Stages of human development. History of human development Stages of human development

The human line separated from the trunk common with monkeys not earlier than 10 and not later than 6 million years ago. The first representatives of the genus Homo appeared about 2 million years ago, and modern man - no later than 50 thousand years ago. The earliest traces of labor activity date back 2.5 - 2.8 million years (tools from Ethiopia). Many populations of Homo sapiens did not replace each other sequentially, but lived simultaneously, fighting for existence and destroying the weaker ones.

In the evolution of man (Homo), three stages are distinguished (in addition, some scientists also distinguish the species Homo habilis, a skillful man, as a separate species):

1. The most ancient people, which include Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus and Heidelberg man (Homo erectus).

2. Ancient people - Neanderthals (the first representatives of the species Homo sapiens - Homo sapiens).

3. Modern (new) people, including the fossil Cro-Magnons and modern humans (Homo sapiens).

Thus, the next after Australopithecus in the evolutionary ladder is already the first man, the first representative of the genus Homo. This is a skilled man (Homo habilis). In 1960, the English anthropologist Louis Leakey found in the Oldoway Gorge (Tanzania), next to the remains of a skilled man, the most ancient tools created by human hands. It must be said that even a primitive stone ax looks the same next to them as an electric saw next to a stone ax. These tools are just pebbles split at a certain angle, slightly pointed. (Such stone splits do not occur in nature.) The age of the Oldowaiian pebble culture, as scientists called it, is about 2.5 million years.

Man made discoveries and created tools of labor, and these tools changed man himself, had a decisive influence on his evolution. For example, the use of fire made it possible to radically lighten the human skull and reduce its weight. Food cooked over a fire, unlike raw food, did not require such powerful muscles to chew, and weaker muscles no longer required the parietal crest to attach to the skull. The tribes that made the best tools (as later more developed civilizations) defeated the tribes lagging behind in their development and forced them out into barren terrain. Making better tools complicated the internal relationships in the tribe, required more development and brain volume.

The pebble tools of a skilled man were gradually replaced by hand choppers (stones chipped on both sides), and then with scrapers and tips.

Another branch of the evolution of the genus Homo, which, according to biologists, is higher than a skilled man, is a straightened man (Homo erectus). The most ancient people lived 2 million - 500 thousand years ago. This species includes Pithecanthropus (in Latin - monkey man), Sinanthropus (Chinese man - his remains were found in China) and some other subspecies.

Pithecanthropus is a monkey man. The remains were first discovered on about. Java in 1891 by E. Dubois, and then in several other places. Pithecanthropus walked on two legs, their brain volume increased. A low forehead, powerful brow ridges, a semi-bent body with abundant hairline - all this indicated their recent (monkey) past.

Sinanthropus, whose remains were found in 1927 - 1937. in a cave near Beijing, in many ways similar to Pithecanthropus, this is a geographical version of Homo erectus.

They are often referred to as apemen. The straightened man no longer ran in panic from the fire, like all the other animals, but bred it himself (however, there is an assumption that a skilled person already supported the fire in smoldering stumps and termite mounds); he not only split, but also trimmed stones; he used processed antelope skulls as dishes. Apparently, the skins of killed animals served as clothing for a skilled man. His right hand was more developed than his left. He probably had a primitive articulate speech. Perhaps, from afar, he could be mistaken for a modern person.

The main factor in the evolution of ancient people was natural selection.

Ancient people characterize the next stage of anthropogenesis, when social factors also begin to play a role in evolution: labor activity in the groups in which they lived, the joint struggle for life and the development of intelligence. These include the Neanderthals, whose remains have been found in Europe, Asia, Africa. They got their name from the place of the first find in the valley of the river. Neander (West Germany). Neanderthals lived in the ice age 200 - 35 thousand years ago in caves, where they constantly kept fire, dressed in skins. The tools of labor of the Neanderthals are much more advanced and have some specialization: knives, side-scrapers, percussion tools. The shape of the jaw indicated articulate speech. Neanderthals lived in groups of 50 to 100 people. Men hunted collectively, women and children gathered edible roots and fruits, old men made tools. The last Neanderthals lived among the first modern humans, and then they were finally supplanted by them. Some scientists consider Neanderthals to be a dead-end branch of hominid evolution that did not participate in the formation of modern humans.

Modern people. The emergence of people of the modern physical type occurred relatively recently, about 50 thousand years ago. Their remains have been found in Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. In the Cro-Magnon grotto (France), several skeletons of modern-type fossils were discovered at once, which were called Cro-Magnons. They possessed all the complex of physical features that characterizes modern man: articulate speech, as indicated by a developed chin protrusion; the construction of dwellings, the first rudiments of art (rock paintings), clothing, jewelry, perfect bone and stone tools of labor, the first domesticated animals - all testify that this is a real person, completely isolated from his bestial ancestors. Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons and modern people form one species - Homo sapiens - Homo sapiens; this species was formed no later than 100 - 40 thousand years ago.

In the evolution of Cro-Magnons, social factors were of great importance, the role of education and the transfer of experience grew immeasurably.

Today, most scientists adhere to the theory of the African origin of man and believe that the future winner in the evolutionary race arose in Southeast Africa about 200 thousand years ago and settled from there all over the planet.

Once a person came out of Africa, it would seem self-evident that our distant African ancestors were similar to the modern inhabitants of this continent. However, some researchers believe that the first people who appeared in Africa were closer to the Mongoloids.

The Mongoloid race has a number of archaic features, in particular in the structure of the teeth, which are characteristic of Neanderthals and Homo erectus (Homo erectus). Populations of the Mongoloid type are highly adaptable to various habitat conditions, from the Arctic tundra to the equatorial humid forests, while in high latitudes of children of the Negroid race in high latitudes, with a lack of vitamin D, bone diseases and rickets rapidly develop, i.e. they are specialized for conditions of high insolation. If the first humans were like today's Africans, it is doubtful that they would have been able to successfully migrate around the globe. However, this view is disputed by most anthropologists.

The concept of African descent is contrasted with the concept of multi-regional descent, which suggests that our ancestor species, Homo erectus, evolved into Homo sapiens independently at different points in the world.

Homo erectus appeared in Africa about 1.8 million years ago. He made stone tools found by paleontologists, and possibly better tools from bamboo. However, after millions of years, there are no traces of bamboo. For several hundred thousand years, Homo erectus spread first through the Middle East, then to Europe and to the Pacific Ocean. The formation of Homo sapiens on the basis of Pithecanthropus led to the coexistence of the late forms of the Neanderthals and the emerging small groups of modern humans for several thousand years. The process of replacing an old species with a new one was rather lengthy and, therefore, difficult.

Human evolution. In 2 books. Book 1. Monkeys, bones and genes.

