The position of the East European Plain is brief. East European Plain: climate, natural zones, geographic location
Geography Abstract
Russian or East European Plain: description, dimensions and historical details.
2) Hydrography
4) Flora and fauna
III. The history of relief formation and climate fluctuations in Eastern Europe.
IV. Used Books.
Dimensions.
A significant part of the European part of Russia is located on one of the largest plains in the world - the East European (Russian), the length of which from west to east, from the country's borders to the Urals, reaches 1600 km, and from north to south, from the seas of the Arctic Ocean to the Caucasus mountains and the Caspian Sea - 2,400 km; the amplitude of the latest tectonic movements is low here; the main features of the relief were formed in the Late Cenozoic. Most of the territory of the East European Plain lies below 200 m above sea level; the highest point - 343 m - is located on the Valdai Upland. Nevertheless, the nature of the relief of the Russian Plain is rather complex. To the north of the latitude of Moscow, glacial landforms prevail - including moraine ridges, of which the most famous are the Valdai and Smolensk-Moscow Uplands (the latter reaches 314 m in height); moraine, outwash, lacustrine-glacial lowlands are widespread. To the south of the latitude of Moscow, the uplands, directed mainly in the meridional direction, alternate with flat areas. There are numerous ravines and gullies on the hills. In the west there is the Central Russian Upland (maximum height 293 m), separating the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Oka and Don; here the valleys of small rivers are clearly defined; while large rivers have wide shallow floodplains; in some places a strong influence of aeolian processes and the formation of dunes are noted. To the east is the Privolzhskaya Upland, which reaches a height of 329 m and abruptly drops off to the river. The lower reaches of the Volga are located within the Caspian Lowland, some parts of which are 90 m below sea level. To the south, the East European Plain extends up to the spurs of the Greater Caucasus. The vast Kuban and Kum lowlands are separated by the Stavropol Upland, where heights from 300 to 600 m prevail (in the upper reaches of the Kuma there is also a group of island mountains up to 1401 m high). Human economic activity has greatly changed the relief of the East European Plain
Description.
1) Relief.
Almost the entire length is dominated by a gentle flat relief.
The East European Plain almost completely coincides with the East European Platform. This circumstance explains its flat relief, as well as the absence or insignificance of manifestations of such natural phenomena as earthquakes, volcanism. Large hills and lowlands have arisen as a result of tectonic movements, including along faults. The height of some hills and plateaus reaches 600-1000 meters.
On the territory of the Russian Plain, platform deposits lie almost horizontally, but their thickness in some places exceeds 20 km. Where the folded foundation protrudes to the surface, hills and ridges are formed (for example, Donetsk and Timan ridges). The average height of the Russian Plain is about 170 meters above sea level. The lowest areas are on the Caspian coast (its level is about 26 meters below the level of the World Ocean).
2) Hydrography.
Hydrographically, the territory of the East European Plain is divided into two parts. Most of them have a drain to the ocean. The northern rivers (Mezen, Onega, Severnaya, Dvina, Pechora) belong to the basin of the Arctic Ocean, western and southern rivers belong to the basin of the Atlantic Oceans. The latter include rivers flowing into the Baltic (Neva, Western Dvina, Neman, Vistula, rivers of Sweden and Finland), Black (Dnieper, Southern Bug, Dniester) and Azov (Don) seas. The rivers of the Volga, Ural and some other basins flow into the Caspian Sea, which has lost its connection with the World Ocean.
3) Climate.
Moderate continental climate. It is characterized by moderately cold winters and warm summers with an average July temperature from +12 degrees C (near the shores of the Barents Sea) to +24 degrees C in the southeast (on the Caspian lowland). Average January temperatures vary from -8 degrees C in the west of the territory (along the border with the territory of Belarus) to -16 degrees C in the Urals. Precipitation falls throughout the year from 800 mm in the west to 400 mm in the southeast. In the area of \u200b\u200bmoderate continental climate, moisture varies from excessive in the north, northwest to insufficient in the east and southeast. This is reflected in the change of natural zones from taiga to steppe.
| From north to south, the East European Plain, also known as the Russian Plain, is dressed consistently in the Arctic Tundra, coniferous forest (taiga), mixed and broadleaf forests, field (steppe), and semi-desert (fringing the Caspian Sea), as changes in vegetation reflect changes in climate. Siberia maintains a similar consistency, but is largely taiga. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves, known as "lungs of Europe", second only to the Amazon Rainforest in the amount of carbon dioxide it absorbs. There are 266 species of mammal and 780 species of birds in Russia. A total of 415 animal species were included in theRed Directory of the Russian Federation for 1997 and are now protected. |
The history of relief formation and climate fluctuations in Eastern Europe.
