the opponents of the developments of Charles Darwin111111

The following issues can also be identified:

1) How did life begin on earth? By the way of the natural evolution of the inorganic world or it was brought from the Cosmos - the theory of Panspermia.

2. What were the main trends in the evolution of primitive unicellular life forms on Earth. Was it the main trend to complicate the internal organization of the cell in order to maximize the consumption of any resources of the undifferentiated environment of the primitive Earth, or even then some organisms embarked on the path of adaptation to the predominant use of any one resource (specialization).

3. Whether there were conditions on the primitive Earth that favored the evolutionary complication of the structural and functional organization of the eukaryotic cell. What is their nature, when did they arise and whether they continue to operate to this day.

Has there been a global change in evolutionary strategies in the history of the Earth within the framework of stabilizing selection (constancy of environmental conditions), driving selection (pronounced unidirectional changes in critical parameters of the environment) and destabilizing selection (catastrophic changes in environmental parameters affecting hierarchically high levels of organization of biosystems from molecular- genetic to biospheric). There is an idea that in the early stages of the evolution of the biosphere, the evolutionary strategy was determined by the search for optimal options for adaptation to the physicochemical conditions of the environment (incoherent evolution). And as the abiotic environment stabilizes, evolution acquires a coherent character, and the development of trophic specializations under the pressure of competition for food resources becomes the leading factor in the evolutionary strategy in ecologically saturated ecosystems.

4. What is the nature of trigger mechanisms that provide a radical change in the modes of evolution of life forms. What is the immanent essence, due to the internal features of the organization and evolution of biosystems, or due to external causes.

According to geological data, the mass development of highly organized Metazoa life forms (with muscle tissues, alimentary tract, etc.) occurred in the Vendian about 600 million years ago, although they may have appeared earlier, as evidenced by paleontological finds of recent years. But these were non-skeletal soft-bodied Metazoa. They did not have a protective skeleton and, in the absence of an ozone layer, apparently had a limited ecological niche. At the turn of 540-550 Ma, there was a taxonomic explosion (massive, almost simultaneous appearance) of all the main types and classes of marine invertebrates, represented mainly by skeletal forms. The full development of life forms that occupied all the main biotopes on Earth occurred later, when the amount of free oxygen in the atmosphere and hydrosphere increased significantly and the ozone screen began to stabilize.

5. To what extent photosynthesis and oxygen exchange are obligatory and necessary conditions for the development of life on Earth. The transition from predominant chemosynthesis to chlorophyll-based photosynthesis probably occurred about 2 billion years ago, which may have served as the "energetic" prerequisite for the subsequent explosive increase in biodiversity on the planet. But in the last third of the 20th century, the phenomenon of the rapid development of life near hydrogen sulfide smokers on the ocean floor in total darkness was discovered and studied on the basis of chemosynthesis.

2 . Evevolutionary theory of life on earth

The history of evolutionary theory is extremely interesting in itself, because it concentrated the struggle of ideas in all areas of biology.

Evolutionary biology, like any other science, has come a long and winding path of development. Various hypotheses have been developed and tested. Most hypotheses did not stand up to the test of facts, and only a few of them became theories, inevitably changing in the process.

The problem of the origin of life began to interest man in antiquity. The development of ideas about the origin of living beings was carried out by such scientists as Anaxagoras, Empedocles, Heraclitus, Aristotle.

Among them, Heraclitus of Ephesus (late 6th - early 5th century BC) is known as the creator of the concept of perpetual motion and changeability of everything that exists. According to the ideas of Empedocles (c. 490 - c. 430 BC), organisms were formed from the initial chaos in the process of random connection of individual structures, with unsuccessful options dying, and harmonious combinations being preserved (a kind of naive idea of selection as the guiding force of development ). The author of the atomistic concept of the structure of the world, Democritus (c. 460 - c. 370 BC), believed that organisms can adapt to changes in the external environment. Finally, Titus Lucretius Carus (c. 95-55 BC) in his famous poem "On the Nature of Things" expressed thoughts about the changeability of the world and the spontaneous generation of life.