It is unusually interesting, informative, written in beautiful language, understandable to any literate person. Plus the author's humor, with no simplification or flattening. Popular, in the best sense of the word, presentation, without sacrificing content!

Alexander Markov's book is a very fascinating story about the origin and structure of man, based on the latest research in anthropology, genetics and evolutionary psychology. The two-volume edition "Human Evolution" answers many questions that have long interested Homo sapiens. What does it mean to be human? When and why did we become human? In what ways are we superior to our neighbors on the planet, and in what are we inferior to them? And how can we better use our main difference and dignity - a huge, complex brain? One way is to read this book thoughtfully.

Alexander Markov - Doctor of Biological Sciences, leading researcher at the Paleontological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. His book on the evolution of living things, The Birth of Complexity (2010), became an event in popular science literature and received wide recognition from readers.

Human evolution. In 2 books. Book 2. Monkeys, neurons and soul.

An absolutely amazing book. Even more interesting than the first part. The author managed to tell simply and with humor about everything that has been achieved by science in areas of biology that are very far from the common man, and even in completely new disciplines, such as, for example, evolutionary religious studies.

Great book, reads like a detective story.

Evolution. Triumph of the idea. Evolution: The Triumph of an Idea

The evolution of life over four billion years is a majestic narrative full of conspiracy, intrigue, surprise and death. Matt Ridley, author of The Genome.

Awesome book. Here is not only about Darwin himself and his theory, but, even more important, about the development of Darwinism. About how modern science represents evolution today. Where Darwin was wrong and where he was definitely right. A lot is becoming clear. Recommended. A big plus of the book is good paper and an easy-to-read font.

One of the best modern scientific journalists, with his characteristic thoroughness, clarity and constant humor, gives a complete overview of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution in the light of today's ideas and scientific discoveries.

This book provides an understanding not so much of the main provisions of the theory of Charles Darwin, but tells about the latest research on the processes of evolution. Shows how modern science expands and deepens the theoretical legacy of the great scientist. The book before us simply and majestically reveals the entire history of evolution, a process that still, like several billion years ago, moves the entire surrounding world.

A book for everyone who seeks to find answers to eternal questions: Why to this day the disputes about the origin of life and man on Earth do not stop? What was behind the ideas of the great man, painfully paving the way for new knowledge in a conservative society? How do evolutionary biologists put forward and test their hypotheses, and why categorically cannot agree with the arguments of the creationists? In search of answers to these questions, the reader makes many amazing discoveries about the life of animals, birds and insects, which make one think about human morals and ethics, about the place and purpose of man in the Universe.

The evolutionary theory of human development, proposed by the English scientist Charles Darwin, became a real sensation in the scientific world. Until then, the whole world was in complete confidence that man is God's creation. The Darwinian theory, in contrast to other versions of the origin of man, was able to clearly explain how his evolution took place.

Charles Darwin's theory of evolution

Humanity has long tried to unravel the mystery of its appearance on the planet, but the only answer was found only in religion, according to which man is a manifestation of God's plan.

Such an explanation suited people until they began to actively develop and expand scientific knowledge. Scientists have fought for a long time to unravel the origin of man, but only the British naturalist Charles Darwin succeeded.

Figure: 1. Charles Darwin.

His revolutionary theory for those times, according to which man descended from primates, caused a real dissonance in society. Not all scientists, not to mention ordinary people, wanted to see monkeys among their ancient ancestors.

However, Darwin's theory presented a lot of solid evidence. Too much was connected with the animal world: the structure of the skeleton, the nervous system, the organs of digestion, blood circulation and respiration. The greatest similarity in humans was with primates.

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The most important prerequisite for the "humanization" of primates was the use of natural objects as a tool of labor for protection from enemies or hunting wild animals.

Figure: 2. Primitive tools of labor.

The main stages of human evolution

The process of evolutionary development of mankind, from primates to modern humans, took several million years. In total, there are five main stages of human evolution, each of which has its own distinctive characteristics.

At the heart of all evolutionary processes is the most important law of nature - natural selection, thanks to which the species gets the opportunity to adapt to environmental conditions as best as possible.

Figure: 3. Primitive society.

Table "Stages of human evolution"

Stages of human evolution	Structural features	Lifestyle	Tools
Great apes - Australopithecus	Growth 120-140 cm. The volume of the skull is 500-600 cubic meters. cm, upright posture	They did not build permanent dwellings, did not use fire, the way of life is herd	Sticks and stones
Ancient people - a smart man	The volume of the brain is 680 cubic meters. cm,	Didn't know how to use fire	Tools in the form of stones with pointed edges
Ancient people - Homo erectus (Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Heidelberg man)	Height 170 cm. Brain volume - 900-110 cubic meters. see The foot has a vault, the right hand is better developed, constant upright posture, a change in the jaw apparatus, the appearance of bends of the spine	They kept the fire going, built houses, and hunted together. There were rudiments of articulate speech	Various tools made of stone, among which the most important is the stone chopper
Ancient people - Neanderthals	Height 156 cm. Brain volume - 1400 cubic meters. see there is a rudiment of the chin protrusion, a developed hand, a vaulted foot, a high vault of the skull, a not so massive lower jaw	They could build dwellings, produce and maintain fire. Accommodation in groups of 50-100 people.	The tools of labor are very different: side-scrapers, points made of stone, bone and wood
The first modern humans - Cro-Magnons	Height 180 cm, brain volume - 1600 cubic meters. see the appearance is inherent in modern man	Developed speech, the beginnings of religion and art, the ability to make clothes appeared. Living in settlements within the tribal community. Mastering agriculture and cattle breeding	A wide variety of materials were used for the manufacture of tools: wood, bones, stones, horns. They were used to make spears, darts, knives, scrapers

What have we learned?

When studying the topic "Table" Stages of Human Evolution "" in the 11th grade curriculum, we learned which theory indicates the origin of humans from primates, and through what stages of evolution a person had to go to reach the top of his development.

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Historical stages of human development (Table). Human development table

Historical stages of human development (Table)

The reference table contains the main stages of the development of mankind from primitive society to modern history, indicating the chronological framework, the duration of each of the stages and a brief description. This material will be useful for schoolchildren, students, when doing homework, exams and USE.