The relief of Eastern Europe, modern plains, lowlands and mountains have been formed as a result of complex and long geological development. The most ancient structure of crystalline rocks, representing the geological basis of Eastern Europe, is the Russian Platform, in the rigid foundation of which mining and educational processes stopped relatively early.
This, as well as the activity of the glaciers, explains the predominance of the flat landscape. Where the platform was in contact with others, there were moving regions of the earth's crust. Its vertical ups and downs, combined with magmatic processes, led to the formation of folds and active manifestations of volcanism. The end result of this process was the formation of the mountainous regions of Eastern Europe - the Urals, the Caucasus, the Carpathians.
The last stage of geological history, the Quaternary period, was of great importance in the formation of the most important features of the physical geography of Eastern Europe. It is also called an anthropogen (Greek antropos - "man" and genos - "birth"), that is, the time of the appearance and development of man, and the beginning is dated from 1 million to 600 thousand years ago. In the geological and natural area, this is the period of continental glaciations. It was during the Ice Age that soil varieties appeared, the movement of glaciers led to the creation of modern relief and the formation of coastlines.
Moraine ridges, boulder clays, sands and other glacial deposits cover the main part of the northern half of the plain. The last significant changes in the natural environment of the territory of Eastern Europe date back to the XII-X millennia BC. e. This is the time of the so-called Valdai glaciation, the southern border of which ran approximately along the line Vilnius - Vitebsk - Valdai - Vologda. It was after him that natural and climatic conditions were gradually established, the main character of which has been preserved to our time. The postglacial period, which began 8-10 thousand years ago, is a time of global warming.
It is characterized by the retreat from Europe to the north and the melting of the Scandinavian ice sheet, the rise of the earth's crust freed from the ice load (this process was uneven in time and space), and a slow rise in the level of the World Ocean. The evolution of one of the huge lakes that existed at the edge of the glacier over several millennia led to the emergence of the Baltic Sea, which acquired its present form about 4.5 thousand years ago. By this time, the warm interval (the so-called "climatic optimum") ended, the average annual air temperature dropped, and the humidity, on the contrary, increased and the modern type of climate was formed.
During the historical period (for Eastern Europe, more or less detailed information from written sources has been available since the 5th century BC), the most important natural conditions - topography and climate - did not undergo global changes. This is especially true of the relief. Some local changes in it are associated with ongoing mining and educational processes. The coastal areas of the Crimean Peninsula and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus were subject to certain fluctuations, as a result of which some of the ancient cities located in this region ended up on the seabed. Quite significant changes have occurred and are occurring with the northern shores of the Caspian Sea, which are known as transgression and regression of the Caspian, but they are more associated with climate change. In general, minor elements of the physical and geographical landscape changed - the outlines and position of coastlines, river flows, sand boundaries, etc.
The climate is subject to some periodic fluctuations, which, however, do not lead to major shifts in physical geography and vegetation distribution. Thus, at the beginning of the Iron Age (the turn of the 2nd – 1st millennia BC) and later, the climate was, in general terms, almost the same as now, but cooler and more humid. Forests along the river valleys of the south of the Russian Plain descended to the shores of the Black and Azov Seas. The floodplains of the lower Dnieper were covered with thick forest on both banks of the river. To date, these forests have been destroyed by humans, and not disappeared due to any catastrophic climate change.
In the early Middle Ages (late 1st - early 2nd millennium AD) there was a "small climatic optimum" - a period of significant warming in Western Europe and the North Atlantic. It is no coincidence that this time is considered the "Viking Age": warming made possible in the 9th-11th centuries. long voyages in the North Atlantic and the discovery of Iceland, Greenland and North America. However, already from the XIV century. cooling begins in Western Europe and the 15th – 19th centuries. often referred to as the "Little Ice Age" - this is the time of the onset of mountain glaciers, cooling waters, severe winters. A new period of warming began at the end of the 19th century, and in the 20th century. it has acquired a large-scale character.
In order to better understand the ecological problems of the Russian Plain, it is necessary to consider in detail what natural resources this geographical area possesses, what makes it remarkable.
Features of the Russian Plain
First of all, we will answer the question of where the Russian Plain is. The East European Plain is located on the Eurasia mainland and ranks second in the world in terms of area after the Amazon Plain. The second name of the East European Plain is Russian. This is due to the fact that a significant part of it is occupied by the state of Russia. It is on this territory that most of the country's population is concentrated and the largest cities are located.
The length of the plain from north to south is almost 2.5 thousand km, and from east to west - about 3 thousand km. Almost the entire territory of the Russian Plain has a flat relief with a slight slope - no more than 5 degrees. This is mainly due to the fact that the plain almost completely coincides with the East European platform. Here one does not feel and, as a result, there are no destructive natural phenomena (earthquakes).