Of the philosophers of antiquity, Aristotle (384-322 BC) enjoyed the greatest fame and authority among naturalists in subsequent eras (in particular, during the Middle Ages). Aristotle did not support, at least in a sufficiently clear form, the idea of the variability of the surrounding world. However, many of his generalizations, which by themselves fit into the overall picture of the world's immutability, later played an important role in the development of evolutionary ideas. Such are Aristotle’s thoughts about the unity of the structural plan of higher animals (the similarity in the structure of the corresponding organs in different species was called “analogy” by Aristotle), about the gradual complication (“gradation”) of the structure in a number of organisms, about the variety of forms of causality (Aristotle singled out 4 series of reasons: material , formal, producing, or driving, and target).

The era of Late Antiquity and especially the era of the Middle Ages that followed it became a time of stagnation in the development of natural-historical ideas that dragged on for almost one and a half thousand years. The prevailing dogmatic forms of the religious worldview did not allow the idea of the change of the world.

As science developed, data began to accumulate that contradicted these ideas of antiquity. Fossil remains of ancient animals and plants were found, similar to modern ones, but at the same time differing from them in many structural features. This could indicate that modern species are modified descendants of long-extinct species. An amazing similarity was found in the structure and in the features of the individual development of different animal species. This similarity indicated that different species had common ancestors in the distant past.

One of the significant steps towards the emergence of evolutionary biology was the work of Carl Linnaeus. The well-known Swedish botanist and naturalist Carl-Linnaeus analyzed the existing classifications of plants and animals, carefully studied their species composition himself, and as a result developed his own system, the foundations of which were set forth in the works “The System of Nature”, “Plant Genera”, “Plant Species”. The classic work The System of Nature (1735) was reprinted 12 times during the author's lifetime, it was widely known and had a great influence on the development of science in the 18th century. As a basis for classification, Linnaeus adopted the form, which he considered as a real and elementary unit of living nature. He described about 10,000 plant species (including 1,500 species discovered by himself) and 4,200 animal species. The scientist combined closely related species into genera, similar genera into orders, and orders into classes.

The system of living nature developed by the great Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus was built on the principle of similarity, but it had a hierarchical structure and suggested a relationship between closely related species of living organisms. Analyzing these facts, scientists came to the conclusion about the variability of species. Such views were expressed in the 18th century. and at the beginning of the 19th century. J. Buffon, V. Goethe, K. Baer, Erasmus Darwin - the grandfather of Charles Darwin, etc. In particular, Georges Buffon expressed progressive ideas about the variability of species under the influence of environmental conditions (climate, nutrition, etc.), and the Russian naturalist Karl Maksimovich Baer, studying the embryonic development of fish, amphibians, reptiles and mammals, found that the embryos of higher animals do not resemble the adult forms of the lower ones, but are similar only to their embryos; in the process of embryonic development, signs of a type, class, order, family, genus, and species (Beer's laws) consistently appear. However, none of these scientists offered a satisfactory explanation for why and how species changed.

Thus, the theory of evolution occupies a special place in the study of the history of life. It has become the unifying theory that serves as the foundation for all of biology.

3. Lamarck's theory of evolution

The first attempt to build a holistic concept of the development of the organic world was made by the French naturalist J.B. Lamarck. In his Philosophy of Zoology, Lamarck summed up all the biological knowledge of the early 19th century. He developed the foundations of the natural taxonomy of animals and for the first time substantiated a holistic theory of the evolution of the organic world, the progressive historical development of plants and animals.

Lamarck's evolutionary theory was based on the concept of development, gradual and slow, from simple to complex, taking into account the role of the external environment in the transformation of organisms. Lamarck believed that the first spontaneously generated organisms gave rise to the whole variety of organic forms that currently exist. By this time, the notion of the “ladder of living beings” as a successive series of independent, unchanging forms created by the Creator had already firmly established itself in science. He saw in the gradation of these forms a reflection of the history of life, the real process of development of some forms from others. Development from the simplest to the most perfect organisms is the main content of the history of the organic world. Man is also part of this story, he developed from monkeys.

Lamarck considered the main reason for evolution to be the inherent desire for the complication and self-improvement of its organization inherent in living nature. It manifests itself in the innate ability of each individual to complicate the organism. He called the second factor of evolution the influence of the external environment: while it does not change, the species are constant, as soon as it becomes different, the species also begin to change. At the same time, Lamarck, at a higher level than his predecessors, developed the problem of unlimited variability of living forms under the influence of living conditions: nutrition, climate, soil characteristics, moisture, temperature, etc.

