Learning as a process of cognitive activity. Teaching is the activity of students Teaching as a cognitive activity of a student structure of teaching

Learning as the relationship of teaching and learning, as cooperation and co-creation of teacher and students

Learning as a type of human cognitive activity

Learning as a process of gradual formation of mental actions of a younger student

Learning as communication of children with the teacher and with each other

The dependence of learning on the higher nervous activity of younger schoolchildren

Learning principles and their implementation in primary school

Sensory cognition management of primary schoolchildren as a pedagogical regularity

Educational function of primary education

The educational function of primary education

Developmental function of primary education

Teaching Methods in the Modern Primary School

Forms of organizing education at school

Structural components of a lesson in primary school

The educational, upbringing and developmental value of testing and assessing the knowledge of primary schoolchildren

Modern requirements for the training of primary school teachers

Motives of teaching

Innovation in the educational process

Classification of teaching methods

Modern technologies in teaching elementary schoolchildren

Modern lesson

Independent work of students

Teaching aids for primary schoolchildren

Subject and tasks of didactics

Curriculum and training programs

1. Learning as the relationship of teaching and learning, as cooperation and co-creation of teacher and students.

Cooperation between a teacher and a student can be characterized as a joint activity in the course of the educational process aimed at assimilating knowledge, skills of students and increasing their motivation to learn.

At the same time, self-government, equality and equality of personal positions of all participants in the pedagogical process should be cultivated in the activities and communication of children and teachers.

For different age groups of students, cooperation must take different forms. For example, for preschool children and primary school students, cooperation is expressed in the playful nature of learning, when play tasks and exercises smoothly turn into educational ones. In high school, emphasis is placed on motivating learning as the first link in career growth and well-being. At the same time, for the first time, a teenager begins to seek artistic and scientific knowledge on his own. There is a need not only for cooperation, but also for the co-creation of the teacher and students.

Psychologists and didactics explain the successful assimilation of knowledge by students by the ability of teachers not only to use in teaching the psychological and didactic patterns of the process of forming concepts, but also to establish psychological contact with the children's collective, to find the key to the soul of every child. Success depends on the atmosphere that prevails in the classroom, where it is based on benevolence, wise simplicity, mutual understanding and interest, leading to cooperation and co-creation.

The teacher's mission is to arouse curiosity, amateur performance and self-education. In these conditions, effective knowledge is formed and personal development occurs: moral, intellectual, emotional, volitional.

A personal approach in the field of teacher-student relations is a benevolent and respectful attitude towards the student's personality. The main tool of the personal approach is the ability to inspire the child that he is the one and only one among the other one and only.

The teacher works in a team of students, called a group or class, he is replaced as a teacher by the formation of this class (group) as an aggregate subject, whose learning efforts should also be aimed at achieving a common goal.

2. Education as a form of human cognitive activity.

In modern preschool pedagogy, teaching is characterized as a type of human cognitive activity. Teaching preschool children is a systematic, purposeful, systematic process that ensures the transfer in an accessible form of knowledge, skills and abilities provided for by the program for the upbringing and education of children in a preschool educational institution, as well as the development of cognitive abilities, curiosity and cognitive activity. Education is a cognitive activity of children specially organized by adults, which determines its goals, objectives, content, forms and methods, selects teaching aids, didactic material.

Specially organized training is necessary for a preschooler to streamline the impressions that the child receives from the world around him spontaneously and haphazardly. In the process of purposeful learning, the intellectual development of children takes place.

Education in kindergarten differs from school: knowledge is given in an accessible form; training takes place in a variety of forms (classes, excursions, didactic staging games); the assimilation of educational material occurs through active actions and practical manipulations with objects, in a variety of activities (games, drawing, construction in an entertaining and interesting form); teaching of preschool children is oral, i.e. pre-book. Education is important in preparing children for school (the foundations of educational activities are formed in children); the leading role in teaching belongs to the educator.

When organizing specially organized training, the teacher is guided in his work by didactic principles: systematic and consistent, the availability of knowledge transfer, visibility, activity, individual approach, emotionality.

Teaching preschoolers is focused primarily on the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities, often acting as an end in itself. Based on this, the entire educational process at a preschool educational institution is often aimed at the formation of a certain circle of knowledge that a child needs at school, and not at the development of cognitive processes.

One of the problems of teaching preschoolers is the penetration of school uniforms and methods of work into kindergarten: subject classes on a schedule, a static posture of an "exemplary" student; poll at the blackboard; undivided teaching initiative.

Question number 3. The theory of the phased formation of mental actions by Pyotr Yakovlevich Halperin

P.Ya. Halperin identified six stages in the formation of mental actions: 1) the formation of a motivational basis for action; 2) drawing up a diagram of an indicative basis of action; 3) the formation of actions in a materialized form; 4) loud external speech, when the content of the OOD is reflected in speech; 5) the formation of action in "external speech to oneself"; 6) the formation of action in internal speech.

1st stage - motivational. There is a preliminary acquaintance of students with the purpose of learning, the creation of "internal", or cognitive, motivation. Problem situations can be used to create cognitive motivation (N.F. Talyzina).