The average height of the plain is about 200 m above sea level. It reaches its maximum height on the Bugulma-Belebey Upland - 479 m. The Russian plain can be conditionally divided into three bands: northern, central and southern. On its territory there are a number of uplands: the Central Russian Plain, the Smolensk-Moscow Upland - and lowlands: the Polesskaya, Oka-Don Plains, etc.
The Russian plain is rich in resources. There are all kinds of minerals: ore, non-metallic, combustible. A special place is occupied by the extraction of iron ores, oil and gas.
1. Ore
Iron ore Kursk Deposits: Lebedinskoe, Mikhailovskoe, Stoilenskoe, Yakovlevskoe. The ore of these mined deposits has a high iron content - 41.5%.
2. Non-metallic
- Bauxites. Deposits: Vislovskoe. The alumina content in the rock reaches 70%.
- Chalk, marl, fine sand. Deposits: Volskoye, Tashlinskoye, Dyatkovskoye, etc.
- Brown coal. Pools: Donetsk, Moscow Region, Pechora.
- Diamonds. Deposits of the Arkhangelsk Region.
3. Combustible
- Oil and gas. Oil and gas bearing areas: Timan-Pechora and Volgo-Ural.
- Oil shale. Deposits: Kashpirovskoe, Obshsyrtskoe.
The minerals of the Russian Plain are mined in various ways, which has a negative impact on the environment. Contamination of soil, water and atmosphere occurs.
The impact of human activities on the nature of the East European Plain
The environmental problems of the Russian Plain are largely associated with human activities: the development of mineral deposits, the construction of cities, roads, emissions of large enterprises, their use of huge volumes of water, the reserves of which do not have time to replenish, and, moreover, are also polluted.
Below we will consider all the Russian plains. The table will show what problems exist, where they are localized. Possible ways of struggle are presented.
| Problem | Causes | Localization | Than threatens | Solutions |
| Soil contamination | Development of KMA | Belgorod region Kursk region | Decreased productivity of grain crops | Land reclamation by accumulating chernozem and overburden |
| Industrial engineering | Regions: Belgorod, Kursk, Orenburg, Volgograd, Astrakhan | Proper disposal of waste, reclamation of depleted land | ||
| Construction of railways and highways | All areas | |||
| Development of deposits of chalk, phosphorite, rock salt, shale, bauxite | Regions: Moscow, Tula, Astrakhan, Bryansk, Saratov, etc. | |||
| Hydrosphere pollution | Development of KMA | Reduction of groundwater level | Water treatment, raising the level of groundwater | |
| Pumping groundwater | Moscow region, Orenburg region and etc. | The emergence of karst landforms, surface deformation due to subsidence of rocks, landslides, craters | ||
| Air pollution | Development of KMA | Kursk region, Belgorod region | Air pollution with harmful emissions, accumulation of heavy metals | Increase in the area of \u200b\u200bforests, green spaces |
| Large industrial enterprises | Regions: Moscow, Ivanovo, Orenburg, Astrakhan, etc. | Accumulation of greenhouse gases | Installation of quality filters on the pipes of enterprises | |
| Big cities | All major centers | Decrease in the number of vehicles, increase in green areas, parks | ||
| Reduced species diversity of flora and fauna | Hunting and population growth | All areas | The number of animals decreases, species of plants and animals disappear | Creation of nature reserves and sanctuaries |
Climate of the Russian Plain
The climate of the East European Plain is temperate continental. Continentality increases when moving inland. The average temperature of the plain in the coldest month (January) is -8 degrees in the west and -12 degrees in the east. In the warmest month (July), the average temperature in the northwest is +18 degrees, in the southeast +21 degrees.
The greatest amount of precipitation falls in the warm season - about 60-70% of the annual amount. More precipitation falls over the hills than over the lowlands. The annual amount of precipitation in the western part is 800 mm per year, in the eastern - 600 mm.
There are several natural zones on the Russian Plain: steppes and semi-deserts, forest-steppe, taiga, tundra (when moving from south to north).
The forest resources of the plain are represented mainly by conifers - pine and spruce. Previously, forests were actively cut down and used in the woodworking industry. Currently, forests are of recreational, water regulation and water protection importance.
Flora and fauna of the East European Plain
Due to small climatic differences on the territory of the Russian Plain, one can observe a pronounced soil-vegetation zoning. The northern soddy-podzolic soils to the south are replaced by more fertile chernozems, which affects the nature of the vegetation.