Based on the level of organization of living beings, Lamarck identified two forms of variability:

1) direct - direct variability of plants and lower animals under the influence of environmental conditions;

2) indirect - the variability of higher animals that have a developed nervous system that perceives the impact of the conditions of existence and develops habits, means of self-preservation and protection.

Having shown the origin of variability, Lamarck analyzed the second factor of evolution - heredity. He noted that individual changes, if they are repeated in a number of generations, are transmitted by inheritance to descendants during reproduction and become signs of the species. At the same time, if some organs of animals develop, then others, not involved in the process of changes, atrophy. So, for example, as a result of exercises, the giraffe got a long neck, because the ancestors of the giraffe, eating the leaves of trees, reached for them, and in each generation the neck and legs grew. Thus, Lamarck suggested that the changes that plants and animals acquire during life are hereditarily fixed and transmitted by inheritance to descendants. At the same time, the offspring continues to develop in the same direction, and one species turns into another.

Lamarck believed that the historical development of organisms is not accidental, but natural in nature and takes place in the direction of gradual and steady improvement, raising the general level of organization. In addition, he analyzed in detail the prerequisites for evolution and formulated the main directions of the evolutionary process and the causes of evolution. He also developed the problem of the variability of species under the influence of natural causes, showed the importance of time and environmental conditions in evolution, which he considered as a manifestation of the general law of the development of nature. The merit of Lamarck is also the fact that he was the first to propose a genealogical classification of animals, built on the principles of relatedness of organisms, and not just their similarity.

The essence of Lamarck's theory is that animals and plants were not always the way we see them now. He proved that they developed by virtue of the natural laws of nature, following the evolution of the entire organic world. There are two main methodological features of Lamarckism:

1) teleologism as the desire for improvement inherent in organisms;

2) organism-centrism - the recognition of an organism as an elementary unit of evolution, directly adapting to changes in external conditions and transmitting these changes by inheritance.

From the point of view of modern science, these provisions are fundamentally wrong, they are refuted by the facts and laws of genetics. In addition, Lamarck's evidence for the causes of species variability was not convincing enough. Therefore, Lamarck's theory did not receive recognition from his contemporaries. But it was not refuted either, it was only forgotten for a while in order to return to its ideas again in the second half of the 19th century, placing them at the basis of all anti-Darwinist concepts.

4. Darwin's theory of evolution

The idea of gradual and continuous change in all kinds of plants and animals was expressed by many scientists long before Darwin. Therefore, the very concept of evolution - a process of long-term, gradual, slow changes, ultimately leading to fundamental, qualitative changes - the emergence of new organisms, structures, forms and types, penetrated into science as early as the end of the 18th century. However, it was Darwin who created a completely new doctrine of living nature, generalizing individual evolutionary ideas into one coherent theory of evolution. Based on vast factual material and the practice of selection work on the development of new varieties of plants and animal breeds, he formulated the main provisions of his theory, which he outlined in the book "The Origin of Species by Natural Selection" in 1859 under the name of the theory of natural selection. This theory is one of the pinnacles of scientific thought in the 19th century. However, its significance goes far beyond its age and beyond the scope of biology: Darwin's theory has become the natural-historical basis of the materialistic worldview.

Darwin's theory is opposed to Lamarck's not only in its consistently materialistic conclusions, but also in its entire structure. It is a remarkable example of scientific research, based on a huge amount of reliable scientific facts, the analysis of which leads Darwin to a coherent system of proportionate conclusions.

Darwin came to the conclusion that in nature any kind of animal and plant tends to reproduce exponentially. At the same time, the number of adults of each species remains relatively constant. Thus, a female cod lays seven million eggs, of which only 2% survive. Consequently, in nature there is a struggle for existence, as a result of which signs are accumulated that are useful for the organism and the species as a whole, and new species and varieties are formed. The remaining organisms die in adverse environmental conditions. Thus, the struggle for existence is a set of diverse, complex relationships that exist between organisms and environmental conditions.

In the struggle for existence, only those individuals survive and leave offspring that have a set of features and properties that allow them to compete most successfully with other individuals. Thus, in nature there is a process of selective destruction of some individuals and preferential reproduction of others, i.e. natural selection, or survival of the fittest.