2nd stage - drawing up a scheme of the indicative basis of action (OOD, see above). The student understands the content of the assimilated action: in the properties of the object, as a result-sample, in the composition and procedure of executive operations.

3rd stage - the formation of an action in a material or materialized form. The action is performed as external, practical, with real objects (material form of action), for example, shifting any objects when counting. The action is performed with the transformed material: models, diagrams, diagrams, drawings, etc. (materialized form), for example, counting on sticks. In this case, all operations of the action are realized, and their slow execution allows you to see and understand the content of both operations and the entire action as a whole. A prerequisite for this stage is the combination of the material form of action with speech, which makes it possible to separate the assimilated action from those objects or their substitutes with the help of which it is performed.

When the action begins to flow smoothly, unmistakably and more quickly, the orientation card and material supports are removed.

4th stage - formation of action in loud speech. The student, deprived of the material support of action, analyzes the material in the plan in a loud socialized speech addressed to another person. This is both a speech action and a message about this action. The speech action should be detailed, the message - understandable to another person who controls the learning process. At this stage, a "leap" occurs - a transition from an external action to a thought about this action. The mastered action undergoes further generalization, but remains unabridged, non-automated.

Question number 4 Learning as communication of children with the teacher and with each other.

One of the most important qualities of a teacher is his ability to organize interaction with children, communicate with them and manage their activities.

Communication, cooperation of a child with an adult and peers is a necessary condition for child development.

The most important feature of modern education is its focus on preparing students not only to adapt, but also to actively master situations of social change. The main aspect of a student-centered lesson is the choice of the communication style that is optimal for this lesson, the organization of educational cooperation.

A teacher is one who teaches learning himself, teaches not so much to act as to plan, and to justify future action and look for ways to implement it. Students master these methods of discovering new knowledge when children and adults do tasks together.

Before teaching children various forms of educational cooperation, the teacher must himself perfectly master the method of conducting intra-class discussion.

The most common styles of pedagogical communication have been established. Perhaps the most fruitful is communication based on passion for joint creative activity. This style is based on the unity of the teacher's high professionalism and his ethical attitudes.

The style of pedagogical communication based on friendly disposition is also quite productive. This style of communication can be viewed as a prerequisite for successful joint teaching and educational activities. To a certain extent, he prepares, as it were, the style of communication highlighted above. After all, a friendly disposition is the most important regulator of communication in general, and especially of business pedagogical communication.

The teacher must be tolerant of the wrong actions, opinions, beliefs of children, be able to persuade and patiently explain their mistakes to them.

Pupils appreciate the teacher's benevolence, honesty, adherence to principles, responsibility, efficiency. But most of all they value humanity in him. The teacher should remain an older friend for the students, the need for which is great for them. And the teacher should not put on the mask of dispassion and indifference. The teacher sometimes raises his voice to the student, insulting his dignity, humiliating him. The resulting pedagogical effect - obedience, discipline - in his eyes justifies this means. The teacher is obliged to treat each student as a person. Disrespect for the personality of a student can lead to the most unexpected consequences. The measure of the teacher's exactingness towards the student is a kind of measure of respect for him. The exactingness of a teacher should be the benevolent demands of a friend who is interested in the fate of the student. Demandingness should be realistic, doable, understandable to students.

A special aspect of pedagogical cooperation is the cooperation of the children themselves in a team. “Cooperating” or communicating with their peers, children learn to speak, express their opinions, think and clearly form their thoughts, evaluate events, draw conclusions and generalizations. Communication with classmates gives children moral values. The child goes to school to study sciences and learn to cooperate, that is, to live in harmony and interaction with other children.

Another mechanism of genuine contact of the interacting parties is mental assistance, doubt, which is the involvement of two parties in identical active activities aimed at solving problems or certain intellectual tasks. Cooperation between a teacher and a student is both a joint activity and an organizational system of activity of the subjects of interaction. which are characterized by:

1) spatial and temporal co-presence,

2) unity of purpose,

3) organization and management of activities,

4) separation of functions, actions, operations,

5) the presence of positive interpersonal relationships.

schemes of a productive situation of cooperation between teachers and students of V.P. Panyushkin developed the dynamics of the formation of their joint activities. The two phases of this process involve six forms of learning collaboration that are constantly changing as student activities change.

The first phase is the process of engaging in action. It consists of the following forms:

1) the division of activities between the teacher and the students,

2) the actions of students related to imitation,

3) the actions of students related to imitation.

The second phase of the dynamics of joint activity is the coordination of the activities of the students with the teacher. This phase includes the following forms:

4) the actions of students in which independent regulation dominates,

5) the actions of students in which self-organization dominates,

6) actions to which students are encouraged without external interference.

The third phase is also predicted. This is how V. Panyushkin writes about partnership in the course of improving participation in action. The development and strengthening of this model of interaction between the teacher and students contributes to equality.

Co-creation today, at the current level of development of teaching technology, is, on the one hand, effective and fruitful communication between a teacher and a student.

On the other hand, the co-creation of a teacher and a student is the creation of a new pedagogical reality, which has such characteristics as a multilingual and multicultural character.

5th stage - the formation of action in external speech "to oneself". The student uses the same verbal form of action as in the previous stage, but without pronunciation (even in a whisper). Here, operational control is possible: the teacher can specify the sequence of operations performed or the result of a separate operation. The stage ends when fast and correct execution of each operation and the whole action is achieved.