Flora and fauna have been significantly affected by human activities. Many plant species have disappeared. Of the fauna, the greatest damage is caused to fur animals, which have always been a desirable hunting object. Endangered mink, muskrat, raccoon dog, beaver. Such large ungulates as the tarpan have been exterminated forever, the saiga and bison have almost disappeared.
To preserve certain species of animals and plants, reserves were created: Oksky, Galichya Gora, Central Chernozem them. V.V. Alekhina, Forest on the Vorskla, etc.
Rivers and seas of the East European Plain
Where the Russian Plain is located, there are many rivers and lakes. The main rivers that play a major role in human economic activity are the Volga, Oka and Don.
The Volga is the largest river in Europe. It contains the Volga-Kama hydro-industrial complex, which includes a dam, a hydroelectric power station and a reservoir. The length of the Volga is 3631 km. Many of its tributaries are used in the economy for land irrigation.
Don also plays a significant role in industrial activities. Its length is 1870 km. The Volga-Don shipping channel and the Tsimlyansk reservoir are especially important.
In addition to these large rivers on the plain flow: Khoper, Voronezh, Bityug, Northern Onega, Kem and others.
In addition to rivers, the Barents, White, Black, Caspian Plains belong to the Russian Plain.
The Nord Stream gas pipeline runs along the bottom of the Baltic Sea. This affects the ecological situation of the hydrological object. During the laying of the gas pipeline, the waters were clogged, and many fish species decreased their numbers.
In the Baltic, Barents, Caspian and some minerals are mined, which, in turn, adversely affects the waters. Some of the industrial waste seeps into the seas.
In the Barents and Black Seas, some types of fish are caught on an industrial scale: cod, herring, flounder, haddock, halibut, catfish, anchovy, pike perch, mackerel, etc.
Fishing is carried out in the Caspian Sea, mainly sturgeon. On the seashore, due to the favorable natural conditions, there are many sanatoriums and tourist centers. Navigable routes pass through the Black Sea. Oil products are exported from Russian ports.
Underground waters of the Russian Plain
In addition to surface waters, people use underground waters, which, due to irrational use, adversely affects the soils - subsidences are formed, etc. Three large artesian basins are distinguished on the plain: the Caspian, Central Russian and East Russian. They serve as a source of water supply for a vast territory.
The East European Plain is one of the largest on the planet. Its area exceeds 4 million km 2. It is located on the Eurasia mainland (in the eastern part of Europe). From the north-western side, its borders run along the Scandinavian mountain formations, in the southeast - along the Caucasian ones, in the south-west - along the Central European massifs (Sudetes, etc.) On its territory there are more than 10 states, most of which is occupied by the Russian Federation ... It is for this reason that this plain is also called Russian.
East European Plain: the rise of climate
In any geographic area, the climate is formed due to several factors. First of all, this is the geographical position, relief and neighboring regions, which are bordered by a certain territory.
So what exactly influences the climate of this plain? To begin with, it is worth highlighting the oceanic areas: the Arctic and Atlantic. Due to their air masses, certain temperatures are established and the amount of precipitation is formed. The latter are distributed unevenly, but this is easily explained by the large territory of such an object as the East European Plain.
The mountains are as influential as the oceans. along the entire length it is not the same: in the southern zone it is much more than in the northern one. Throughout the year, it changes, depending on the change of seasons (in summer more than in winter due to mountain snowy peaks). The highest radiation level is reached in July.
Given that the plain is located in high and temperate latitudes, it is mainly dominated on its territory.It predominates mainly in the eastern part.
Atlantic masses
The air masses of the Atlantic dominate the East European Plain throughout the year. In the winter season, they bring precipitation and warm weather, and in the summer, the air is saturated with coolness. Atlantic winds, moving from west to east, change somewhat. Being above the earth's surface, they become warmer in summer with little moisture, and in winter - cold with little rainfall. It is during the cold period that the East European Plain, whose climate directly depends on the oceans, is influenced by Atlantic cyclones. During this season, their number can reach 12. Moving towards the east, they can change dramatically, and this, in turn, brings warming or cooling.
And when Atlantic cyclones come from the southwest, the southern part of the Russian Plain is influenced by subtropical air masses, as a result of which a thaw sets in and in winter the temperature can rise to + 5 ... 7 ° С.
Arctic air masses
When the East European Plain is under the influence of the North Atlantic and Southwestern Arctic cyclones, the climate here changes significantly, even in the southern part. A sharp cold snap sets in on its territory. Arctic air, most often, move in the direction from north to west. Thanks to anticyclones, which lead to a cooling, the snow lies for a long time, the weather is slightly cloudy with low temperatures. As a rule, they are common in the southeastern part of the plain.
winter season
Given the location of the East European Plain, the climate in the winter season differs in different areas. In this regard, the following temperature statistics are observed:
- Northern regions - winter is not very cold, in January thermometers show an average of -4 ° С.