Stages (period) of history	Chronological framework	Period duration	a brief description of
Primitive society	about 2 million years ago - 4th millennium BC	about 2 million years (20,000 centuries)	Formation of man, improvement of tools of labor, transition to agriculture and livestock raising from hunting and gathering.
Ancient world	4th millennium BC -the middle of the 1st millennium AD	about 4 thousand years (40 centuries)	The split of society into rulers and governed, the spread of slavery, cultural rise, the fall of the Roman Empire
Middle Ages	476g. - mid-17th century	about 1200 years (12 centuries)	The beginning of the era of great geographical discoveries. Establishment of the estate system in Europe, religion, urbanization, the formation of large feudal states are of great importance.
New time	mid 17th century - early 20th century	about 300 years (3rd century)	The formation of an industrial capitalist civilization, the emergence of colonial empires, a bourgeois revolution, an industrial revolution, the development of the world market and its fall, production crises, social. contradictions, redivision of the world, the end of the First World War.
Recent history	1918 - the beginning of the 21st century.	about 100 years (less than a century)	Sovereign rivalry, World War II, invention of nuclear weapons, proliferation of computers, change in the nature of work, restoration of the integrity of the world market, formation of a global system of infocommunications

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CHRONOLOGY OF HUMAN EVOLUTION | Science and life

Pedigree tree of primates. It shows that the first of the primates to separate from the line leading to man were the gibbons, the second - the orangutans, then the gorillas, and only then the chimpanzees - our closest relatives.

About six million years ago, the paths of chimpanzees and hominids parted, among which there were apparently several dead-end branches.

The origin of man is one of the most difficult problems in modern science. How did it arise, what conditions facilitated this, when and where did it happen? The answer to the first question basically already exists: thanks to paleontological finds, most of the human lineage has been reconstructed. There are many hypotheses that answer the rest of the questions, but they are all to some extent controversial. Some of them are cited in his article "Chronology of Human Evolutionary History" published in the third issue of the journal "Successes of Modern Biology" in 2000 by the employee of the Institute of General Genetics named after NI Vavilov of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Candidate of Biological Sciences E. Ya. Tetushkin.

Most modern researchers believe that the division of primates into modern groups began about 63 million years ago, when an asteroid fell to Earth and a catastrophic destruction of the biosphere occurred. It was then that many animals died out, freeing up many ecological niches, which gradually began to be filled with mammals.

Molecular genetics turned out to be the most effective method of anthropological research, which today provides more volume and more accurate and effective information than paleontological excavations and the study of museum samples.

Even in antiquity, people noticed that monkeys are very similar to us, and the famous Roman physician and naturalist of the 2nd century AD, who anatomized them in large numbers. e. Galen concluded that they were just "funny copies" of people. Modern research has proven his correctness to a greater extent than one could assume: monkeys are similar to humans not only externally and anatomically, but also at the DNA level, where information is transmitted by copying.

In recent years, scientists from many scientific centers around the world, including the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, have been comparing the genomes of Homo sapiens with the genomes of other primates. It has been established that the genomes of man and his closest relatives, the higher apes, differ very little and represent inaccurate, modified copies of the same original source.

The closest relationship connects us with the African great apes - chimpanzees and gorillas: in DNA they are closer to humans than to their Asian relatives - orangutans and gibbons. And the difference between the human and chimpanzee genomes is only 1.5%. According to the research results, there were even proposals to rename the species Pan troglodites (common chimpanzee) into Homo troglodites. And in any case, it can be argued that it was chimpanzees who were the last to branch off from the line leading to man.

As for man proper, all his species are descendants of the Australopithecus, from which the Homo line branched out about 2 million years ago. It was Homo habilis (a skilled person): he knew how to make the simplest stone tools, and his brain volume was 700-800 cm3, while in Australopithecus it did not exceed 500 cm3.

The second species of Homo - Homo erectus (Homo erectus) appeared just when Homo habilis disappeared, that is, about one and a half million years ago. People of this species already knew how not only to improve stone tools, but also to maintain fire, and their brain volume reached 1300 cm3. But their skull still differed from the skull of modern man in the complete absence of a chin.

The first representatives of the species Homo sapiens (archaic Homo sapiens) appeared more than half a million years ago and for a long time remained contemporaries of Homo erectus, which became extinct only a quarter of a million years ago.

However, the evolution of Homo sapiens itself was long and rather complicated. The oldest remains found in Europe and Africa are 600,000 years old (Ethiopia), 700,000 years old (Algeria) and 500,000 years old (England and Germany). And about 200 thousand years ago, local varieties of Homo sapiens appeared on these continents, of which the European one is the most famous - Homo sapiens neandertalis. Physically, they significantly differed from their contemporaries in Africa and East Asia, which, most likely, was determined by their long adaptability to the harsh climate of the Ice Age. The evolution of the predecessors of Neanderthal man, most likely, took place in Europe: it was there that intermediate forms connecting him with the earliest representatives of Homo sapiens - the so-called "preneanderthals", were discovered. And about 120 thousand years ago - during the interglacial period - the Neanderthals also mastered the Middle East and Central Asia.

And yet, the ancestor of our subspecies - Homo sapiens sapiens - was not they, but the late Homo sapiens living in Africa and the Middle East, and this happened, judging by the bone remains, about 100 thousand years ago. And only then, according to the majority of scientists, modern man gradually settled throughout the Ecumene.

Moreover: there is reason to believe that the universal foremother Eve mentioned in the Bible could actually exist. This is the conclusion made by molecular genetics based on a comparative analysis of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in many people. This small, circular molecule is passed exclusively through the maternal line. Studies have shown that all identified types of human mtDNA originate from the same ancestral molecule, and therefore, from the same foremother who lived before the division of humans into major races.

But when, where, and how did this division take place? The most convincing answers to these questions were provided by the study of the variability of proteins and blood groups. Apparently, the common predecessors of the Mongoloids and Caucasians lived in Western Asia: from there, in one of the two nearest interglacial periods (that is, 70 or 50 thousand years ago), the ancestors of the Mongoloids moved to China. As for the Mongoloids of Southeast Asia and the American Indians, they are descendants of immigrants from Central and East Asia. The ancestors of the Caucasians ended up in Europe only about 40 thousand years ago. They had not been able to penetrate it before: the "native Europeans" - the Neanderthals - hindered this.

Particularly difficult is the problem of the origin of the Australians and Papuans, who in their appearance are in many ways similar to the Africans. The author of the article considers the most reasonable hypothesis, according to which two human streams met in Southeast Asia: one came from the north - from East Asia, the other from the west - through the Indian subcontinent. With the mixing of gene pools, African genes were preserved, and then were supported by natural selection in the tropics.

Another hypothesis completely rejects the concept of race for a number of reasons. Firstly, not all human populations in general can be attributed to one of the large races: many are of mixed origin. Secondly, because the very number of races distinguished by different anthropologists is different. And finally, third, the genetic differences between people within the same race are often greater than the average genetic differences between representatives of different races. This hypothesis, of course, is controversial and, most importantly, it is very unconventional, but, apparently, it also has the right to further research.