6th stage - the formation of action in inner speech.

The student, solving the problem, communicates only the final answer. The action becomes abbreviated and easily automated. But this automated action, performed at the fastest possible speed for the student, remains error-free (if errors appear, you must return to one of the previous stages). At the last, sixth, stage, mental action is formed, the "phenomenon of pure thought" appears.

Comparing the gradual formation of mental actions with the spontaneous learning of a child (the first type of learning), it should be noted, first of all, the advantages in the sustainability of the achieved positive results. Spontaneous learning is an unregulated process that is influenced by many factors, both external and internal, so the final product turns out to be unstable (sometimes successful, sometimes not), and the student himself is not always sure of the correctness of the result. The second type of education, which is most characteristic of the school (what is usually called traditional education), leads to different learning success of different children, that is, to different levels of academic performance. Using the method of formation of mental actions allows you to "level" academic performance, to achieve consistently successful solutions by different children of a certain class of problems. This method is used in the curriculum developed for the secondary school by D.B. Elkonin and V.V. Davydov.

The value of P.Ya. Halperin is that she instructs the teacher how to build learning in order to effectively form knowledge and actions with the help of the main didactic tool - an orientation basis.

The subject of cognitive activity is often the educator, but not the child. Learning activities are imposed on adults, very often they are organized in a form that is not interesting for the child. Classes with direct learning are a surrogate that suppresses the initiative and activity of the child, which has neither meaning, nor interest, nor developmental value for the child. Strict regulation of the place, order and course of classes creates psychological difficulties for the implementation of program tasks.

Another problem of teaching preschoolers is the large number of classes and the introduction of additional educational services, which often create over-organization of children, turning the kindergarten into the status of a tutor link between preschool and school education. Excessive activities have a negative impact on the health of preschoolers.

New approaches in teaching preschoolers are based on the following principles:

The principle of variability of models of cognitive activity, which provides for the variability of the content, forms and methods of organizing the educational and cognitive activity of children;

The principle of the development of self-valuable forms of activity, according to which the child has the opportunity to learn about the world through the types of activities that are most attractive to him (drawing, construction, reading with an adult, role play, etc.) The task of an adult is to organize a developing environment for this activity;

The principle of common psychological space, which takes into account that each person has their own psychological space. It includes the range of his preferences, aspirations, desires, interests, self-valuable activities. In the organization of educational and cognitive activities, it is fundamentally important that the psychological spaces of the child and the teacher coincide, so that the child does not solve the problems of an adult ("You must know and be able to do this"), so that these tasks are common and carried out by the child and the teacher together;

The principle of game cognition, which was previously interpreted as the principle of game learning. This is not a game in a class, but an entire activity in a game, a game of thought in various activities.

Question number 5The dependence of learning on the higher nervous activity of younger schoolchildren

Higher nervous activity is the higher mental functions (speech, memory, will ...) that are provided by certain brain structures and certain mechanisms.

The founder of the doctrine is Ivan Pavlovich Pavlov.

A type of nervous system is a set of nervous processes that are genetically determined and acquired during life.

The concept "type of nervous system" includes 3 properties of nervous processes:

The strength of the nervous processes; - the ability to develop an adequate response to a strong and superstrong stimulus

Balance of nervous processes; - balance of processes of excitation and inhibition

The mobility of nervous processes. the ability to quickly change the processes of excitation and inhibition

Depending on the ratio of these processes, the types of higher nervous activity (according to Pavlov) are formed, namely, strong, weak types of GNI.

The types of GNIs correspond to a person's temperament.

A strong type of nervous system is represented by a quantitative temperament (choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic). Weak - melancholic.

The sanguine type is characterized by sufficient strength and mobility of excitatory and inhibitory processes (strong, balanced, mobile).

The phlegmatic type is distinguished by the sufficient strength of both nervous processes with relatively low indicators of their mobility, lability (strong, balanced, inert).

The choleric type is characterized by a high strength of the excitatory process with a clear predominance of it over the inhibitory and increased mobility, lability of the main nervous processes (strong, unbalanced, unrestrained).

The melancholic type is characterized by a clear predominance of the inhibitory process over the excitatory process and their low mobility (weak, unbalanced, inert).

Question number 6Learning principles and their implementation

These are the conditions on the basis of which the teaching activity of the teacher and the cognitive activity of the student are built;

These are the main provisions that determine the content, organizational forms and methods of the educational process in accordance with its general goals and patterns. Teaching principles describe how laws and patterns are used in accordance with intended goals.

The basis for identifying the system of principles is based on the personality-activity and management approaches.

1.Scientific learning teaching is based on formal scientific concepts and the use of scientific methods of cognition; requires that the content of education acquaints students with objective scientific facts, theories, laws, and reflects the current state of science. This principle is embodied in curricula and textbooks, in the selection of the material studied, as well as in the fact that schoolchildren are taught elements of scientific research, methods of science, methods of scientific organization of educational work.

2.Systematic : presupposes teaching and assimilation of knowledge in a certain order, system. It requires a logical construction of both the content and the learning process, which is expressed in the observance of a number of rules. The teacher is required to consistently present the material so that the student can imagine real relationships, connections between objects, phenomena.