- In the western zones of the Russian Federation, the weather conditions are somewhat more severe. The average temperature in January reaches -10 ° C.
- It is colder in the northeastern parts. Here, thermometers show -20 ° C and more.
- In the southern zones of Russia, there is a deviation of temperatures in the southeast direction. The average is revenge at -5 ° C.
Temperature regime of the summer season
In the summer season, the East European Plain is exposed to solar radiation. The climate at this time depends directly on this factor. Here oceanic air masses are no longer of such importance, and the temperature is distributed in accordance with the geographical latitude.
So let's take a look at the changes by region:
Precipitation
As mentioned above, most of the East European Plain is characterized by a moderate continental climate. And it is characterized by a certain amount of precipitation, amounting to 600-800 mm / year. Their loss depends on several factors. For example, the movement of air masses from the western parts, the presence of cyclones, the location of the polar and arctic front. The highest moisture content is observed between the Valdai and Smolensk-Moscow Uplands. During the year in the west, precipitation is about 800 mm, and in the east a little less - no more than 700 mm.
In addition, the relief of this territory has a great influence. On the hills located in the western parts, precipitation falls by 200 millimeters more than on the lowlands. The rainy season in the southern zones occurs in the first month of summer (June), and in the middle lane, as a rule, it is July.
In winter, snow falls in this region and a stable cover forms. The elevation level may vary, taking into account the natural zones of the East European Plain. For example, in the tundra, the snow thickness reaches 600-700 mm. Here he lies for about seven months. And in the forest zone and forest-steppe, the snow cover reaches a height of up to 500 mm and, as a rule, covers the ground for no more than two months.
Most of the moisture falls on the northern zone of the plain, and evaporation is less. In the middle lane, these indicators are compared. As for the southern part, there is much less moisture than evaporation, for this reason drought is often observed in this area.
types and brief characteristics
The natural zones of the East European Plain are quite different. This is explained very simply - the large size of this area. There are 7 zones on its territory. Let's take a look at them.
East European Plain and West Siberian Plain: Comparison
The Russian and West Siberian plains have a number of common features. For example, their geographic location. They are both located on the mainland Eurasia. They are influenced by the Arctic Ocean. The territory of both plains has such natural zones as forest, steppe and forest-steppe. There are no deserts and semi-deserts in the West Siberian Plain. The dominant arctic air masses have almost the same effect on both geographic areas. They also border on mountains, which directly influence the formation of the climate.
The East European Plain and the West Siberian Plain are also different. These include the fact that although they are on the same continent, they are located in different parts: the first is in Europe, the second is in Asia. They also differ in relief - the West Siberian is considered one of the lowest, therefore some of its parts are swampy. If we take the territory of these plains as a whole, then in the latter the flora is somewhat poorer than in the East European.
Relief of the East European (Russian) Plain
The East European (Russian) Plain is one of the largest plains in the world in terms of area. Among all the plains of our Motherland, only it comes out to two oceans. Russia is located in the central and eastern parts of the plain. It stretches from the coast of the Baltic Sea to the Ural Mountains, from the Barents and White Seas to the Azov and Caspian Seas.
The East European Plain has the highest rural population density, large cities and many small towns and urban-type settlements, and a variety of natural resources. The plain has long been mastered by man.
The following signs serve as the justification for its definition into the rank of a physico-geographical country: 1) an uplifted stratal plain formed on the plate of the ancient East European platform; 2) Atlantic-continental, mainly moderate and insufficiently humid climate, formed largely under the influence of the Atlantic and Arctic oceans; 3) natural zones are clearly expressed, the structure of which was greatly influenced by the flat relief and neighboring territories - Central Europe, North and Central Asia. This led to the interpenetration of European and Asian species of plants and animals, as well as to a deviation from the latitudinal position of natural zones in the east to the north.
Relief and geological structure
The East European elevated plain consists of elevations with heights of 200-300 m above sea level and lowlands along which large rivers flow. The average height of the plain is 170 m, and the highest - 479 m - on the Bugulma-Belebey Upland in the Urals part. The maximum elevation of the Timan Ridge is somewhat lower (471 m).
According to the peculiarities of the orographic pattern, three stripes are clearly distinguished within the East European Plain: central, northern and southern. A strip of alternating large uplands and lowlands passes through the central part of the plain: the Central Russian, Volga, Bugulma-Belebeevskaya uplands and General Syrt are separated by the Oka-Don lowland and the Low Trans-Volga region, along which the Don and Volga rivers flow, carrying their waters to the south.