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The main stages of human evolution

Sections: Biology

Purpose: to consider the directions of human evolution, the multifaceted role of natural selection in the populations of ancient people; show that labor caused changes in the physical type and psychological makeup of a person; illuminate the educational value of a person above himself.

Lesson type: lecture using presentation.

Equipment: tables "Human Evolution", collections "Human Evolution", computer, projector, lesson presentation (Appendix 1).

During the classes

I. Organizational moment

II. Learning new material

1. The study of modern and fossil primates provides material that makes it possible to understand how the characteristic features of man arose, which brought him outside the animal world. The common ancestor of man and great apes was one of the branches of the narrow-nosed monkeys. The oldest representatives of this branch moved along the ground on their hind limbs, helping the front ones. The movements of the forelimbs became more free and varied, the ratio between all organs of the animal changed.

Important were: a herd lifestyle, communication with each other, caring for offspring. A high level of development of the brain and psyche, the use of natural objects as tools for hunting and protection from enemies have become the main prerequisites for humanization, the basis for the development of thinking and work (slide 1 - 3).

Pedigree of a person (Appendix 2)

2. Australopithecus ("Australos" - southern, "Pithecus" - monkey) lived in open forest-steppe areas about 5.5 million years ago. They walked on their hind limbs and had a well-developed thumb. Australopithecus did not have such natural defense organs as great physical strength, powerful jaws, sharp claws, did not have the advantage of fast running. The use of natural objects (stones, long bones of large animals) as tools that replaced the organs of defense and attack allowed Australopithecus to overcome their defenselessness in conditions where it was difficult to hide from enemies.

Over time, some groups of Australopithecus gradually began to move to the manufacture of tools from volcanic lava, quartzite and especially silicon. However, a person did not appear immediately after the appearance of labor activity, but as a result of his long formation and development. The Australopithecus stage helps to restore one of the most important moments in evolution - the beginning of the transformation of animals into humans (slide 4).

3. The oldest people

It is believed that the earliest people arose about 1 million years ago. Several forms of the most ancient people are known: Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Heidelberg man, etc.

Pithecanthropus (monkey man) lived in a hot tropical climate. They walked on their hind legs, possibly leaning on a baton. They had a height of about 170 cm. The structure of the skull: the brain part is small, the volume of the brain is up to 1100 cm3; massive lower jaw with a sloping chin; there is an infraorbital ridge on the forehead. They made primitive stone tools (scrapers, choppers). Along with obtaining plant food, hunting plays an important role. They used fire. They communicated with gestures and sounds, led a herd lifestyle, did not build dwellings.

Not far from Beijing, in the Zhou - Gou - Dian cave, the remains of a Sinanthropus (Chinese man), similar in many ways to Pithecanthropus, were found (slide 5). In synanthropes, the brain volume reached 1200 cm3; the left lobe of the brain is more developed than the right, which, apparently, is associated, as in modern humans, with right-handedness (demonstration of the cerebral part of the skull)

The ability to use fire was a great achievement of man. It made it possible to make food more digestible, promoted better protection from enemies and cold, and expanded the habitat of ancient people.

Thinking (in a primitive form), the use of fire, the making of tools became the main advantages of the ancient people in the struggle for existence. At this stage of evolution, new, social patterns in the existence of human society begin to appear.

4. Ancient people, who are called Neanderthals, replaced the most ancient people (slide 6). They appeared about 150 thousand years ago. Neanderthals lived in the harsh conditions of glaciated Europe. Their height reached 156 cm. The structure of the skull: low sloping forehead, continuous supraorbital ridge, poorly developed chin protrusion; the volume of the brain was up to 1400 cm3. Neanderthals communicated with gestures and sounds; there was a development of rudimentary speech (demonstration of the skull).

Ancient people knew how to produce and maintain fire, made tools of labor from wood and stone. With the help of manufactured tools, the ancient people hunted, tore off the skins of animals, butcher carcasses (demonstration of dummies of labor tools).

Neanderthals settled in caves of 50 - 100 people, which they often had to wrestle from cave bears and hyenas. The cave, in which the fire was blazing, reliably protected from the cold and from attacks of predatory animals.

Ancient people noted the emergence of elementary social relationships, which were expressed in caring for those who, due to wounds or diseases, could not get food on their own. Burials are encountered for the first time among Neanderthals. Collective action already played a decisive role in the primitive herd of ancient people. In the struggle for existence, those groups won that successfully hunted and better provided themselves with food, took care of each other, achieved lower mortality among children and adults, and better overcome difficult living conditions. The ability to make tools, articulate speech, the ability to learn - these qualities turned out to be useful for the team as a whole. Natural selection ensured the further progressive development of many traits. As a result, the biological organization of people was also improved. This evolutionary path led to the manifestation of the species Homo sapiens 40 thousand years ago. For some time, Neanderthals and the first modern humans coexisted, but about 28 thousand years ago, the Neanderthals were finally supplanted by the first modern humans - Cro-Magnons.

5. The first modern people - Cro-Magnons - were tall - up to 180 cm, with a high forehead, a brain volume of 1600 cm3 (slide 7). There was no continuous ridge above the eyes; the chin protrusion is well developed on the lower jaw, which indicates the development of articulate speech. Cro-Magnons possessed all the complex of basic physical features that our contemporaries have. Their mental development has reached a high level. This is evidenced by the changes that have occurred in their lives.

Flint tools became more diverse and sophisticated, Cro-Magnons began to widely use hard-to-work materials: bone, horn. They knew how to drill, polish, knew pottery, tamed animals, began to develop agriculture, sewed animal skins and made clothes and housing from them. All this made a person less dependent on climatic conditions. That is why people began to explore previously inaccessible areas of the globe. Cro-Magnons live in tribal communities in built dwellings. At this stage, another major event took place in the life of people - art arose. Drawings of the first artists found on the walls of caves, stone and bone sculptures, made with amazing skill for that time. The painting of the Kapova Cave (in the Urals) is world famous. Religion is born. Human evolution got out of the control of biological facts and acquired a social character.

6. Generalization about the stages of anthropogenesis (slide 8 - 9).

Labor caused changes in the physical type of a person and his mental makeup. Acting on the environment in the process of labor, a person changed it and changed himself, highlighting himself in nature. The historical process of the formation of people's consciousness is reflected in the development of each person. Each person, despite the presence of "human" development opportunities, must show great determination, perseverance and ability to work in possessing the rich experience of mankind - knowledge and skills.

(Appendix 3.)

III. Homework: § 5.2 p. 197 - 202;

Fill in the table "Human Evolution" (Appendix 4)

The main stages of human evolution. Archanthropus, paleoanthropus, neoanthropus

Man and modern apes are not only similar to each other in their morphological and physiological characteristics, but are also closely related. They are two different branches of the same trunk, i.e. descend from one common ancestor.