The requirement of systematicity and consistency in teaching is aimed at preserving the continuity of teaching, in which each lesson is a logical continuation of the previous one, both in terms of the content of the learning material being studied, and in terms of the nature, methods of educational and cognitive activities performed by students.

3.Availability : requires taking into account the individual characteristics of students' development, analyzing the material from the point of view of their real capabilities and organizing training in such a way that they do not experience intellectual, moral, physical overload, otherwise the material will not be assimilated.

Learning as a type of human cognitive activity

Learning is one of the types of knowledge of the surrounding world. Learning as a type of cognitive activity is the initial, most essential feature on which the characteristics of all educational activity depend. Teaching is based on general laws of cognition.

Cognition of a person goes through a number of stages. First, sensory cognition, which leads to a variety of ideas about the natural and social phenomena, events, and objects surrounding the child.

The second stage is abstract cognition, mastering a system of concepts. The student's cognitive activity becomes one-sided. He studies certain aspects of the surrounding world through the content of academic subjects. If, with concrete, sensory cognition, a figurative picture arises in the child's mind, for example, of a forest and its inhabitants, babbling streams, fluttering butterflies, then abstract cognition leads to concepts, rules, theorems, and proofs. Numbers, definitions, formulas arise in the mind. The younger student is at the stage of transition of knowledge from the concrete to the abstract. He begins to master the conceptual forms of thinking.

The concrete and the abstract in the cognitive activity of students act as contradictory forces and create various tendencies in mental development. The teacher needs to know the mechanisms of occurrence and resolution of contradictions in order to skillfully manage the learning process.

There is the highest stage of cognition, when, on the basis of abstract highly developed thinking, a generalized idea of the world around is formed, leading to the formation of views, beliefs, and worldview. Training significantly accelerates the pace of individual psychological development of the student. The student in a short period of time learns what in the history of mankind has been learned over the centuries.

When considering the structure of the learning process, it is necessary to identify its structure, main components and connections between them. Learning is a two-way human activity. It necessarily presupposes the interaction of the teacher and the trainees, taking place under certain conditions. At the first, broadest consideration, the learning process consists of two interrelated processes - teaching and learning.

Learning is impossible without the simultaneous activity of the teacher and the trainees, without didactic interaction. No matter how actively the teacher strives to transfer knowledge, if at the same time there is no vigorous activity of the students themselves to assimilate knowledge, if the teacher did not create motivation and ensure the organization of such activity, the learning process does not actually proceed, and the didactic influence does not really function. Therefore, in the learning process, there is not just the impact of the teacher on the student, but their interaction.

The interaction of teachers and students can take place both in a direct and in an indirect form. In direct interaction, the teacher and the trainees jointly implement the learning objectives. In indirect interaction, students perform tasks and instructions given by the teacher earlier. The teaching process necessarily presupposes an active learning process.

Skillful communication greatly enhances the educational process of education. If teachers concentrate on managing only educational activities, but do not provide the correct style of communication, then the result of the influences may be insufficient. Efforts will also be ineffective when favorable communication is provided, but educational activities are not organized. That is why, when revealing the essence of teaching, one must see the unity of knowledge and communication.

Education, upbringing and personal development are carried out not only in the process of education and upbringing, but also under the influence of the environment, the media, socially useful labor, sports, games and other extra-curricular activities. Specially organized training should take into account and use these social factors and conditions as much as possible, since their influence is becoming wider, more versatile, effective and often spontaneous.

Teaching as a kind of cognitive activity is aimed at assimilating and appropriating the social and historical experience of mankind. The main teaching tool is learning activity. It has the same structure and the same elements as the structure of general activities.
According to the philosopher E. G. Yudin, it includes a goal, a means, a result and the very process of activity2. Some other philosophers (B. A. Grushin, M. S. Kagan, E. S. Markaryan, L. Nikolov and others), engaged in the theoretical study of issues of activity, hold a different opinion. In particular, the process of activity, believes Lyuben Nikolov, is also a means of achieving the goal and on this basis this process is not distinguished as an independent structural component. In this case, we are not dealing with the very important question of purpose. We will also not go into a controversy about whether the process of activity is its independent component or whether it is included in the concept of "means" - we will leave this dispute to philosophers. It is important for pedagogy and teachers to note that there is a process of activity in general, and therefore an educational process. The structure of activity was also of interest to such prominent psychologists as A. N. Leontiev,
P.Ya. Galperin, D.N. Uznadze, N.F. Talyzin. The active approach to the issue of personality development, developed by them, formed the basis of a whole trend in world psychology.
Of undoubted interest are the arguments of the teacher V.P. Bespalko on the “stages of activity” (1977). True, in monographs published later, the author calls them not stages, but actions, and the sequence of “stages” - “actions” (1989) is preserved. These steps are the following:
- indicative actions (OD): rules and methods of activity are selected according to the goals set; comprehending the conditions of the task, remembering and choosing a method of action, instrument, etc .;
- performing actions (ID): an object or situation is transformed and the result set by the goal is achieved; this is a stage representing the actual execution of operations that ensure the solution of the problem, the implementation of activities;
- control actions (Cd): the result of the action is compared with the standard and the goal;
- corrective actions (Cor): analytical analysis of the results of control on the end of the activity or on the return to one of its stages - Od or Id.
The structure of activity in general and teaching and educational activity (Dt) in particular can be symbolically depicted in the form of the formula:
Dt = Od + Id + Kd + Cor1.
It is necessary to decipher the "means" element. It includes an object that is transformed in the process of activity. In turn, this process consists of four consecutive actions, which give the result. It is interesting to note that "means" have a subordinate relation to the goal and result of activity, and at the same time, neither the goal nor the result is realizable without means (L. Nikolov).
From this structure of activity, we single out the stage of control actions, without which no conscious, let alone educational (i.e., pedagogical) activity is inconceivable.
We already talked about control functions in the previous topic. Now control will be considered as an element of pedagogical technology in the didactic aspect. Its feedback and diagnostic functions are specific here. Control in the feedback function is a necessary component in the algorithmization of learning or where there are algorithms for solving pedagogical problems. In particular, in programmed, modular and modular-rating training, control is included in each step of training. In principle, learning here is impossible without supervision.
The diagnostic function of control is associated with the establishment of the current level and state of knowledge, skills and abilities of students, the degree of success in mastering the program teaching material, as well as identifying the reasons that determine the success or failure of students in educational activities.