To the north of this strip, low plains prevail, on the surface of which, here and there, smaller heights are scattered here and there in garlands and singly. From west to east-northeast, the Smolensk-Moscow, Valdai Uplands and Northern Uvaly stretch here, replacing each other. They are mainly used for watersheds between the Arctic, Atlantic and internal (closed-drainage Aral-Caspian) basins. From the Northern Uvaly, the territory drops to the White and Barents Seas. This part of the Russian Plain A.A. Borzov called the northern slope. Large rivers flow along it - Onega, Northern Dvina, Pechora with numerous high-water tributaries.
The southern part of the East European Plain is occupied by lowlands, of which only the Caspian region is located on the territory of Russia.
Figure 1 - Geological profiles across the Russian Plain
The East European Plain has a typical platform relief, which is predetermined by the tectonic features of the platform: the heterogeneity of its structure (the presence of deep faults, ring structures, aulacogens, anteclises, syneclises and other smaller structures) with unequal manifestation of the latest tectonic movements.
Almost all large uplands and lowlands of the plain are of tectonic origin, with a significant part inherited from the structure of the crystalline basement. In the course of a long and complex path of development, they formed as a single territory in the morphostructural, orographic and genetic relation.
At the base of the East European Plain lies the Russian plate with a Precambrian crystalline basement and in the south the northern edge of the Scythian plate with a Paleozoic folded basement. The boundary between the slabs is not expressed in the relief. On the uneven surface of the Precambrian basement of the Russian plate, there are strata of Precambrian (Vendian, in places Riphean) and Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks with slightly disturbed bedding. Their thickness is not the same and is due to the unevenness of the basement relief (Fig. 1), which determines the main geostructures of the plate. These include syneclises - areas of deep bedding of the basement (Moscow, Pechora, Caspian, Glazovskaya), anteclises - areas of shallow bedding of the basement (Voronezh, Volgo-Ural), aulacogenes - deep tectonic ditches, in the place of which syneclises subsequently appeared (Krestovsky, Soligchtsovsky Moskovsky and others), protrusions of the Baikal basement - Timan.
The Moscow syneclise is one of the most ancient and complex internal structures of the Russian plate with a deep crystalline basement. It is based on the Central Russian and Moscow aulacogens filled with thick Riphean strata, above which the sedimentary cover of the Vendian and Phanerozoic (from the Cambrian to the Cretaceous) lies. In the Neogene-Quaternary, it experienced uneven uplifts and is expressed in relief by rather large uplands - Valdai, Smolensk-Moscow and lowlands - Upper Volga, North Dvina.
The Pechora syneclise is located wedge-shaped in the northeast of the Russian plate, between the Timan ridge and the Urals. Its uneven block foundation is lowered to various depths - up to 5000-6000 m in the east. The syneclise is filled with a thick stratum of Paleozoic rocks, overlain by Meso-Cenozoic deposits. In its northeastern part there is the Usinsky (Bolshezemelsky) vault.
In the center of the Russian Plate, there are two large anteclises - the Voronezh and Volga-Ural, separated by the Pachelm aulacogen. Voronezh anteclise gently descends to the north into the Moscow syneclise. The surface of its basement is covered with thin Ordovician, Devonian and Carboniferous deposits. Carboniferous, Cretaceous and Paleogene rocks occur on the southern steep slope. The Volga-Ural anteclise consists of large uplifts (arches) and depressions (aulacogens), on the slopes of which flexures are located. The thickness of the sedimentary cover here is at least 800 m within the highest vaults (Tokmovsky).
The Caspian marginal syneclise is a vast area of \u200b\u200bdeep (up to 18-20 km) subsidence of the crystalline basement and belongs to structures of ancient origin, almost from all sides of the syneclise it is bounded by flexures and faults and has angular outlines. From the west it is framed by the Ergeninskaya and Volgograd flexures, from the north - by the Obshchy Syrt flexures. In places they are complicated by young faults. In the Neogene-Quaternary, further subsidence (up to 500 m) and the accumulation of a thick layer of marine and continental sediments took place. These processes are combined with fluctuations in the level of the Caspian.
The southern part of the East European Plain is located on the Scythian Epigercyn Plate, which lies between the southern edge of the Russian Plate and the Alpine folded structures of the Caucasus.
The tectonic movements of the Urals and the Caucasus have led to some disruption in the occurrence of sedimentary plate deposits. This is expressed in the form of dome-shaped uplifts, significant in length swells (Oksko-Tsniksky, Zhigulevsky, Vyatsky, etc.), individual flexural bends of layers, salt domes, which are clearly traced in the modern relief. Ancient and young deep faults, as well as ring structures, determined the block structure of the plates, the direction of river valleys, and the activity of neotectonic movements. The predominant direction of the faults is northwest.