Such ancestors were the ancient, extinct already several million years ago, medium-sized (about the size of a medium-sized dog) monkeys, called propliopithecus. Their homeland was northeastern Africa. They lived in trees, ate plant foods. From these monkeys, evolution went in different directions.

By divergence, the ancestors of modern apes - orangutans and gibbons, as well as driopithecus (tree monkeys) - were formed. It is possible that Dryopithecus gave rise to several branches of fossil forms, including very large (up to 2.5m in height) ape-like creatures - Gigantopithecus.

One of the types of Driopithecus was, obviously, the branch from which the development of the ancestors of modern man began. This form by divergence formed a large number of Australopithecus species that lived in East and South Africa. These monkeys lived on the plains, they used mainly the hind limbs for movement, i.e. possessed upright posture. Their growth reached 120-140 cm, the volume of the skull - about 500 cm3.

The most ancient Australopithecines lived about 6 million. years ago, the late became extinct about 0.5 million. years ago. However, the Australopithecus did not yet have tools. Obviously, for defense and attack, they could only use stones and sticks, as modern monkeys do.

Table - the main stages of human evolution

Evolution stage Description

Stage I - Archanthropus	The volume of the brain is 800 cm3. The first stone tools (scrapers, arrowheads, stone axes). Lack of articulate speech. The most advanced used fire (they only knew how to support).
Stage II - paleoanthropes	The volume of the brain is 1300-1400 cm3. They know how to make fire themselves with the help of stones. The first articulate speech appears. Stone tools are carefully processed, bone (ridges, needles) appear. At this stage, the burials of the dead were carried out, accompanied by rituals.
Stage III - neoanthropes	The volume of the brain is 1500-1800 cm3. The transition from biological to social revolution. The first races of man are formed. The culture is developing (not only tools are made, but also decorations).

Stage I - the most ancient people (archanthropus)

About 3 million years ago in East Africa lived large ape-like creatures resembling Australopithecus. Their remains were found in East Africa, in Kenya on the shores of Lake Rudolf. Their brain volume reached 800 cm3, but most importantly, in the same layer where the bones of this human ancestor were found, there were also very primitive stone tools.

It is difficult to say whether these creatures were already humans or belonged to the Australopithecines. The presence of primitive tools made of pebbles processed by striking other pebbles allows some researchers to consider them "people from Lake Rudolf" (R. Leakey's term) and attribute them to the first stage of human development.

This stage I was called the most ancient people, or archanthropus. It includes many different finds of skeletal remains. They were made in Africa (Olduvai Pithecanthropus), Asia (Javanese Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus) and in Europe (Heidelberg man). They lived at different times: the most ancient - more than 1 million. years ago, the "younger" - 400 thousand. years ago. All these findings are combined into one group of archanthropus according to three main features:

• The volume of the brain is within 1000 cm3 and only in Sinanthropus it is slightly larger - 1100 cm3;
• lack of articulate speech, as evidenced by the absence of a chin protrusion;
• the presence of the most primitive stone tools - scrapers, arrowheads, axes.

Only the most progressive of them, the Sinanthropus, used fire, as evidenced by the many-meter layers of ash found in the campsites.

Stage II - ancient people (paleoanthropes)

Stage II - ancient people, or paleoanthropes, were widespread in Europe, Asia and Africa. The earliest of them appeared over 250 thousand. years ago, the latter disappeared about 40 thousand. years ago.

Ancient people had a height of 150-160 cm, the volume of the brain was about 1300-1400 cm3 (approximately the volume of the brain of a modern person). However, the skull of ancient people was characterized by the development of the superciliary arches, a sloping forehead, and a significantly developed lower jaw. A chin protrusion already appears on it, which makes it possible to assume the presence of articulate speech.

The most famous finds made in Europe are called Neanderthals (after the Neandertal valley near Dusseldorf in Germany).

At this stage of development, the ancient people constantly used fire, and they already knew how to get it using stones. Stone tools were carefully processed, in addition to stone, bone tools are also used. Findings of bone needles indicate the presence of clothing made from animal skins. It is characteristic that at this stage the burial of the dead is carried out among the ancient people, which was probably accompanied by certain rituals.

Stage III - the first modern people (neoanthropes)

Stage III in human evolution - the first modern humans, or neoanthropines. They appeared about 40 thousand. years ago and already belonged to the species Homo sapiens - Homo sapiens. Their brain volume was the same as that of our contemporaries - 1500-1800 cm3, height - 170-180 cm.

Finds of neoanthropes have been made in various places around the globe. The most famous of them, made in France near the town of Cro-Magnon, are Cro-Magnons.

It is at the third stage of human evolution that rock art appears.

This stage is characterized by three main features: the cessation of biological and the beginning of social evolution; the formation of the main races; a high level of cultural development, which is characterized by the processing of not only stone tools, but also jewelry, stone figurines, drawings. All this testifies to the emergence of abstract thinking at this stage.

In human evolution, there were many side branches that ended in complete extinction. Different groups of archantropists could live at the same time, and more powerful and developed forms could exterminate those who were lagging behind in their development.

Eating meat played an important role in the evolution of human ancestors, since hunting for game stimulated selection, and the high calorie content of meat made it possible to eat less often.

With the development of social relations, care for the elderly began to develop as carriers of socially useful information. Altruistic tendencies have already begun to appear among neoanthropines, which determined the advantages of their owners in the conditions of life in society.

The greatest achievement of Homo sapiens was the domestication of animals and the beginning of plant cultivation. This was the most important step towards freeing man from the influence of the environment. As a result of the development of thinking, a person achieves a high understanding of nature, begins to influence it. It is Homo sapiens that can be defined as “matter that knows itself”.

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19. Human evolution. Biology. General biology. Grade 11. A basic level of

19. Human evolution

Remember!

List the main factors in human evolution. Which of them are common to the evolution of all living organisms?

The study of human evolution is mainly based on the study of fossil remains.

Human predecessors. At the very end of the Mesozoic era, the first placental mammals arose. About 35 million years ago, a group of animals separated from primitive insectivores, which later gave rise to primates. Of the living ones, the closest to this group are tupai - lower primates. In the Paleogene of the Cenozoic era, a branch of parapithecus, small arboreal animals that fed on insects and plants, separated from the ancestors of modern tupai. Their teeth and jaws were the same as those of great apes. The gibbons, orangutans and dryopithecus descended from the parapithecus. For almost 10 million years, Dryopithecus lived in tropical forests. During this time, they have adapted well to the arboreal lifestyle, which requires the development of quite definite properties and characteristics. In order to climb trees with grasping movements, it was necessary to have movable limbs and a hand capable of precise grip. The clavicle, which provides free movement in the shoulder joint and allows the arms to be extended to the sides, does not develop in terrestrial animals that move on four limbs.