Today, global educational trends are: taking into account the inner potential of the student, developing his individuality and focus on the active mastering by the student of not only knowledge, skills and abilities, but also ways of cognitive activity. Many teachers and psychologists spoke about the importance of mastering the methods of cognition by students: V.A. Belikov, A.K. Gromtseva. E.N. Kabanova-Meller, N.F. Talyzina, A.V. Usova and others V.A. Sukhomlinsky, wrote: “... the student still does not have skills that represent a tool for mastering knowledge, and the teacher presents him with more and more new knowledge: assimilate, do not yawn. Such a student is the same as a person without teeth: he has to swallow unchewed pieces, he first feels unwell, and then gets sick ... ”. Cognitive activity is understood as a system of active interaction of a subject with an object of cognition (nature, society, oneself, a system of cultural values, experience of cognition and activity), conditioned by the psychological characteristics of the subject's individuality, his personal properties and a system of preferences.

Cognitive activity- this is an active study of the surrounding reality by a person, in the process of which the individual acquires knowledge, learns the laws of existence of the surrounding world and learns not only to interact with it, but also to purposefully influence it.

Cognitive activity is the unity of sensory perception, theoretical thinking and practical activity. It is carried out at every step of life, in all types of activities and social relationships of students (productive and socially useful work, value-orientational and artistic-aesthetic activities, communication), as well as by performing various subject-practical actions in the educational process (experimentation, design , solving research problems, etc.). But it is only in the process of learning that cognition acquires a clear form in a special, inherent only to a person, educational and cognitive activity or teaching.

Cognitive activity is impossible without the emergence of cognitive motives, because they induce a person to activity. Cognitive motives - the motives of learning, due to the content or the process of learning itself.

For the implementation of cognitive activity, the course of cognitive processes is necessary.

Cognitive processes are mental phenomena, in their totality, directly providing knowledge as a process and result. These include: sensation, perception, attention, representation, imagination, memory, thinking, speech.

The basis of cognitive activity is cognition, because cognition is a mental reflection that ensures the acquisition and assimilation of knowledge. A person has one of the three attributes of consciousness, together with experience and reflection. Cognition is carried out through cognitive mental processes: sensation, perception, attention, representation, imagination, memory, thinking, speech. The goal of cognition is to achieve objective truth. The starting point of cognition is sensation, perception and representation, that is, living, direct contemplation of objects, phenomena of the real world. The task of cognition is to identify the general, the essential. This is achieved at the second stage of cognition, when thinking appears on the basis of a person's practical activity. By distracting the general and essential from the data obtained with the help of the senses, a person, with the help of judgments, inferences and concepts, learns the laws of the world around him. Both levels of cognition - sensual and logical - are in unity, pass into each other, complementing each other. The process of cognition includes such forms of mental activity as foresight, imagination, intuition, which, on the basis of the accumulated and production activity of knowledge, make it possible to predict the further development of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.

Cognition is socially and culturally mediated, presupposes a pronounced awareness of the means and methods of cognitive activity used.

Forms of cognition:

2. objectified cognition can be carried out collectively, in special ways of interindividual communication.

There is knowledge:

1.the commonplace

Ordinary knowledge.

The desire to study objects of the real world and, on this basis, to foresee the results of its practical transformation is characteristic not only of science, but also of everyday knowledge, which is woven into practice and develops on its basis. In everyday cognition, some types of knowledge about reality appear, in general, similar to those that characterize science.

Embryonic forms of scientific knowledge arose in the depths and on the basis of these types of everyday knowledge, and then branched off from it (the science of the era of the first urban civilizations of antiquity).

The ability of spontaneous empirical knowledge to generate objective and objective knowledge about the world raises the question of the difference between it and scientific research. It is convenient to consider the signs that distinguish science from ordinary cognition according to the categorical scheme in which the structure of activity is characterized (tracing the difference between science and ordinary cognition by subject, means, product, methods and subject of activity).