When environmental conditions change, some other signs than before may turn out to be useful for survival. As a result, the direction of selection changes, the structure of the species is rebuilt, and thanks to reproduction, new characters are widely distributed - a new species appears. Useful traits are preserved and passed on to subsequent generations, since the factor of heredity operates in wildlife, which ensures the stability of species.

However, in nature it is impossible to find two identical, completely identical organisms. All the diversity of living nature is the result of a process of variability, i.e. transformations of organisms under the influence of the external environment.

So, Darwin's concept is built on the recognition of objectively existing processes as factors and causes of the development of living things. The main driving factors of evolution are variability, heredity and natural selection.

Variability is the first link in evolution.

It is understood as a variety of signs and properties in individuals and groups of individuals of any degree of kinship. Present in all living organisms. The phenomena of heredity and variability underlie evolution

Variability is an essential property of living things. Due to the variability of characters and properties, even in the offspring of one pair of parents, identical individuals are almost never found. The more thoroughly and deeply nature is studied, the more the conviction is formed in the general universal character of variability. In nature, it is impossible to find two completely identical, identical organisms. Under favorable conditions, these differences may not have a noticeable effect on the development of organisms, but under unfavorable conditions, every minute difference can become decisive in whether this organism will survive and give offspring or die.

Darwin distinguished two types of variability: 1) hereditary (indefinite) and 2) non-hereditary (definite).

A certain (group) variability is understood as a similar change in all individuals of the offspring in one direction due to the influence of certain conditions (changes in growth depending on the quantity and quality of food, changes in skin thickness and coat density with climate change, etc.).

Indefinite (individual) variability is understood as the appearance of various minor differences in individuals of the same species, by which one individual differs from others. In the future, "indefinite" changes began to be called mutations, and "definite" - modifications.

The next factor in evolution is heredity - the property of organisms to ensure the continuity of signs and properties between generations, as well as to determine the nature of the development of an organism in specific environmental conditions. This property is not absolute: children are never exact copies of their parents, but only wheat always grows from seeds of wheat, etc. In the process of reproduction from generation to generation, not traits are transmitted, but a code of hereditary information that determines only the possibility of developing future traits in a certain range. It is not a trait that is inherited, but the norm of the reaction of a developing individual to the action of the external environment.

Darwin analyzed in detail the significance of heredity in the evolutionary process and showed that variability and heredity by themselves do not yet explain the emergence of new breeds of animals, plant varieties, their fitness, since the variability of different features of organisms is carried out in the most diverse directions. Each organism is the result of the interaction between the genetic program of its development and the conditions for its implementation.

Considering the issues of variability and heredity, Darwin drew attention to the complex relationship between the organism and the environment, to the various forms of dependence of plants and animals on living conditions, to their adaptation to adverse conditions. Such diverse forms of dependence of organisms on environmental conditions and other living beings he called the struggle for existence. The struggle for existence, according to Darwin, is a set of relationships between organisms of a given species with each other, with other types of living organisms and inanimate environmental factors.

The struggle for existence means all forms of manifestation of the activity of a given species of organisms, aimed at maintaining the life of their offspring. Darwin singled out three main forms of struggle for existence: 1) interspecific, 2) intraspecific and 3) struggle with adverse environmental conditions.

Examples of interspecific struggle in nature are common and well known to everyone. It is most clearly manifested in the struggle between predators and herbivores. Herbivores can only survive and reproduce if they can avoid predators and are provided with food. But various types of mammals also feed on vegetation, and in addition - insects and mollusks. And here a situation arises: what went to one, did not go to another. Therefore, in interspecific struggle, the success of one species means the failure of the other.

Intraspecific struggle means competition between individuals of the same species, in which the need for food, territory and other conditions of existence is the same. Darwin considered intraspecific struggle the most intense. Therefore, in the process of evolution, populations have developed various adaptations that reduce the severity of competition: marking boundaries, threatening postures, etc.

The fight against unfavorable environmental conditions is expressed in the desire of living organisms to survive in drastic changes in weather conditions. In this case, only the individuals most adapted to the changed conditions survive. They form a new population, which generally contributes to the survival of the species. In the struggle for existence, individuals and specimens survive and leave offspring, possessing such a complex of features and properties that allow them to successfully withstand adverse environmental conditions.