A brief description of the tectonics of the East European Plain and a comparison of the tectonic map with the hypsometric and neotectonic maps allow us to conclude that the modern relief, which has undergone a long and complex history, is in most cases inherited and dependent on the nature of the ancient structure and manifestations of neotectonic movements.
Neotectonic movements in the East European Plain manifested themselves with varying intensity and direction: in most of the territory they are expressed by weak and moderate uplifts, weak mobility, and the Caspian and Pechora lowlands experience weak subsidence.
The development of the morphostructure of the north-west of the plain is associated with the movements of the marginal part of the Baltic shield and the Moscow syneclise; therefore, monoclinal (inclined) sheet plains are developed here, expressed in orography in the form of uplands (Valdai, Smolensk-Moscow, Belorusskaya, Severnye Uvaly, etc.), and stratal plains occupying a lower position (Verkhnevolzhskaya, Meshcherskaya). The central part of the Russian Plain was influenced by the intense uplifts of the Voronezh and Volga-Ural anteclises, as well as the subsidence of neighboring aulacogens and troughs. These processes contributed to the formation of stratal-tiered, stepped uplands (Central Russian and Privolzhskaya) and stratal Oka-Don plain. The eastern part developed in connection with the movements of the Urals and the edge of the Russian plate; therefore, mosaic morphostructures are observed here. In the north and south, accumulative lowlands of the marginal syneclises of the plate (Pechora and Caspian) are developed. Between them there are alternate layer-layer uplands (Bugulma-Belebeevskaya, General Syrt), monoclinal-layer uplands (Verkhnekamskaya) and the intra-platform folded Timan ridge.
In the Quaternary, the cooling of the climate in the northern hemisphere contributed to the spread of ice sheets. Glaciers had a significant impact on the formation of relief, Quaternary sediments, permafrost, as well as on changes in natural zones - their position, floristic composition, fauna and migration of plants and animals within the East European Plain.
Three glaciations are distinguished on the East European Plain: Okskoe, Dnieper with the Moscow stage, and Valdai. Glaciers and fluvioglacial waters created two types of plains - moraine and outwash. Permafrost processes prevailed in the wide periglacial (preglacial) belt for a long time. Snowfields had an especially intense effect on the relief during the period of reduced glaciation.
The moraine of the most ancient glaciation, the Oka, was studied on the Oka, 80 km south of Kaluga. The lower, heavily washed-out Oka moraine with Karelian crystalline boulders is separated from the overlying Dnieper moraine by typical interglacial deposits. In a number of other sections to the north of this section, under the Dnieper moraine, the Oka moraine was also found.
Obviously, the moraine relief that arose in the Oka glacial epoch has not survived to our time, since it was first washed out by the waters of the Dnieper (Middle Pleistocene) glacier, and then it was covered by its bottom moraine.
The southern border of the maximum distribution of the Dnieper ice sheet crossed the Central Russian Upland in the Tula region, then descended with the tongue along the Don valley - to the mouth of the Khopr and Medveditsa, crossed the Volga Upland, then the Volga near the mouth of the Sura River, then went to the upper reaches of the Vyatka and Kama and crossed the Ural to area 60 ° N In the basin of the Upper Volga (in Chukhloma and Galich), as well as in the basin of the Upper Dnieper above the Dnieper moraine, the upper moraine occurs, which is attributed to the Moscow stage of the Dnieper glaciation *.
Before the last Valdai glaciation in the interglacial epoch, the vegetation of the middle zone of the East European Plain had a more thermophilic composition than the modern one. This testifies to the complete disappearance of its glaciers in the north. In the interglacial epoch, peat bogs with Brazen flora were deposited in lacustrine depressions that arose in depressions of the moraine relief.
In the north of the East European Plain, the boreal ingression arose during this era, the level of which was 70-80 m above the present-day sea level. The sea penetrated along the river valleys of the Northern Dvina, Mezen, Pechora, creating wide branching bays. Then came the Valdai glaciation. The edge of the Valdai ice sheet was located 60 km north of Minsk and went to the northeast, reaching Nyandoma.
In the climate of the more southern regions, due to glaciation, changes have occurred. At this time, in the more southern regions of the East European Plain, remnants of seasonal snow cover and snowfields contributed to the intensive development of nivation, solifluction, and the formation of asymmetric slopes in erosional landforms (ravines, gullies, etc.).
Thus, if ice existed within the distribution of the Valdai glaciation, then in the periglacial zone a nival relief and sediments (boulderless loams) were formed. The off-glacial, southern parts of the plain are overlain by thick strata of loess and loess-like loams, synchronous with the ice ages. At that time, in connection with the humidification of the climate, which caused glaciation, and also, possibly, with neotectonic movements in the basin of the Caspian Sea, marine transgressions took place.