First, everyday language is adapted to describe and foresee objects that are woven into the actual practice of a person; secondly, the concepts of everyday language are fuzzy and ambiguous, their exact meaning is most often found only in the context of linguistic communication controlled by everyday experience.

Finally, the desire of science to study objects relatively independently of their development in the existing forms of production and everyday experience presupposes specific characteristics of the subject of scientific activity. Studying science requires a special preparation of the cognizing subject, during which he masters the historically established means of scientific research, learns the techniques and methods of operating with these means. For everyday knowledge, such training is not necessary, or rather, it is carried out automatically, in the process of socialization of the individual, when his thinking is formed and develops in the process of communication with culture and the inclusion of the individual in various spheres of activity.

In everyday life, people exchange a variety of knowledge, share their everyday experience, but links to the author of this experience in most situations are simply impossible, because this experience is anonymous and is often broadcast in culture for centuries.

2.mythological

Mythological knowledge is characteristic of primitive culture. Such knowledge acts as a holistic pre-theoretical explanation of reality with the help of sensually visual images of supernatural beings, legendary heroes, who for the carrier of mythological knowledge appear as real participants in his daily life. Mythological knowledge is characterized by personification, the personification of complex concepts in the images of gods and anthropomorphism.

Philosophical

Philosophical knowledge is a special type of holistic knowledge of the world. The specificity of philosophical knowledge is the desire to go beyond the fragmented reality and find the fundamental principles and foundations of being, to determine the place of man in it. Philosophical knowledge is based on certain ideological premises. It includes: epistemology and ontology. In the process of philosophical cognition, the subject seeks not only to understand the existence and place of a person in it, but also to show what they should be (axiology), that is, seeks to create an ideal, the content of which will be determined by the worldview postulates chosen by the philosopher.

Religious

The object of religious knowledge in monotheistic religions, that is, in Judaism, Christianity and Islam, is God, who manifests himself as a Subject, a Person. The act of religious knowledge, or the act of faith, has a personalistic-dialogical character. The goal of religious knowledge in monotheism is not the creation or clarification of a system of ideas about God, but the salvation of a person, for whom the discovery of the existence of God simultaneously turns out to be an act of self-discovery, self-knowledge and forms in his consciousness the demand for moral renewal.

Artistic

Reflection of existing reality through signs, symbols, artistic images.

Artistic cognition

Art (artistic cognition) is a creative activity, in the process of which artistic images are created that reflect reality and embody the aesthetic attitude of a person towards it. There are various types of art that differ in the special structure of the artistic image. Some of them directly depict the phenomena of life (painting, sculpture, graphics, fiction, theater, cinema). Others express the ideological and emotional state of the artist generated by these phenomena (music, choreography, architecture).

Art is a form of reflection of reality in the mind of a person in artistic images. Reflecting the world around them, art helps people learn about it, serves as a powerful means of political, moral and artistic education.

The variety of phenomena and events of reality, as well as the difference in the ways of their reflection in works of art, gave rise to various types and genres of art: fiction, theater, music, cinema, architecture, painting, sculpture.

The most important feature of art is that, unlike science, it reflects reality not in concepts, but in a concrete, sensually perceived form - in the form of typical artistic images. Creating an artistic image, revealing the general essential features of reality, the artist conveys these features through individual, often unique characters, through specific phenomena of nature and social life. At the same time, the brighter and more tangible the individual features of an artistic image appear, the more attractive this image is, the more significant the power of its impact.

For centuries, art has accumulated values, weeds out the weak, but preserves the great, and for hundreds and thousands of years it excites listeners and viewers. Science has a more direct path: the thoughts of each researcher, the facts obtained by him are a piece of the path traveled.

Art appeared at the dawn of human society. It arose in the process of labor, practical activities of people. At first, art was directly intertwined with their work. It has retained its connection with material, production activities, albeit more mediated, to this day.

In the process of labor, people developed aesthetic feelings and needs, their understanding of beauty in reality and in art. Find beauty in reality, generalize, typify it, reflect it in artistic images and convey to

Scientific

Scientific cognition, in contrast to other diverse forms of cognition, is a process of obtaining objective, true knowledge aimed at reflecting the laws of reality. Scientific knowledge has a threefold task and is associated with the description, explanation and prediction of the processes and phenomena of reality.

Pre-scientific and extra-scientific knowledge

- Pre-scientific and extra-scientific knowledge

Cognition as a form of spiritual activity has existed in society since its inception. And at each stage of the development of society, the process of cognition is carried out in various socio-cultural forms - in the form of everyday cognition, artistic, religious cognition, and finally, in the form of scientific cognition. The first three areas of knowledge are considered, in contrast to science, as extra-scientific forms. However, in order to master scientific knowledge, mankind had to go a long way, during which first a pre-scientific form of cognition appeared, which was then transformed, in fact, into a scientific form.

In the history of the formation of the development of science, two stages can be distinguished, which correspond to two different methods of building knowledge and two forms of forecasting the results of activity. The first stage characterizes the emerging science (pre-science), the second - science in the proper sense of the word. The nascent science studies mainly those things and ways of changing them, which a person has repeatedly encountered in production and everyday experience. He strove to build models of such changes in order to anticipate the results of practical action. The first and necessary prerequisite for this was the study of things, their properties and relationships, highlighted by practice itself.