However, Darwin's main merit in creating the theory of evolution lies in the fact that he developed the doctrine of natural selection as the leading and guiding factor in evolution. Natural selection, according to Darwin, is a set of changes occurring in nature that ensure the survival of the fittest individuals and their predominant offspring, as well as the selective destruction of organisms that are unadapted to existing or changing environmental conditions.

In the process of natural selection, organisms adapt, i.e. they develop the necessary adaptations to the conditions of existence. As a result of the competition of different species with similar vital needs, less adapted species die out. Improving the mechanism of adaptation of organisms leads to the fact that the level of their organization is gradually becoming more complicated and thus the evolutionary process is carried out. At the same time, Darwin drew attention to such characteristic features of natural selection as the gradual and slow process of change and the ability to summarize these changes into large, decisive causes leading to the formation of new species.

Based on the fact that natural selection acts among diverse and unequal individuals, it is considered as the total interaction of hereditary variability, preferential survival and reproduction of individuals and groups of individuals better adapted than others to given conditions of existence. Therefore, the doctrine of natural selection as the driving and guiding factor in the historical development of the organic world is the main one in Darwin's theory of evolution.

Natural selection is the inevitable result of the struggle for existence and the hereditary variability of organisms. According to Darwin, natural selection is the most important creative force that directs the evolutionary process and naturally determines the emergence of adaptations of organisms, progressive evolution and an increase in the diversity of species.

The emergence of adaptations (adaptation) organisms to the conditions of their existence, which gives the structure of living beings the features of "expediency", is a direct result of natural selection, since its very essence is differentiated survival and the predominant leaving of offspring precisely by those individuals who, due to their individual characteristics, are better adapted to environmental conditions than others. The accumulation by selection from generation to generation of those traits that give an advantage in the struggle for existence, and gradually leads to the formation of specific adaptations.

The second (after the advent of adaptation) most important consequence of the struggle for existence and natural selection is, according to Darwin, a natural increase in the diversity of forms of organisms, which has the character of divergent evolution. Since the most intense competition is expected between the most similarly structured individuals of a given species due to the similarity of their vital needs, the individuals most deviating from the average state will be in more favorable conditions. These latter get an advantageous chance of surviving and leaving offspring to which the characteristics of the parents are passed on and the tendency to change further in the same direction (continued variability).

Finally, the third most important consequence of natural selection is the gradual complication and improvement of organization, i.e. evolutionary progress. According to Charles Darwin, this direction of evolution is the result of the adaptation of organisms to life in an ever more complex external environment. The complexity of the environment occurs, in particular, due to divergent evolution, which increases the number of species.

A special case of natural selection is sexual selection, which is not associated with the survival of a given individual, but only with its reproductive function. According to Darwin, sexual selection occurs when individuals of the same sex compete for reproduction. The importance of the reproductive function is self-evident; therefore, in some cases, even the very preservation of a given organism may recede into the background in relation to the leaving of offspring by it. For the preservation of the species, the life of a given individual is important only insofar as it participates (directly or indirectly) in the process of reproduction of generations. Sexual selection just acts on the traits associated with various aspects of this most important function (mutual detection of individuals of the opposite sex, sexual stimulation of a partner, competition between individuals of the same sex when choosing a sexual partner, etc.)

5 . Sotemporary evolutionary teachings

Evolutionary doctrine is a broad interdisciplinary area of biology, including several large and currently developed sections to varying degrees. The first such section is the history of the emergence and development of evolutionary ideas. concepts and hypotheses. This section has an important general educational and methodological significance, since modernity cannot be understood without history.

Another branch of evolutionary teaching is private phylogenetics. Its content consists in recreating the paths of the historical development of each group of living organisms. Together, these paths of development of groups constitute the phylogenetic tree of life. Despite the great achievements in this area, many important details remain unclear, ranging from the problems of the origin of life to the extremely private, from the point of view of the phylogeny of all living things, but important for the development of matter in general, the emergence of a thinking being - homo sapiens.

The basis of the modern theory of evolution is the problems of micro- and macroevolution. These are two sides of a single and continuous process of evolution, which, however, are quite naturally separated along the line of speciation and the difference already noted above in the methodological approaches to their study. Theoretical developments in these areas form the foundation of modern evolutionary theory.