Our distant ancestors had to move at high speed in the space of the tropical forest, constantly assessing the strength of the jump, the flight range, changing the direction of movement. The preference was given to those individuals with the best motor skills. This direction of selection contributed to the development of the motor regions of the brain. The arboreal lifestyle required keen binocular vision to accurately estimate the distance when jumping. If in the first primitive mammals the eyes were on the sides of the head, then in the Dryopithecus they were already located frontally, in the same plane. In dense thickets, first of all, it was necessary to rely on sight and hearing, sense of smell was important for animals in open spaces. Life on trees contributed to a decrease in fertility, which was offset by increased care for small offspring.

The structural features of modern man, his abilities and social status were predetermined millions of years ago by the fact that our distant ancestors were animals that led an arboreal lifestyle.

Cooling set in in the second half of the Paleogene. Forest areas were shrinking, they were replaced by savannas. Probably, populations of Dryopithecus settled in different habitats. The animals left in the rainforests gave rise to the modern apes - the gorilla and chimpanzee. Other populations migrated to the savannahs. In order to navigate the vast open spaces, it was necessary to climb on the hind limbs. Our distant ancestors did not have sharp fangs and claws, did not know how to run fast. New harsh conditions forced them to wage a hard struggle for existence. The survivors were those who, gathering in flocks, united their forces and used their free hands to manipulate objects, obtain food, defend and attack, and care for the cubs. Walking upright played a decisive role in human evolution. Populations of Driopithecus, which switched to a terrestrial way of life, marked the beginning of human evolution. Thus, in the Paleogene, the paths of great apes and humans diverged (Fig. 62).

Australopithecus. 5–3 million years ago in South Africa lived Australopithecus, descendants of Dryopithecus. They were 120–160 cm tall, weighing 30–60 kg, and their brain volume did not exceed 550 cm3. Australopithecines led a herd lifestyle, were engaged in gathering and hunting, using stones as weapons. Meat made up the majority of their diet. It is now known that animal proteins are required for the normal development of the brain. Perhaps the menu of our distant ancestors played an important role in the development of the central nervous system.

Fig. 62. General scheme of human origin

A skilled man. About 2.5-1.5 million years ago, creatures settled in South and East Africa that knew how to make the simplest tools and had a more progressive structure than Australopithecus. The volume of their brain reached 650 cm3, and the peculiarities of its structure, according to modern scientists, suggest that these people already had the rudiments of primitive speech (Fig. 63). Apparently, Homo habilis was a descendant of some group of Australopithecus. Further evolution at this stage was in the direction of the development of bipedal locomotion and the ability to work. A skilled man first began to use fire and build primitive dwellings and outbuildings.

Fig. 63. Evolution of the skull. The skeleton of an adolescent, found in Kenya in 1983, has an antiquity of 1.6 million years and belongs to a species that arose among the populations of the Homo habilis

The most ancient people (archanthropus). The earliest people lived in the interval 1.8–0.1 million years ago. Several fossil forms of archanthropus are known: Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Heidelberg man, which are now referred to one species - Homo erectus. Archanthropus differed from modern people in larger jaws, powerful occipital and superciliary ridges, a low and sloping forehead and the absence of a chin protrusion. Their brain volume was 800-1100 cm3, which is quite enough for the development of speech. They successfully hunted rhinos and deer, made stone tools, used fire, built simple ground structures such as huts and set up caves.

For the further development of man, mastering articulate speech was of great importance. In the process of evolution, speech first appeared to express various emotional states, but later, when words became signs to denote objects and actions, and later abstract concepts, speech began to perform another very important task. Our distant ancestors led a social lifestyle, and speech was necessary for the exchange of information. With the help of speech, parents could teach children, that is, it became possible to pass on experience from generation to generation. Those groups of ancient people who supported not only physically strong individuals, but also preserved the elderly as bearers of knowledge, began to gain an advantage in the struggle for existence. Social factors were gradually added to the biological factors of evolution.

Ancient people (paleoanthropes, Neanderthals). Paleoanthropes occupied an intermediate position between archantropians and Homo sapiens. They widely settled in Africa, Europe and Asia in the period from 250 to 35 thousand years ago. This was a very heterogeneous group, in which two lines of evolution were clearly distinguished. One line went in the direction of powerful physical development: small stature (155-165 cm), powerful muscles, low sloping forehead, thick skull bones, well-developed jaws.

The other group in physical development was significantly inferior to the first, but had an advantage in the development of the brain. In the harsh conditions of the Ice Age, they survived at any cost, but, as it turned out later, the success in the struggle for life was facilitated by joint labor activity, collective hunting, accumulation and transfer of experience, caring for fellow tribesmen - the path followed by the second line of ancient people, which gave the beginning of the formation of a new species - Homo sapiens.

Modern people (neoanthropes). Neoanthropes appeared about 50-40 thousand years ago. For some time they existed together with paleoanthropines, but then the Neanderthals were completely supplanted by the first modern humans - the Cro-Magnons. Outwardly similar to modern man and fluent in speech, Cro-Magnons made complex bone and stone tools, built dwellings and made fire. Hunting with sophisticated weapons was very effective, and the Cro-Magnons made extensive use of corral methods. Art developed: wall painting in caves, ornaments on bone crafts, stone and bone sculpture. Burial rituals and cult objects arose, which speaks of the birth of religious beliefs. Most experts believe that with the advent of Cro-Magnons, human evolution got out of the control of biological factors and acquired traits of a social nature.

After the completion of formation, the species Homo sapiens has retained its biological stability for tens of thousands of years. This is due to the fact that in the process of social development (construction of dwellings, the use of clothing, farming), the relative constancy of the conditions of human existence is maintained.

For a long time, scientists believed that human evolution was more or less linear: one form replaced another, and each new one was more progressive, closer to modern man than the previous one. It is now clear that everything was much more complicated. The evolutionary tree of hominids is very extensive. The time intervals for the existence of many species overlap strongly. Sometimes several different species of hominids, at different "levels" of proximity to modern humans, coexisted at the same time.

Most likely, the hominid fossils known today are only a small part of their true diversity. The fossil record of hominids is still extremely incomplete.

Review questions and assignments

1. What is the source of information for the study of anthropogenesis?

2. From which group of mammals did the order of primates originate?

3. How the features of the structure and lifestyle of ape-like ancestors predetermined the development of the characteristics of the species Homo sapiens.

4. Describe the progressive features in the development of ancient people.

5. What is the significance of mastering articulate speech in human evolution?

6. When did modern people (neoanthropes) appear?

Think! Execute!