These things, properties and relationships were fixed in cognition in the form of ideal objects, with which thinking began to operate as specific objects replacing objects of the real world. This activity of thinking was formed on the basis of practice and represented an idealized scheme of practical transformations of material objects.

The method of constructing knowledge by schematizing the subject relations of practice ensured the prediction of its results within the boundaries of the already established methods of practical mastering of the world. However, with the development of knowledge and practice, along with the noted method, a new way of building knowledge is being formed in science. It marks the transition to a strictly scientific study of the subject connections of the world.

SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

Scientific knowledge, like all forms of spiritual production, is ultimately necessary in order to regulate human activity. Different types of cognition perform this role in different ways, and the analysis of this difference is the first and necessary condition for identifying the features of scientific cognition.

In the early stages of the development of society, the subjective and objective aspects of practical activity are not separated in cognition and are taken as a single whole. Cognition reflects the ways of practical changes in objects, including in the characteristics of the latter goals, abilities and actions of a person. This idea of the objects of activity is transferred to the whole of nature, which is viewed through the prism of the practice being carried out.

It is known, for example, that in the myths of ancient peoples, the forces of nature are always likened to human forces, and its processes - to human actions. Primitive thinking, when explaining the phenomena of the external world, invariably resorts to their comparison with human actions and motives. Only in the process of long-term evolution of society, cognition begins to exclude human factors from the characteristics of object relations. An important role in this process was played by the historical development of practice, and, above all, the improvement of the means and tools of labor.

Science sets as its ultimate goal to foresee the process of transformation of objects of practical activity (object in its initial state) into corresponding products (object in its final state). This transformation is always determined by essential connections, the laws of change and development of objects, and the activity itself can be successful only when it is consistent with these laws. Therefore, the main task of science is to identify the laws in accordance with which objects change and develop.

With regard to the processes of transformation of nature, this function is performed by natural and technical sciences. The processes of changing social objects are studied by the social sciences. Since a variety of objects can be transformed in activity - objects of nature, man (and his states of consciousness), subsystems of society, symbolic objects functioning as cultural phenomena, etc. - so far they can all become subjects of scientific research.

The orientation of science towards the study of objects that can be included in the activity (either actual or potentially as possible objects of its future transformation), their study as obeying the objective laws of functioning and development constitute the first main feature of scientific knowledge.

This feature distinguishes it from other forms of human cognitive activity. So, for example, in the process of artistic assimilation of reality, objects included in human activity are not separated from subjective factors, but are taken in a kind of "gluing" with them. Any reflection of objects of the objective world in art simultaneously expresses the value attitude of a person to an object.

Science is focused on the objective objective study of reality. The foregoing, of course, does not mean that the personality and values of the scientist do not play a role in scientific creativity and do not affect its results.

The process of scientific cognition is due not only to the characteristics of the object under study, but also to numerous factors of a socio-cultural nature.

Science can investigate any phenomena of a person's life and consciousness; it can investigate activity, the human psyche, and culture, but only from one point of view - as special objects that obey objective laws. Science also studies the subjective structure of activity, but as a special object. And where science cannot construct an object and present its "natural life", determined by its essential connections, there its claims end. Thus, science can study everything in the human world, but from a special perspective and from a special point of view. This special perspective of objectivity expresses at the same time the boundlessness and limitations of science, since a person, as an independent, conscious being, has free will, and he is not only an object, he is also a subject of activity. And in this subjective being of his, not all states can be exhausted by scientific knowledge, even if we assume that such a comprehensive scientific knowledge about a person, his life activity can be obtained.

There is no anti-scientism in this statement about the boundaries of science. It's just a statement of the indisputable fact that science cannot replace all forms of cognition of the world, of the entire culture. And everything that escapes her field of vision compensates for other forms of spiritual comprehension of the world - art, religion, morality, philosophy.

Studying the objects that are transformed into activity, science is not limited to the knowledge of only those subject connections that can be mastered within the framework of the existing types of activity that have historically developed at this stage of the development of society. The goal of science is to foresee possible future changes in objects, including those that would correspond to future types and forms of practical changes in the world.

As an expression of these goals in science, not only research that serves today's practice is formed, but also layers of research, the results of which can only be applied in the practice of the future. The movement of cognition in these strata is determined not so much by the immediate demands of today's practice as by cognitive interests, through which the needs of society are manifested in predicting future methods and forms of practical development of the world. For example, the formulation of intrascientific problems and their solution within the framework of fundamental theoretical studies of physics led to the discovery of the laws of the electromagnetic field and the prediction of electromagnetic waves, to the discovery of the laws of fission of atomic nuclei, the quantum laws of atomic radiation during the transition of electrons from one energy level to another, etc. All these theoretical discoveries laid the foundation for future methods of mass practical development of nature in production. Several decades later, they became the basis for applied engineering and technical research and development, the introduction of which into production, in turn, revolutionized technology and technology - radio-electronic equipment, nuclear power plants, laser installations, etc. appeared.