The modern theory of evolution is a synthetic science based on all the sciences of the biological complex. The modern theory of evolution is based on Darwin's teachings on the origin of life, the emergence of a variety of wildlife, adaptation and expediency in living organisms, the emergence of man, the emergence of breeds and varieties. Modern Darwinism is often called neo-Darwinism, a synthetic theory of evolution. It would be more correct to call the science that studies the process of evolution of the organic world evolutionary theory.

Since the 60s of the 20th century, it has become increasingly clear. That the theory of evolution of the organic world remains incomplete without knowledge of a large section concerning the laws of evolution of biogeocenoses. However, not according to the actual material. Neither by theoretical developments can this direction be named among the studied sections of modern evolutionary doctrine. This is an important task for the future.

In modern evolutionism, three main directions of research into the evolutionary process have been formed:

1) molecular biological (analysis of molecular evolution, i.e. the processes of evolutionary transformations of biological macromolecules, primarily nucleic acids and proteins, using molecular biology methods);

2) genetic and ecological (studies of microevolution, i.e. transformations of the gene pools of populations, and the processes of speciation, as well as the evolution of biological macrosystems - biocenoses and the biosphere as a whole - by methods of population genetics, ecology, systematics, phenetics);

3) evolutionary-morphological (the study of macroevolution - evolutionary rearrangements of integral organisms and their ontogenies by the methods of paleontology, comparative anatomy and embryology).

The modern evolutionary doctrine is based on the foundation of the achievements of genetics, which revealed the material nature of heredity. From such positions, the evolving unit is not an individual or a species, but a population, i.e. a group of individuals of the same species that inhabit a certain territory for a long time and freely interbreed with each other. The basis of hereditary changes in the population is mutational variability as a result of sudden mutations - hereditary changes in the genetic apparatus. Mutations can occur in any cell, at any stage of development, both under normal conditions of existence (spontaneous mutations) and under the influence of any physical or chemical factors (induced mutations). Therefore, from modern positions, the driving factors of evolution are mutagenesis (ie, the process of formation of mutations) and natural selection. The latter makes it possible to survive for organisms whose mutational changes provide the greatest adaptability to specific environmental conditions. In clarifying the role of mutations in the evolutionary process, the work of Soviet scientists S.S. Chetverikova, N.I. Vavilova, I.I. Schmalhausen.

One of the main places in modern evolutionary teaching is the genetic analysis of human populations. The peculiarity of their genetics is that natural selection has lost the role of the leading factor in human evolution. However, the importance of genetics for humans is exceptionally great, since it occupies a key place in the analysis of the spread of hereditary diseases, in assessing the effect of radiation and other physical and chemical effects on the genetic apparatus.

The further development of evolutionary theory is associated primarily with the success of population genetics, which studies the transformation of genetic systems in the process of the historical development of organisms. The latest advances in molecular biology allow us to take a fresh look at the mechanism of evolution. The discovery of the molecular mechanisms underlying mutagenesis, the study of the problem of the deployment of genetic information in the process of ontogenesis, the laws of phylogenesis paved the way for a new qualitative leap in the development of evolutionary doctrine and biology in general. Thus, the evolutionary doctrine is the main weapon of materialist biologists, who are constantly enriched with new factual and theoretical data, developing as knowledge in living nature deepens.

Conclusion

Modern evolutionary theory has developed on the basis of the theory of Ch. Darwin. The concept of Zh.B. Lamarck is currently considered unscientific. Lamarckism in any of its forms does not explain either progressive evolution or the emergence of adaptation (adaptations) of organisms, since "the desire for progress", "evolution based on laws", "the original ability of organisms to expedient reaction", "assimilation of environmental conditions" and other similar concepts replace scientific analysis with the postulation of certain metaphysical properties allegedly inherent in living matter. However, the importance of Lamarck's theory cannot be denied, since it was precisely the scientific controversy with the conclusions and concepts of the French naturalist that was the impetus for the emergence of Charles Darwin's theory.

The conclusions of the English scientist were also subjected to further criticism and detailed revision, which was primarily due to the fact that many factors, mechanisms and patterns of the evolutionary process unknown at the time of Darwin were identified and new ideas were formed that differed significantly from the classical theory of Darwin.

Nevertheless, there is no doubt that the modern theory of evolution is a development of the main ideas of Darwin, which are still relevant and productive.