1. Why modern great apes cannot be considered human ancestors?

2. How is the development of the brain and the improvement of tools connected?

3. What data can indicate a high development of higher nervous activity in Cro-Magnons?

4. Explain why at the beginning of anthropogenesis there were relatively rapid changes in the structure of man, and in the last 40 thousand years, the appearance of man has practically not changed.

5. Organize an excursion to the local history or local history museum. What exhibits of the museum are dedicated to the ancient history of your region? Are there archaeological finds among them from the Cro-Magnon era and earlier periods? At the end of the excursion, prepare a report (collective project) on the topic "The sites of ancient people on the territory of the district (region, region, etc.)".

6. If you are interested in the history of human development, read the book "Fight for Fire" by Roni the Elder. In what era do you think the events described in the book took place? Which of the groups of precursors of modern man participate in them?

Work with computer

Refer to the electronic attachment. Study the material and complete the assignments.

Next chapter\u003e

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Historical stages of human development

Currently, the historical path traversed by mankind is divided into the following segments: the primitive era, the history of the Ancient World, the Middle Ages, New, Modern times. It is worth noting that today, among scientists who study the stages of human development, there is no consensus about periodization. Therefore, there are several special periodizations, which partially reflect the nature of the disciplines, and general, i.e. historical.

Of the special periodizations, the most important for science is archaeological, which is based on the differences in tools.

The stages of development of mankind in the primitive era are determined by more than 1.5 million years. The basis for its study was the remains of ancient tools, rock carvings and burials that were revealed during archaeological excavations. Anthropology is a science that deals with the restoration of the appearance of primitive man. In a given time period, the emergence of a person occurs, it ends with the emergence of statehood.

During this period, the following stages of human development are distinguished: anthropogenesis (evolution that ended about 40 thousand years ago and led to the emergence of the species of Homo sapiens) and sociogenesis (the formation of social forms of life).

The history of the Ancient World begins its countdown during the emergence of the first states. The periods of human development, expressed in this era, are the most mysterious. Ancient civilizations left behind monuments and architectural ensembles, examples of monumental art and painting that have survived to this day. This era dates back to the IV-III millennium BC. At this time, there was a split of society into ruled and ruled, into have-nots and haves, slavery appeared. The slave-owning system reached its apogee during the period of antiquity, when the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome rose up.

Russian and Western science attribute the collapse of the Western Roman Empire to the beginning of the Middle Ages, which occurred at the end of the fifth century. At the same time, in the encyclopedia "History of Humanity", published by UNESCO, the beginning of this stage is considered the moment of the emergence of Islam, which appeared already in the seventh century.

The stages of human development in the Middle Ages are divided into three time periods: early (5th century - mid 11th century), high (mid 11th century - late 14th century), later (14-16th century).
In some sources, the civilizations of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages are not distinguished within the framework of the theoretical position on "stages of growth" and are considered as a traditional society based on a subsistence / semi-subsistence economy.

During the modern era, the formation of an industrial and capitalist civilization took place. The stages of human development at this stage are divided into several segments.

First. It originates when revolutions take place in the world aimed at overthrowing the estate system. The first of these occurred in England in the years 1640-1660.

The second period came after the Great French Revolution (1789-1794). At this time, there was a rapid growth of colonial empires, the division of labor at the international level.

The third period begins at the end of the 19th century and is characterized by the rapid development of industrial civilization, which occurs due to the development of new territories.

Recent history and its periodization is currently controversial. However, within its framework, the following stages of human development are distinguished. The table found in school textbooks shows that this era consists of two main periods. The first began at the end of the 19th century and affects the entire first half of the 20th century - early modern times.

The great crisis, sovereign rivalry, the destruction of the colonial systems of European states, the conditions of the Cold War. Qualitative changes took place only in the second half of the 20th century, when the nature of work changed with the development of industrial robots and the spread of computers. The changes also affected the international sphere, when cooperation took the place of rivalry.

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46. \u200b\u200bThe main stages of human evolution - General biology - Directory of files on biology

According to modern scientific concepts, the ancestors of man separated from other narrow-nosed apes more than 30 million years ago, from gibbons about 20 million years ago.

The evolution of human ancestors was traced approximately 3-4 million years ago, when Australopithecus (from Latin Australis - southern, pithecium - monkey) lived in the savannas of East Africa. In 1974, in the valley of the Afar River, the remains (almost complete skeleton) of one of them were discovered. After a detailed study and reconstruction of the external appearance, this ape human ancestor was named the Afar Australopithecus (Australopithecusafarensis).

Australopithecus

He did not differ much from chimpanzees - about the same height as him, the same as in chimpanzees, the volume and weight of the brain (450 -550 g). The teeth of the Afar Australopithecus were typical of omnivorous apes, the canines are longer than the rest of the teeth, and a massive ridge is clearly visible on the skull, which serves to attach the chewing muscles. Afar Australopithecus did not manufacture any tools. However, he moved on two legs, fully erect. Apparently, walking on two legs was the most important, and maybe the only way of his movement - the conclusion made by experts.

When you watch how a child first crawls on all fours, sometimes quite deftly moves on four limbs, then tries to walk on two legs - the earliest history of man passes before your eyes, or rather the history of our animal ancestor, who switched to upright posture. the bipedal locomotion development program is still in effect with us.

Apparently, the descendants of the Afar Australopithecus, having adapted to feeding on coarse plant foods, gave rise to new 3 - 4 species of Australopithecus. They were all upright, large and strong, able to withstand predators. They did not manufacture stone tools. Their brains have not changed for a long, almost two million history of existence and remained at the level of modern gorillas. Although they possessed some human traits, they were not our direct ancestors, but rather fast-moving "relatives" that became extinct about 1 million years ago.

The most ancient people. Our direct ancestor, Homo habilis, began to separate from Afar Australopithecus about 3 million years ago. He switched to eating softer and more varied plant and animal foods. The first traces of its activity date back to 2.7 - 2.4 million years ago, and the found remains are more than 2 million years old. Outwardly, he did not differ much from Afar Australopithecus: the same small stature, the same long arms. Only the brain increased markedly (650 - 775 g). This species was called a skilled man, as he made stone tools, which were found with his remains in the Oldoway Gorge of East Africa. The method of making tools by a skilled man was called Oldowan technology. Some experts believe that in this case we are dealing with the most ancient Oldowan culture, if, of course, a skilled person consciously and purposefully made tools, improving their production. Otherwise, we are dealing only with a bipedal monkey, beating the pebbles on the basis of an instinctive innate program of behavior. Homo habilis died out about 1.5 million years ago.