The focus of science on the study of not only objects that are transformed in today's practice, but also those objects that may become the subject of mass practical development in the future, is the second distinguishing feature of scientific knowledge. This feature makes it possible to distinguish between scientific and everyday, spontaneous empirical knowledge and to derive a number of specific definitions that characterize the nature of science. It allows us to understand why theoretical research is the defining characteristic of developed science.

However, modern scientific knowledge in its powerful development no longer represents that single whole that gives at least unambiguous answers to the questions posed.

In the process of labor, a person learns the laws of nature, improves the tools of labor, deepens and supplements the stock of knowledge. The experience of mankind cannot be equal in terms of the experience of one person, but systematizes and summarizes all that has been learned and done by previous generations of people.

In these conditions, learning becomes a purposeful process that provides the younger generation with the opportunity to master

separate sides of the experience of mankind. The meaning of training is to prepare a person for life in a given society, for work.

2. Learning as a type of human cognitive activity

Teaching, both for students and for the teacher, is one of the types of cognition of the surrounding world. Learning as a type of cognitive activity is the initial, most essential feature on which the characteristics of all educational activity depend. Teaching is based on general laws of cognition.

Cognition of a person goes through a number of stages. First, sensory cognition, which leads to a variety of ideas about the natural and social phenomena, events, and objects surrounding the child. The more systematized and generalized these sensory images, the higher his learning ability from the point of view of the possibilities of cognition is.

There is the highest stage of cognition, when, on the basis of abstract highly developed thinking, a generalized idea of the world around is formed, leading to the formation of views, beliefs, worldview. Training significantly accelerates the pace of individual psychological development of the student. The student learns in a short period of time what has been learned in the history of mankind over the centuries.

3.Structure of the learning process

When considering the structure of the learning process, it is necessary to identify its structure, main components and connections between them. Learning is a type of human activity that is two-way. It necessarily presupposes the interaction of the teacher and the trainees, taking place under certain conditions. At the first broadest consideration, the learning process consists of two interrelated processes - teaching and learning. Learning is impossible without the simultaneous activity of the teacher and the trainees, without didactic interaction. No matter how actively the teacher strives to communicate knowledge, if at the same time there is no active activity of the students themselves to assimilate knowledge, if the teacher did not create motivation and ensure the organization of such activity, then the learning process does not actually proceed - the didactic influence does not really function. Therefore, in the learning process, there is not just the impact of the teacher on the student, but their interaction.

At the same time, the learning process is not a mechanical sum of the teaching and learning processes. This is a qualitatively new, holistic phenomenon, the essence of which reflects didactic interaction in its various forms. The integrity of this process lies in the commonality of the goals of teaching and learning, in the impossibility of the existence of teaching without learning as such. Communication has an extremely strong influence on the student's motivation in the learning process, on the creation of favorable moral and psychological conditions for active learning. Skillful communication greatly enhances the educational process of education. If teachers focus on managing only educational activities, but do not provide the correct style of communication, then the result of the influences may be insufficient. Efforts will also be ineffective when favorable communication is provided, but educational activities are not organized. That is why, when revealing the essence of teaching, one must see the unity of knowledge and communication.

Education, upbringing and personal development are carried out not only in the process of education and upbringing, but also under the influence of the environment, the media, socially useful labor, sports, games and others outside of the classroom. Specially organized training and education should take into account and use these social factors and conditions as much as possible, since their influence is becoming wider, more versatile and effective and often spontaneous.

4.Stages of the learning process

Let's turn to the dynamics of the learning process. It is known that the learning process is extended over time. It is natural to assume that it is divided into some stages, which can be described as follows.

Any learning begins with the setting by the teacher of a goal for the student and the acceptance of this goal by the latter. Goal setting can be done in different ways. Initially, it mainly consists in attracting attention and offering to listen, see, touch, i.e. perceive. So the first step is perception. Perception is organized in different ways with the simultaneous or subsequent introduction of the information received in connection with the already known. At the same time, the organization of new information can be different: inductive presentation of specific facts with their subsequent generalization, disclosure of the indicative basis of actions, explanation of the principle underlying the studied content, movement from generalization to particular, etc. The first stage ends when students have a sufficient idea of what phenomena, events, subjects they will study, and understand the learning problem.

Perception must necessarily develop into an understanding of the studied, which is carried out through the primary and largely generalized establishment of connections between phenomena and processes, clarification of their structure, composition, purpose, revealing the causes of the phenomena or events being studied, the motives of individual actions of historical figures or literary heroes, interpretation of the content texts, etc.

The third stage is the comprehension of the educational material. It consists in highlighting and analyzing the theoretical aspect of knowledge. It is necessary to find the main idea, highlight the concepts, substantiate their signs, understand the nature of the explanatory material, study the totality of examples and clarifying facts. Here a system is needed in the knowledge of the textbook so that he sees the main, secondary, additional, clarifying elements in it. So that the textbook could substantiate, prove the facts being studied, ways of solving. Comprehension of the studied information is characterized by a deeper course of the comparison process, analysis of the connections between the phenomena under study, and the discovery of versatile causal relationships. In the course of comprehension, the understanding of what is being studied is significantly enriched, it becomes more versatile and deep. At this stage, a certain attitude towards what is being studied appears, beliefs arise, the ability to prove the validity of certain conclusions, to make educational discoveries and the process is strengthened.