Natural processes of the Neogene-Quaternary time and modern climatic conditions on the territory of the East European Plain have determined various types of morphosculptures, which are zonal in their distribution: on the coast of the seas of the Arctic Ocean, sea and moraine plains with cryogenic relief forms are widespread. To the south lie moraine plains, transformed at various stages by erosion and periglacial processes. Along the southern periphery of the Moscow glaciation, a strip of outwash plains is observed, interrupted by remnant elevated plains covered with loess-like loams, dissected by ravines and gullies. To the south, there is a strip of fluvial ancient and modern landforms on highlands and lowlands. On the coast of the Azov and Caspian Seas, there are Neogene-Quaternary plains with erosional, depression-subsidence and aeolian relief.
The long geological history of the largest geostructure - the ancient platform - predetermined the accumulation of various minerals on the East European Plain. The basement of the platform contains the richest deposits of iron ores (Kursk magnetic anomaly). The sedimentary cover of the platform is associated with deposits of coal (the eastern part of the Donbass, the Moscow basin), oil and gas in the Paleozoic and Mesozoic deposits (the Ural-Volga basin), and oil shale (near Syzran). Building materials (songs, gravel, clay, limestone) are widespread. Brown iron ore (near Lipetsk), bauxite (near Tikhvin), phosphorites (in a number of areas), and salts (Caspian region) are also associated with the sedimentary cover.
In the West - . From the east the plain is bordered by mountains.
Large tectonic structures - the Russian and Scythian plates - lie at the base of the plain. In most of the territory, their basement is deeply submerged under thick sedimentary strata of various ages, lying horizontally. Therefore, flat relief prevails on the platforms. In some places, the foundation of the platform is raised. There are large hills in these areas. Within is the Dnieper Upland. The Baltic shield corresponds to relatively elevated plains and, as well as low mountains. The raised foundation of the Voronezh anticlise serves as the core. The same rise of the foundation is located at the base of the heights of the High Trans-Volga region. A special case is the Volga Upland, where the foundation lies at great depths. Here, during the entire Mesozoic and Paleogene, there was a subsidence, the accumulation of thick strata of sedimentary rocks. Then, during the Neogene and Quaternary time, this area of \u200b\u200bthe earth's crust rose, which led to the formation of the Volga Upland.
A number of large uplands formed as a result of repeated Quaternary glaciations, accumulation of material - moraine loams and sands. These are the Valdai, Smolensko-Moscow, Klinsko-Dmitrovskaya, Northern Uvaly uplands.
Between the large hills there are lowlands, in which the valleys of large rivers - the Dnieper, Don, were laid.
To the north such abounding, but relatively short rivers such as Onega carry their water, to the west - the Neva and Neman.
The upper reaches and channels of many rivers are often located close to each other, which, in a lowland environment, contributes to their connection by canals. These are channels to them. Moscow, Volga-, Volgo-Don, White Sea-Baltic. Thanks to the canals, ships from Moscow can sail along the rivers and lakes, Black, Baltic and seas. Therefore, Moscow is called the port of the five seas.
In winter, all the rivers of the East European Plain freeze over. In the spring, when the snow melts, most of the floods occur. Numerous reservoirs and hydroelectric power plants have been built on the rivers to retain and use spring water. The Volga and the Dnieper have turned into a cascade used both for generating electricity and for shipping, irrigation of lands, water supply to cities, etc.
A characteristic feature of the East European Plain is a bright manifestation of latitudinal. It is expressed more fully and clearly than on other plains of the world. It is no coincidence that the law of zoning, formulated by a famous Russian scientist, was primarily based on his study of this particular territory.
The flatness of the territory, an abundance of minerals, a relatively mild climate, sufficient rainfall, a variety of natural, favorable for various industries - all this contributed to the intensive economic development of the East European Plain. In economic terms, it is the most important part of Russia. More than 50% of the country's population lives on it and two thirds of the total number of cities and workers' settlements are located. The plain is home to the densest network of highways and railways. Most of them - Volga, Dnieper, Don, Dniester, Western Dvina, Kama - are regulated and transformed into a cascade of reservoirs. In vast areas, forests have been cleared and landscapes have become a combination of forests and fields. Many forests are now secondary forests, where coniferous and broad-leaved species have been replaced by small-leaved ones - birch, aspen. Half of the country's arable land is located on the territory of the East European Plain, about 40% of hayfields, 12% of pastures. Of all the large parts, the East European Plain is the most developed and changed by human activity.