Skillful man

The tools of a skilled man

There are difficulties with the name of our next ancestor - an upright man (Homo erectus). His remains were discovered earlier than the remains of Afar Australopithecus and Homo habilis. Therefore, scientists suggested that this was the first anthropoid walking on two legs. This feature is reflected in its name. It is now known that this was not the case. The transition to two-legged movement occurred much earlier. However, according to the rules of zoological nomenclature, the name given earlier is not changed, even after new discoveries. So, this our ancestor remained forever with his name - an upright man. Its first remains are 1.6 million years old. For a long time, about 200 thousand years, he coexisted with a skilled person, but differed from him. He was about 1.5 m in height. His arms were the same relatively short as ours. The brain mass reached 800-1000 g. An erect person made more complex tools not only from pebbles, but also from large stones, beating off pieces from them. Thanks to microscopic studies of the tools of an erect person, it was found that 44% of the tools have traces from cutting animal carcasses, 34% from processing wood, 22% from cutting grass. During the existence of an erect person, little improved tools of labor, but greatly expanded the scope of their application. It is believed that his brain enlargement may have been due to his ingenuity in using tools for new purposes and in new situations.

Homo erectus

Our ancestors, erect people who made and used tools 1.4-1.9 million years ago, were mostly right-handed. Consequently, their functions of the forebrain hemispheres, like ours, were different. This affected the asymmetry of the forebrain: right-handers have a more developed left hemisphere.

Of all mammals, this feature is characteristic only of humans. Greater development of the left hemisphere is associated with the development of motor speech centers in it. Perhaps the erect person has acquired the ability to imitate, imitate sounds. Modern children learn to speak by imitating their parents. Imitation abilities are well developed in adults as well. Variety artists imitate the style of speech and intonations of other people, birdsong, the sound of rain, wind. The proportion of meat in the diet of an erect person has increased.

An erect man about 500 thousand years ago spread widely from Africa to southern Eurasia, and his remains of 500-300 thousand years old were found in China, Thailand and even on the island of Java. In different regions, he formed several subspecies (Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Heidelberg man, etc.).

Sinanthropus

Heidelberg man

The remains of a Heidelberg man

Aegi subspecies had various progressive traits. They are usually referred to as the most ancient people (arhantropa). They were more massive than in their homeland, East Africa. Subspecies of erect man became extinct about 300 thousand years ago.

Ancient and modern people. The period from 250 to 35 thousand years ago is the time of the existence of a well-studied and widely known subspecies in scientific and popular science literature - the Neanderthal man (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis). It was named so after the place where his remains were found in the valley of the river. Neandertal (a tributary of the Rhine) near Dusseldorf (FRG). His skull was much more massive, longer and narrower than that of modern humans, with massive brow ridges. It is considered to be one of the most ancient people (paleoanthropines).

Neanderthal

Neanderthals settled in the north and settled in the Mediterranean from southern France to the southwestern part of Turkmenistan. It is believed that about 230 thousand years ago they mastered a collective hunt for large animals, began to use and maintain fire.

Neanderthal camp

At least the remains of a bonfire discovered near Nice (Western Europe), apparently, belonged to the Neanderthals. However, they did not use fire as widely as modern people. About 60 thousand years ago, Neanderthals began to bury the dead, and 30 thousand years ago, they sprinkled the corpses with ocher and flowers before burial.

Comparatively primitive drawings made by the Neanderthals on the rocks have survived, which convey the appearance of animals.

According to some indirect signs, Neanderthals were not the most aggressive, but it is well known that more aggressive and practical species and populations won in the competition among hominids.

Perhaps this determined the fate of the Neanderthals when they met modern people (Homo sapiens), or Cro-Magnons (after the name of the Cro-Magnon cave in the south of France), who were distinguished by their high growth (160-180 cm), had a well-developed brain (1590 cm 3 ). Their skull had a straight forehead, the brow ridge was missing.

They were pretty aggressive. The meeting of the Neanderthal and Cro-Magnon took place in the Middle East about 120 thousand years ago. For a long time they coexisted on the same territory. Both subspecies inhabited sites located in different regions of modern Palestine and Israel. Recent studies using the radiocarbon method have found that Neanderthals could not stand the competition from modern humans (non-anthropists) and died out about 25 - 28 thousand years ago.

Cro-Magnons possessed articulate speech, as evidenced by a well-developed chin protrusion, the largest area of \u200b\u200bthe cerebral hemispheres in comparison with the Neanderthal, where the motor speech centers are located. With the help of speech, Cro-Magnons could exchange personal experience, discuss the results of joint hunts, and plan their further actions.

Social labor activity was of fundamental importance for the progressive evolution of modern man. In the early stages of evolution, man mastered the ability to sew skins and make clothes. The construction of shelters, houses, and the widespread use of fire sharply reduced its dependence on external conditions. Man has achieved the greatest independence from the environment by creating modern autonomous life support systems in submarines and spaceships.

Tools of work, decorations, rock paintings of Neanderthals

The systematic improvement of the tools of labor, the reflection of the surrounding phenomena, including hunting for animals, in rock drawings (frescoes and petroglyphs) and sculptural images testify to the development of abstract thinking in the Cro-Magnon man and the improvement of methods of transmitting information. Writing has become a powerful means of accumulating and transmitting information. With its help, the historical experience accumulated by humanity is transmitted from generation to generation. Science, technology, art began to develop in an organized human society. Human evolution got out of biological control, and social factors became the leading ones. For a modern person, social evolution is fundamental. Thus, generations of people, on the one hand, receive a complex of genes with hereditary traits from their parents, on the other hand, they master the historical experience of mankind in the process of upbringing and education. A kind of "social heredity": the accumulation of labor and cultural experience by previous generations and the transfer of information about them to their descendants, ensuring their leading role in the progressive development of man, the improvement of social and labor relations, the progressive development of mankind.

The reference table contains the main stages of human development from primitive society to modern history, indicating the chronological framework, the duration of each stage and a brief description. This material will be useful for schoolchildren, students, when doing homework, exams and USE.

Stages (period) of history	Chronological framework	Period duration	a brief description of
	about 2 million years ago - 4th millennium BC	about 2 million years (20,000 centuries)	Formation of man, improvement of tools of labor, transition to agriculture and livestock raising from hunting and gathering.
	4th millennium BC -the middle of the 1st millennium AD	about 4 thousand years (40 centuries)	The split of society into rulers and governed, the spread of slavery, cultural rise, the fall of the Roman Empire
	476g. - mid-17th century	about 1200 years (12 centuries)	The beginning of the era of great geographical discoveries. Establishment of the estate system in Europe, religion, urbanization, the formation of large feudal states are of great importance.
	mid 17th century - early 20th century	about 300 years (3rd century)	The formation of an industrial capitalist civilization, the emergence of colonial empires, a bourgeois revolution, an industrial revolution, the development of the world market and its fall, production crises, social. contradictions, redivision of the world, end