Bibliography

1. N.N. Jordanian textbook on the theory of evolution. "The evolution of life". M.: Academy, 2001. - 425 p.

2. Gulyaev S.A., Zhukovsky V.M., Komov S.V. "Fundamentals of Natural Science", Yekaterinburg, 1997

3. Dubnishcheva T.Ya. "Concepts of modern natural science", Novosibirsk, "Izd-vo YuKEA", 1997

4. Petrovsky B.V. "Popular Medical Encyclopedia", M., "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1997

5. Haken G. "Synergetics", M .: Mir, 1980

6. Berdnikov V.A. Evolution and progress. Novosibirsk, "Nauka", 1991.

7. Ratner V.A. and other Problems of the theory of molecular evolution. - Novosibirsk: Science, 1985.

8. Raff R., Kofman T. Embryos, genes and evolution. - M.: Mir, 1986.

9. A.P. Sadokhin. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: UNITI-DANA, 2006.

10. Darwin C. On the origin of species by means of natural selection or the preservation of favorable breeds in the struggle for life. - Works, vol. 3 - M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1939.

11. Karpenko S.Kh. Concepts of modern natural science: A textbook for universities. - M.: Academic prospectus, 2000. - 639 p.

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Sections:

evolutionary genetics
View and speciation
Intraspecific differentiation and adaptation
Evolution of ontogeny
Evolutionary morphology and paleontology
Behavior evolution
Community evolution, evolutionary biogeography
History of evolutionary research
Popularization of evolutionary theory and museum work

Round tables:

Scientific heritage of N.I. Vavilov
experimental evolution
The common shrew in the focus of chromosomal evolution
Theoretical aspects of evolutionary biology

In fact, 189 people from the USA, Mongolia, Ukraine, Belarus and various Russian cities took part in the conference: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Yekaterinburg, Novosibirsk, Irkutsk, Vladivostok, Kaliningrad, Murmansk, Petrozavodsk, Ufa, Nizhny Novgorod and others. 12 plenary, 92 oral and 45 poster presentations were presented. The organizing committee sincerely thanks all the participants of the conference. We are waiting for you at the IV International Conference Modern Problems of Biological Evolution.

Organizing Committee:

Dgebuadze Yury Yulianovich
Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Head. Laboratory of Ecology of Aquatic Communities and Invasions IPEE RAS
Markov Alexander Vladimirovich
d.b.s., head. cafe Biological Evolution, Faculty of Biology, Moscow State University
Severtsov Alexey Sergeevich
d.b.n. Professor of the Department of Biological Evolution, Faculty of Biology, Moscow State University, Editor-in-Chief of the Bulletin of the MOIP (Department of Biological)
Mina Mikhail Valentinovich
Doctor of Biological Sciences, IBR RAS
Zorina Zoya Alexandrovna
d.b.s., head. cafe GNI Biofaka MSU
Feoktistova Natalya Yurievna
Doctor of Biological Sciences, Scientific Secretary of IPEE RAS
Kubasova Tatyana Sergeevna
Candidate of Biological Sciences, Deputy Director for Research, GBUK GDM
Bannikova Anna Andreevna
Ph.D., leading researcher cafe zool. vertebrates
Kolchinsky Eduard Izrailevich
Doctor of Biological Sciences, St. Petersburg. Phil. IIET
Kuznetsov Alexander Nikolaevich
Doctor of Biological Sciences, PIN RAS
Smirnova Anna Anatolievna
Ph.D., leading researcher cafe GNI Biofaka MSU
Smirnov Sergey Vasilievich
d.b.s., head. lab. IPEE RAS
Politov Dmitry Vladislavovich
d.b.n. head Laboratory of Population Genetics, IOGEN RAS
Zhuravlev Andrey Yurievich
d.b.s., prof. cafe biol. evolution of the Faculty of Biology of Moscow State University
Naimark Elena Borisovna
Doctor of Biological Sciences, Leading Researcher, PIN RAS
Klyukina Anna Iosifovna
Doctor of Pediatric Sciences, Director of State Budgetary Educational Institution of State Children's Museum
Rubtsov Alexander Sergeevich
PhD, Head n.i.d. evolution of GBUK GDM

Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, member of the scientific council of the Darwin Museum Yuri Yulianovich Dgebuadze.

evolutionary problems. The main problems of the theory of evolution

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